T
Distinguished
Author Series
Beam-Pumping Operations: Problem
Solving and Technology Advancements
N.W. Hein Jr., SPE, Conoco Inc.
Summary
Beam pumping is the most used, on-land artificial-lift method for
petroleum production applications and has been since oil was dis-
covered. Applications cover the full gamut of well types, including
oil, water, and gas at depths from shallow to very deep, producing
rates and volumes from low to high, viscous oil production, and de-
watering-gas and coalbed-methane wells. Although beam pumping
has become the "standard" lift method for on-land wells, the best en-
gineering and operating practices still need to be followed to ensure
cost-effective return on investment. When these best practices are
not followed, continued operating problems, equipment failures,
low efficiencies, and high operating costs often result. This paper
presents some of the typical beam-pump engineering and operating
practices that should be considered to obtain the most cost-effective
operation over the life of the installation. Additionally, recent indus-
try developments that are related to these practices are discussed.
Introduction
The selection of any artificial-lift method for an application depends
on a variety of parameters that must be considered over the full life
cycle of the installation to select the "best" lift choice. Ref. I dis-
cusses the selection procedure and parameters. This paper continues
the discussion of the beam-pumping method that should be regarded
as the standard lift technique and the first consideration for any on-
land production operation.
Beam pumping has the advantage of having wide exposure and
its operation being known by many pcople :around the world. Al-
though this method has many benefits and practical applications, it
should not be used for all producing operations. The practical oper-
ating range for beam pumping depends on many factors. There are
some operating situations where an alternative lift method is being
considered because beam pumps are having too many problems. On
closer examination, what is often found is that the correct beam-
pump technology and best practices have not been used properly.
Typically, many changes are made to fix a problem and may in-
clude trying something new. Although this usually results in im-
Copyright 1996 Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper is SPE 36163. Distinguished Author Series articles are general. descriptive rep·
resentations that summarize the state of the art in an area of technology by describing recent
developments for readers who are not specialists in the topics discussed. Written by individu-
als recognized as experts in the area, these articles provide key references to more definitive
work and present specific details only to illustrate the technology. Purpose: to inform the gen-
eral readership of recent advances in various areas of petroleum engineering. A softbound
anthology. SPE Distinguished Author Series: Dec. 1981·Dec. 1983. is available from SPE's
Book Order Dept.
330
proved operations, pinpointing which of the fixes may have contrib-
uted the most to the actual "solution" of the problem is difficult.
However, when we report the solution to management and/or at con-
ferences, the tendency is to select the one new idea that was tried and
give it most of the, and often the entire, credit. Although there are
times when the new idea deserves the accolade, the true reason for
the solution frequently is from making the correct changes in funda-
mental engineering and operating practices.
A similar situation exists when a problematic well or field is
switched from one type of lift to another. Typically, the comparison
of operations is from a "sick" operation with poor practices to a "well"
situation where the new method has been properly designed and
installed. Dramatic improvements in such factors as production effi-
ciencies, reduced failures, and lower overhead and operating costs are
normally reported when the comparison is made. However, the way
to make the correct comparison in appropriate situations is to ensure
that both systems are optimized and that the fundamental, best prac-
tices are used for both operations during a specific life cycle.
This paper presents typical problems often encountered when
beam pumping is used for lifting well fluids. The fundamental engi-
neering and best operating practices that should be considered as part
of optimum, cost-effective operations are presented. All lift methods
are being improved continuously, and beam pumping is not an excep-
tion. Recent improvements in beam pumping also are highlighted.
Discussion
A few fundamental operating concerns have been found to plague
troubled beam-pumping operations. When these problems are ana-
lyzed and proper engineering and operating practices are applied,
they usually are solved without the need for special equipment. This
section discusses some typical beam-pumping problems and pos-
sible solutions. These are reviewed in the order from the bottom of
the hole to the surface. Additionally, many other papers may discuss
some of these aspects, such as Ref. 2. These papers also should be
consulted to see whether specific producing conditions change this
general discussion and these recommendations.
Downhole Gas Separation. Proper downhole gas separation is an
excellent place to make dramatic improvements in operating beam-
pumped wells. 3 Critical to an installation is the size of the casing and
tubing that will be used. This is important because the annular space
between these strings of pipe is the best available downhole, verti-
cal-gravity gas separator.
Engineering principles for downhole gas separation can be ob-
tained from proper surface separation practices. American Petro-
leum Inst. (API) Spec. 12J4 gives sizing or capacity formulas for
April 1996· .JlYI'
 )/
{
I
15' ± BELOW LOWEST
ACTIVE CASING PERFOAATUIlN

N-ll- _ _ SEATING NIPPLE

SEATING CUP
COUPLING. 5-16-_
COLLAR
STRAINER NIPPtE _SLOTS_IN.x _IN.
_ _ IN. NOM. L.P.

°O~-1~5--~~~~~~--~7b.----'~OO~--7.'2~,--~I*~~~ld75~--2~OO
PUMP INTAKE PRESSURE, PSIA
Fig. 1-Gas/water separation capacity for selected casing!
tubing annulus.
surface oil and gas separators that can be applied downhole. Fig. 1
shows an application of the velocity formula to different casing/tub-
ing combinations. The capacity of the vertical separator for these se-
lected annuli to separate gas efficiently at a given pump-intake pres-
sure ranges from =25 to >400 McflD.
This type of analysis should be made for a specific field installa-
tion with the necessary casing and tubing size(s), downhole temper-
ature, specific gravities for water and gas, and the pump-intake pip-
ing and configuration to make the required production. This has
direct implications when drilling and completing a well. Although
money can be saved by use of small casing, this may not always re-
sult in a savings because the small casing may lead to long-term op-
erating problems, decreased production rates, possible loss in re-
serves, and increased producing costs if the pump has to handle
excessive amounts of gas or water.
Selecting the right size tubulars is the first step in proper downhole
gas separation. Next is to make sure that the separator is properly
placed in the well. To do this, a natural gas anchor should be properly
designed and installed. Fig. 2 shows a schematic of a natural gas an-
chor. A lot of attention has been paid to poor-boy or other gas anchors
with very little discussion of a natural gas anchor. Because proper de-
sign is more involved and critical for a poor-boy-anchor operation,
greater emphasis is placed on the poor-boy anchor, implying that this
is the anchor to use. However, as a rule of thumb, a poor-boy gas an-
chor reduces the capacity of downhole separation by about 30% more
than that of a properly designed and installed natural gas anchor.
There are operational considerations when a natural gas anchor
is used. The main requirement is that the rat hole be deep enough to
run the pump-intake piping about 15 ft below the lower most active
perforation. And, if the well produces sand or if the producing zone
is an open hole that could cave in and stick the tubing, setting the
tubing below the pay zone will probably not be practical. Under
these conditions, a properly designed and built poor-boy gas anchor
is recommended for low- to moderate-production wells. A packer-
type gas anchor for higher-rate wells may be used if the separation
capacity of the poor-boy type is exceeded. Regardless of which an-
chor is used, the pump will have to pump the gas if the amount of
gas is greater than the capacity of the anchor.
MUD ANCHOR
\....-'+-1I----IORANGE PEEL
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
ORANGE PEEL OR
1.0. PLUG
CASING 1.0.
"I
_ - ' - _ - ' -_ _ _ _ _ _
IN_._...;.p./;.,UGGEO BACK DEPTH
Fig. 2-General arrangement for natural gas anchor.
Rod-Pump Selection. The downhole rod pump (either insert or tub-
ing) has to be properly engineered and operated to obtain a mini-
mum of 2, and up to a possible 5, years of operating life. McCaffer-
ty5 recently reported one engineering concept tied to the pump
handling gas that is a basic check to make sure that the pump's maxi-
mum available compression ratio is greater than the required com-
pression ratio for the installation. Because of the extra gas that has
to be handled by the pump, poor efficiencies, operating problems as
the fluid level is pumped down, and the possibility of gas locking all
increase when this basic check is not done.
One of the main findings of his paper was that the waste space from
manufacturers varied for the same type pump. As part of a Conoco
internal convergence effort, additional work was done to compare the
waste space of five different pumps from six different manufacturers.
Table 1 presents this comparison for pumps sized according to API
Spec. llAX. 6 These waste spaces are mainly the result of the unre-
stricted specifications for cage design. The lost volumes and their ef-
fect on compression ratio must be considered. Even a new pump may
not be able to handle the gas as the fluid level is decreased during pro-
duction if this is not done. These potential problems increase as the
pump-setting depth is increased. On the basis of current work, an API
Committee 1, Subcommittee II task group, is investigating the need
and requirements to standardize cage dimensions. Remember, how-
ever, that the ability of a pump (even one with a high compression ra-
tio) to handle gas will be decreased if it is installed with improper
spacing. Additionally, the fluid level effect on downhole, net plunger
stroke length may change enough to require res pacing the pump as

TABLE 1-WASTE SPACE COMPARISONS FOR DESIGNATED PUMPS FROM DIFFERENT MANUFACTURERS IN in.3
API Pump DeSignation Manufacturer A Manufacturer B Manufacturer C Manufacturer D Manufacturer E Manufacturer F
25-150-RWAC-16-5 5.03 5.53 6.00 5.63 5.77 7.70
20-125-RWBC-12-3 4.07 4.00 4.87 4.68 4.65 5.53
25-175-RHBC-24-6-2 8.12 9.72 12.59 9.82 9.98 13.72
25-225-THC-15-5 23.19 20.37 27.56 37.76 29.57 29.17
20-106-RWAC-12-3 3.47 2.49 2.73 2.77 3.14 4.07

JIYJ' • April 1996 331

 360
I-W0TE: GOOD DESIGN We = 0.85 Po OR_~
_'NOTE: GOOD DESIGN We = 0.85 PD OR
We = 0.65 Po We = 0.65 PD -;

0 1600 1/
o 320
in in
N N
'C 'C
)(
1400 e/O•65 )( 280 WdO•65"
Z
)(
=Pt/ z = P
a. ~
III III
)( 1200 )( 240
:8
,.. :8
,..
,.. ,..
c::i 1000 c::i
~
"
D.
Q
BAD DESIGN! ~
Q'<; re" 200 (j
...: DECREASE PD
oQ ...: BAD DESIGN! ~
Z
w 800 z DECREASE P ~
~o. ~ 160
:E
w We/O•B5 = Pp w
j 600 j Wc/0.B5 = Po
D.
III ~ 120
C BAD 0 SIGN!
400
C
D. INt REASE P D.
:E BAD DESIGN I
:::l
D.
~
D.
80 INCREASE Po
200 7~
40 f
l7~lf.
200 400 600 800 1000 ~/r
1
WELL CAPACITY, BID
40 80 120 160 200 240
WELL CAPACITY, BID
Fig. 3-Recommended relationship for pump displacement and
well capacity for efficient operation with time clocks and/or
pumpoff controllers. Fig. 4-Expanded relationship for lower-volume wells for
acceptable pump-displacement design.
the fluid level in a well is pumped down, especially in gaseous wells.
In fact, most installations should have the pump spaced out close to divided by 0.85 to 0.65 [(We/0.85);:?; PD;:?; (WclO.65»). Fig. 4 shows
the bottom after the well stabilizes. an expanded range for lower-volume wells. As changes in well capac-
The task group also is completing a significant revision to the ity occur over the production life of the field, the pump displacement
specification for sucker-rod pumps. New dimensional tolerances, needs to be re-evaluated periodically to ensure that it is still within the
larger-diameter pumps, improved quality and requirements for recommended range. Changes in pump displacement may require re-
checking tolerances, and standardized materials with appropriate design of the entire subsurface assembly, changing just the pump,
marking requirements are being included in the new document. This and/or changing the pumping speed and/or stroke length.
work is being done partly to meet the quality and auditability re- Note that following this design rule will result in a pump displace-
quirements necessary for the API Monogram program and partly to ment greater than the well capacity. This is necessary to allow for
make this a world-class specification as part of the new effort to con- pump wear and to achieve an acceptable run life while retaining the
vert API specifications into international specifications by the IntI. ability to produce all the necessary fluid down to the required pump-
Organization for Standardization (ISO). The new API edition of this intake pressure for the inflow performance relationship established
specification is expected to be available by the end of 1996. for the well. Thus, some type of well controller/time clock will still
Other improvements in downhole rod-pump technology have be needed. Although technology continues to improve and costs con-
been completed by an API task group developing pump-setting- tinue to decrease, a complete life-cycle cost comparison of the capital
depth capabilities,?,8 This technology is a new check to determine expenditure, personnel requirements, and operating costs for all types
the potential failure modes for a pump and to put in appropriate safe- of well-control systems needs to be performed for proper selection of
ty factors for the operating environment. This improved technology the optimum well controller for a beam-pump installation.
will help to obtain longer pump runs with fewer problems.
The Natl. Assn. of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) IntI. has also Sinker Bars. Sinker bars are heavy, weighted bars; used polished
been improving the materials selection technology of downhole rod rods; or larger diameter than normally required sucker rods placed
pumps. A dramatic improvement of the 1976 edition of metallic ma- directly above the pump. Some controversy still exists in the indus-
terials for rod pumps has bcen completed. 9 Although only sand and tryon the need or advantage of these bars. Sinker bars help to open
H2S production were addressed previously, the new edition expands the rod-pump traveling valve because a portion of the pressure re-
on the actual limits of these parameters, addresses C02 and chloride quired to open the traveling valve on the downstroke must be ob-
environments, and provides more complete coverage of the tained from the weight of the sucker-rod string pushing down on the
associated materials for the main pump parts. top of the plunger. This places the lower portion of the sucker-rod
One typical operating problem related to the design and selection string in compression. Rod buckling may result unless properly
of pumps is having a pump displacement much greater than the well sized and centralized sinker bars are used above the pump to supply
capacity. When this occurs, the well can be greatly overpumped and the necessary additional weight. Also, the rod-string buckle may not
experience bad fluid pounds. This results in a decrease in pump effi- necessarily decrease the life of the rod string as much as it increases
ciency and a dramatic increase in operating costs. Additional oper- friction load and downhole wear of the rods, coupling, and tubing.
ating problems, such as scale, also can develop. These problems can Use of sinker bars has numerous advantages. One operating ad-
lead to other failures, such as in the lower portion of the rod string vantage is that they minimize rod buckling by keeping tension on
from excessive compression or buckling, connection failures, and the sucker-rod string. They help the pump plunger to stay in the cen-
even surface-equipment failures. ter of the barrel and can increase the minimum polished-rod load.
Figs. 3 and 4 graphically show a rule of thumb for proper selection These advantages may result in decreased polished-rod horsepower,
of the pump displacement. Fig. 3 shows the acceptable design for decreased low tubing leaks, and possible increased production from
pump displacement, PD, to be within the range of well capacity, We, greater downhole stroke length. The overall advantage of sinker

332 April 1996 • .nyc


o work group on production equipment for consideration and pro-
R
(a)
o tion after operating problems from damaged rods occur. However,
R mize corrosion by inhibition and to keep stress levels relatively low.
(b)
Fig. 5-0ynamometer card tracings showing (a) well loads
before installation of sinker bars where N=17.5 strokes/min,
5=64 in., d=2.25 in., L=2,200ft, rods =76, production =600 B/O,
card area=4.19 in.2, and D.C. = 5,375 Ibm/in. and (b) the effect on
the loads with all operating parameters held the same except for
the addition of 400 pounds of sinker bars, with resulting card
area=3.85 in.2; O=zero load and R=reference.
bars is decreased operating costs. Some disadvantages need to be
considered before using these bars. One is that they can greatly mag-
nify downhole problems when overpumping the well and when a
fluid pound is allowed more than one-quarter of the way down on
the downstroke. This can damage the pump and pull rod and also can
cause the rod connections to unscrew if inadequate makeup is used
or if pounding fluid occurs (especially if polished rods are used).
Sinker bars have to be designed and selected for the well conditions
to determine the necessary starting weight. Additional problems are
that they have to be centralized, they may cause fishing problems,
and they increase costs.
Fig. 5 presents a one-well comparison of the positive results of
sinker-bar use. The top surface dynamometer card tracing shows an
installation with minimum polished-rod load approaching the zero
load line. This is a concern because serious problems with the carrier
bar and polished-rod-c1amp impact can occur if the minimum load
ever goes below zero, while the primary problem is in transferring
this effect to the gear box. The lower dynamometer card tracing
shows the same installation with the same operating parameters,
producing the same amount of fluid, with 400 Ibm of sinker bars
added. The indicated dynamometer load constant shows that the
minimum load is increased from 336 to 2,016 Ibm while the peak
polished-rod load stayed the same. This dynamic effect of sinker
bars causes the decrease in the card area and results in less work to
lift the same amount of fluid to the surface. Note that current experi-
ence with most rod-string design or diagnostic computer programs
is that they do not adequately predict the dynamic effects of sinker
bars. This may be one of the reasons why the controversy on sinker-
bar use continues.
Sucker Rods and Guides. Sucker rods are constantly being im-
proved. Over the last 10 years, improvements have been made in
quality and related performance that will allow producing more than
JPT • April 1996
4,000 BID at 2,000 ftto 150 BID at more than 14,750 ft. The primary
improvement areas have been in the strength, inspection proce-
dures, and quality requirements. The first major industry improve-
ment is found with the improvements of Sec. 9 (workmanship and
finish) of API Spec. 11 B.lO These improvements continue to evolve
as production needs and manufacturing improvements are coupled.
Continuous improvement in sucker-rod quality, performance re-
quirements, and associated testing and inspection has evolved with
industry participation in a major revision of the sucker-rod specifi-
cation. 11 In addition, this revised standard is being sent to an ISO
posed adoption worldwide.
Recent theoretical work has been published on sucker-rod fatigue
life l2 that validates the expected life of a new sucker rod to be a
minimum of 2 to more than 5 years before experiencing the first op-
erating-fatigue failure. If sucker-rod life is much less than this, it is
an indication that the beam-pumping system, rod-string design,
sucker-rod grade, and operating practices need to be re-evaluated.
As changes in pump displacement are made, as previously dis-
cussed, appropriate changes in the rod-string design need to be
made. Furthermore, as beam-pumped well applications continue to
extend to deeper well depths and/or increased production, the static
strength of the rod string needed to unseat the pump has to be consid-
ered. This is another fundamental beam-pumping problem that
tends to be overlooked and results in poor economics for an installa-
as a rule of thumb, the key to long sucker-rod fatigue life is to mini-
The development of sucker-rod guides/scrapers has evolved over
the past few years after development of a nylon-Kevlar composite
rod guide. The new guide provides decreased tubing damage while
providing adequate centralization of the rod string. However, as
with any new product, produced fluid limitations are being found
for this composite material, especially in high-water-cut and HzS
service. This resulted in consideration of ncw elastomer materials
and composites, which extended the use of downhole rod guides.
New rod-guide designs and materials are continuously being de-
veloped and tested in the laboratory. When these materials are used
in production operations, the indicated performance has not always
matched predictions. Because of this variation in performance, an
API task group is trying to develop testing standards and procedures
so that all materials will be evaluated with the same testing parame-
ters. Furthermore, performance of the existing materials in current
production operations, type of guide and placement, and number of
guides on a rod are being developed through the cooperation of indus-
try user companies. It is hoped that this work will be completed and
the recommended testing procedures will be developed by next year.
Corrosion Inhibition. Corrosion inhibition is a critical aspect for
beam-pump installations when the well conditions have shown the
need to prevent corrosion. Proper downhole inhibition will help pro-
vide a long run life for all affected production equipment and an
associated decrease in field failure rates; however, improper inhibition
can quickly cause field failures and dramatically shorten run lives. Sec.
3 of API RPllBRI3 describes the best industry practices for planning,
testing, treating, and monitoring corrosion-inhibition programs. This
section recently has been reviewed by both API and NACE subcom-
mittees, and some improvements and revisions have been made. These
revised documents have been parallel balloted by both organizations,
and NACE published the revised document in 1995. 14
To ensure good corrosion-inhibition programs, some general prac-
tices and procedures should be followed but are sometimes forgotten.
One of the most important considerations is to keep oxygen out of the
system and fluids used for pretreating and postflushing the well. Typi-
cally, flushing the well with 0.5 to I bbl f1ushll,OOO ft of depth and
treating each well with sufficient chemical according to the amount
of produced fluid are important in obtaining a good inhibitor film.
Checking compatibility of all chemicals pumped downhole to ensure
adequate protection for the required treating period established and
to ensure that emulsions can be broken is an important quality and
performance check. Loading the tubing with produced fluid/water
and a few gallons of corrosion inhibitor before rerunning pumps and
333
 C-640D-365-144 (CW) 106 .. Stroke C-640D-365-144 (CW & C'CW) 144 It Stroke
40000
r
~--~~~--~

40000
II--tI. I I I CW,
35000 35000 ~ Max. CBT = 1,300,000 In-Ibm
~- ,./'"' ./
~ 30000 E 30000
S
~ ::::-- .-II'
;;ii'_
~
1 25000
..."g Max. CST = 1,300,000 In-Ibm
-
125000
... ' \ C"CW
20000 -g 20000 -
a: a:
:! 15000 ] 15000
.!!
;e 10000 .!
n/ ~ :. 10000
5000 S- ~
o V \, 5000

0
V ~
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Polished Rod Position
(a) (a) Polished Rod PoslUan

C-640D·365-144 (CW) 124 .. Slroke

40000 A-640D-365-144 (CW) 144 • Siroke

35000
II\..
....... ..........
40000
--.... T T r I
....... .-....- L
-
35000
~ 30000
~ 30000
~ .... Max. CBT • 1,300,000 In.lbm "1

1 25000 ~
.... 125000
1
a:
20000 ...
~ 20000
:!
.
15000
Max. CST • 1,300,000 In·lbm a:
~ ] 15000

- ra-
:. 10000
cr-- ~ ~
~

---
10000
5000 D"""" i"-'"
V I\, 5000

'"'
a ./
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 a
Po.lshed Rod PoslUon a 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
(b) (b) Polished Rod PoslUon

C-640D-365-144 ( CW ) 144" Stroke

40000
M-640D·365-144 144 • Stroke
:1{
35000 40000
\ / ......, I T I I
~ 30000
\. .---- .... 35000
.......... '- Max. CBT • 1,300,000 In·lbm -

1
....
'3
a:
:!
~
25000

20000

15000

:. 10000
~ 30000

125000

1
...
a:
20000
r-- - --- '"
I

cr-- o(J'"
r- ] 15000
.!!
;e
~
5000 10000

o / Max. CBT m 1,300,000 In·lbm

5000

{c)
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Polished Rod POilUon
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0
./
a 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Polished Rod Po.IUan

Fig. 6-Typical permissible load diagrams for conventional
pumping unit showing effect of increasing stroke length for (a)
106 in" (b) 124 in" and (c) 144 in. and the resulting decreased
maximum load on the upstroke and decreased load window;
CW=clockwise rotation.
rods to prevent burnout of the polished-rod packing, to minimize
downhole wear, and to recoat the rods and pump with an inhibitor film
is a necessary operating practice. And checking performance of the
corrosion-inhibition program by tracking and recording the frequen-
cy and cause of downhole-equipment failures is essential for proper,
cost-effective performance of the program.
Pumping Units and Motors. Proper maintenance of the pumping
unit and motor, including v-belts, is necessary to ensure long life for
this equipment. One typical problem with pumping units is improper
counterbalancing. Depending on the type of pumping unit, the proce-
dure to change the balance of the unit may be as simple as resetting
a Murphy switch needle for an air-balanced unit to repositioning the
counterweights for conventional crank counterbalanced pumping
units. Checking the peak amperage of electric-motor-driven unit dur-
ing the upstroke and downstroke, using safe practices, is a fairly sim-
ple task with a clip-on ammeter. For good balance, the resulting peak
amperage on the upstroke compared with downstroke peak amperage
should be within 20%, and preferably within 10%.
(c)
Fig. 7-Typical permissible load diagrams for (a) conventional
pumping unit operating at longest stroke showing effect of
rotation, (b) air-balanced pumping unit of comparable size and
stroke length, and (c) Mark II pumping unit of comparable size
and stroke length; CW = clockwise rotation and CCW = counter-
clockwise rotation,
Even though the amperage may show proper counterbalance (on
the basis of current draw), the pumping-unit gear box may be over-
loaded. Only two effective ways exist to determine the torque load on
the pumping-unit gear box: (I) by obtaining the required well operat-
ing conditions, then doing a torque calculation with a torque-factor
and net-well-load analysis of the maximum upstroke and downstroke
torque for a dynamometer card from the selected well 15 or (2) by de-
veloping a permissible-load diagram. 16 This comes as a surprise to
many beam-pump users who rely on a rod-string design/analysis, ob-
tained from a wave equation or API RP 11 L. 17 because the calcula-
tions result in only the peak torque found at the polished rod.
Some may think that as long as this calculated peak torque is less
than the gear-box-rated capacity, the unit is not overloaded. Unfor-
tunately, this comparison is not valid. Depending on the actual non-
dimensional pumping parameters for the installation [FoISKr (the
nondimensionalload constant) and N/ N;] and the resulting general

334 April 1996 • .JlYf

axis expected for the well dynamometer card, the gear box may be
overloaded on either, or both, the upstroke or the downstroke. Fig.
6 presents three, general permissible-load diagrams for a conven-
tional pumping unit for the three available stroke lengths on this
unit. Note that the actual limit on the gear box is the maximum coun-
terbalance torque (CBT). This remains constant for all gear boxes
of the same rating. It is also important to note that the maximum per-
missible load on the upstroke (upper curve) decreases as the stroke
length increases, while the maximum permissible load on the down-
stroke (lower curve) decreases slightly. This results in a decreased
load that can be lifted as the stroke length is increased.
On the basis ofthese changing load limitations, the general recom-
mendation is to design on the middle stroke length for an application.
Rather than increase the stroke length if increased production is re-
quired, however, it is better to speed up the unit for the same stroke
length or even shorten the stroke and increase speed even further to
minimize the torque at the gear box. As with any recommendation,
other design and operating considerations need to be evaluated, in-
cluding the increased wear of rod and/or couplings on tubing and in-
creased potential for rod buckling. However, these concerns should
always be considered for any pumping situation and proper engineer-
ing and operating procedures should be followed.
Fig. 7 shows a comparison of the acceptable permissible load dia-
gram for the longest stroke of the conventional unit in Fig. 6 vs. the
same rating-capacity pumping units of two different geometries. As
in the previous discussion, the controlling load capability and load-
ing on the gear box are based on the maximum CBT. Thus, for the
same gear box rating, the maximum is always the same for the con-
ventional, air-balance, and Mark II pumping units. The convention-
al pumping unit (Fig. 7a) shows that a difference exists in permissi-
ble load depending on clockwise or counterclockwise rotation
owing to the geometry of the unit and resulting torque factor. This
is important because the old recommended practice of periodically
changing rotation by changing leads on the electric motor to wear
the gear box evenly is not appropriate. Changing rotation may cause
the gear box to be overloaded, especially if the pumping parameters
result in a severe undertravel (general axis sloping up from left to
right) dynamometer card.
Comparing the permissible load diagrams for the different units
shows the preference for the general axis to be undertravel for a con-
ventional unit, flat or slightly overtravel for an air-balanced unit,
and overtravel for the Mark II unit. This information is important be-
cause all these units have the same gear-box capacity for the same
rating. Because normal design philosophy is to have a larger pump
capacity than well capacity, the pumping parameters usually result
in undertravel dynamometer cards. Thus, to ensure that the gear box
is not overloaded, it becomes critical to know not only the capacity
of the gear box, but the operating parameters and the general axis
of the resulting dynamometer card.
A final operating beam-pump problem is related to where the
counterbalance weights should be on crank counterbalanced units.
On many pumping units, the counterweights are not directly op-
posed to each other across the same crank, which probably results
from moving just one weight when trying to counterbalance the
pumping unit properly. Although it is a good operating practice to
make sure that the unit is balanced to save both electrical and operat-
ing costs, it may be critical to be sure that the gear box is not greatly
overloaded (because the gear box is typically 60% of the unit cost).
However, having the weights lead or lag the directly opposed posi-
tion may cause the gear box to be overloaded. I 8
Benefits may exist in trying to match the time during the stroke
cycle that the maximum counterbalance weight is applied. This is
to match the net well load better to the limits of the unit torque re-
quirements. In fact, by properly leading or lagging the weights,
changing the usual performance for a pumping unit may be possible
(e.g., make a conventional unit perform like a Mark II or vice-ver-
sa). However, as previously discussed, while the amperage reading
may show acceptable balance, the gear box may be overloaded and
suffering damage, even to the point of tearing itself up. Thus, if spe-
cific calculations and resulting torque or permissible-load deter-
minations have not been done, making sure that the crank counter-
balance weights are directly opposed to each other is critical.
JP1' • April 1996
Improvements in pumping units and electric-motor prime movers
continues through worldwide industry efforts. Ajoint API and ISO
task group has been formed to revise the specification on pumping
units. 19 Also, a new API Spec. 11 L6 has been developed and recent-
ly issued20 that covers polyphase, squirrel-cage induction electric
motors for beam-pumping units for horsepower requirements up to
200 hp. This specification was developed from the widespread in-
dustry need for better control of the requirements and performance
reporting for electric motors above the other standard requirements.
Conclusions and Recommendations
1. Beam pumping is the most widely used artificial-lift method,
primarily as a result of worldwide knowledge and favorable operat-
ing experiences.
2. Although some may consider beam pumping a mature technol-
ogy, continuous improvements are taking place in the technology
that expand its usage and lower its operating costs.
3. Natural gas anchors should be the preferred downhole gas sep-
arator and should be installed in all beam-pumping wells if other de-
sign and operating requirements are met. If necessary, poor-boy or
other types of downhole separators should be properly designed and
installed when natural gas anchors cannot be used.
4. Pump displacement should be tied to a specific range of well
capacity. Well productivity changes require periodic review so that
appropriate changes can be made in pump displacement, rod-string
design, and, potentially, even in the size of the pumping unit.
5. Improvements in beam-pump-related equipment include pumps,
sucker rods, guides, and pumping units. lbis equipment requires
constant input, monitoring, and development to ensure that the best in-
dustry practices are used and optimized operating costs are obtained.
6. Ongoing improvements in equipment and technology require
continuous monitoring to ensure up-to-date, engineering and oper-
ating practices are used. Failure to keep up with the technology and
doing the "right things" right wiIl make continuing to operate the
operating lease/field noncompetitive and uneconomical.
Acknowledgments
I thank the management of Conoco Inc. for allowing this paper to be
published and the many consultants, producing, and manufacturing
personnel who provided me with their knowledge and experiences.
In addition, I thank my Conoco colleagues John F. McCafferty and
Terry D. Bly for their close association. I give special acknowledg-
ment to Fred W. Gipson (deceased), and Howard W. Swaim (retired).
These long-time industry and Conoco experts mentored me long be-
fore mentoring became one of the current industry practices.
Nomenclature
d = diameter, L, in.
Fo = differential fluid load on full plunger area, m, Ibm
L = length, L, ft
N = pumping unit speed, nit, stroke/min
N~ = natural frequency of taper rod string, nit, stroke/min
PD = pump displacement, L3/t, BID
S = surface-polished-rod stroke length, L, in.
SKr = load necessary to stretch rod string to polished-rod
stroke length, m, Ibm
Sp = subsurface-plunger stroke length, L, in.
We = well capacity, Oft, BID
References
1. Clegg, J.D., Bucaram, S.M., and Hein, N.W. Jr.: "Recommendations and
Comparisons for Selecting Artificial Lift Methods," JPT(Dec. 1993) I 128.
2. Patterson, J.e.. Bucaram, S.M., and Curfew. J.Y.: "Experience Reveals
Ways to Minimize Failures in Rod-Pumped WeIIs." Oil & Gas J. (July
5, 1993) 29.
3. Clegg. J.D.: "Another Look at Gas Anchors." presented at the 1989
Southwestern Petroleum Short Course. Lubbock. TX. April 19-20.
4. Spec. 12 J. Specification for Oil and Gas Separators, seventh edition.
API, Washington. DC (Oct. I. 1989).
335
 5. McCafferty, J.E: "Importance of Compression Ratio Calculations in De- 51 Metric Conversion Factors
signing Sucker-Rod Pump Installations," paper SPE 25418 presented at
the 1993 SPE Production Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, bbl x \.589 873 E - OJ = m3
March 21-23. ftx3.048* E-OJ=m
6. Spec. 11AX, Specification for Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps and Fit- ft 3 x2.831 685 E-02=m3
tings, ninth edition, API, Washington, DC (June I, 1989). 'F CF-32)/\.8 ='C
7. Hein, N.W. Jr. and Loudermilk, MD.: "Review of New API Pump Setting hp x 7.460 43 E-Ol =kW
Depth Recommendations," paper SPE 24836 presented at the 1992 SPE
in. x2.54* E+OO=cm
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Washington. DC. Oct. 4-7.
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third edition. API, Washington, DC (1989); Supplement 2 (Jan. I, 1993). Ibm x 4.535 924 E - 01 = kg
9. MR0176-94, Metallic Materials for Sucker-Rod Pumps for Corrosive
Oilfield Environmel1Ts, NACE IntI., Houston (1994). *Conversion factor is exact.
10. Spec. I I B, Specification for Sucker Rods, 24th edition, API, Washington.
DC (Oct. 1, 1990); Supplement 1 (April 1, 1991).
11. Spec. lIB, Specification for Sucker Rods, 25th edition. API, Washington,
DC (Jan. 1, 1995).
Norman W. Hein Jr. is a senior staff engineer in the Production
12. Hein, N.W. Jr. and Hermanson, D.E.: "A New Look at Sucker Rod Fa-
tigue Life," paper SPE 26558 presented at the 1993 Annual Technical Technology Div. of the E&P Technology Dept. of Conoco Inc. in
Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Oct. 3-6. Houston, TX. He has more than 18 years of experience in re-
13. RP I I BR, Recommended Practice for Care and Handling ofSucker Rods, search, engineering, materials selection, welding, inspection,
eighth edition. API, Washington. DC (Oct. I, 1989). project engineering, artificial lift, production equipment corro-
14. RPOI95-95, Recommended Practice for Corrosion Control of Sucker sion, and production operations and is the holder nine patents,
Rods by Chemical Treatment, NACE IntI., Houston (March 1995). Hein holds BS and MS degrees from the U. of Illinois at Chicago.
15. Gipson. EW. and Swaim, H.W.: "Beam Pumping Fundamentals," pres- He is a member of the Editorial Review Committee and was a
ented at the 1969 Southwestern Petroleum Short Course. Lubbock, TX. 1990-91 member of the Forum Series Committee. He is a mem-
April 17-18. ber of the API standardization executive committee, chairs the
16. Gault, R.H.: "Permissible Load Diagrams for Pumping Units," presented at U.S, technical advisory group to ANSI, and is the U.S. voting
the 1960 Southwestern Petroleum Short Course, Lubbock, TX, April member on the ISO technical committee 67. He previously
21-22. chaired the API standardization committee on production
17. RP 11 L, Recommended Practice for Design Calculations for Sucker Rod equipment.
Pumping Systems (Conventional Units), fourth edition, API, Washing-
ton, DC (June I. 1988).
18. Chastain, J.: "Use Lead/Lag to Reduce Torque on Pumping Units," Oil
& GasJ. (Oct. 11, 1976) 138.
19. Spec. 11 E, Specification for Pumping Units, 16th edition. API, Washing-
ton, DC (Oct. 1,1989); Supplement 1 (July 1, 1991).
20. Spec. I I L6, Specification for Electric Motor Prime MOl'er for Beam
Pumping Unit Serl'ice, first edition, API, Washington. DC (June I.
1993).

336 April 1996 ...vr