FST5206 – 2018/2019-1

(Microbiological Food Safety)

Lecture 2. Microbial Ecology 2

1.4 Safety, damage and fermentation
1.5 Loss caused by food damage
1.6 Implications for human safety

Prof. Madya Dr. Yaya Rukayadi

yaya_rukayadi@upm.edu.my
01112307964

Department of Food Science

Faculty of Food Science and Technology
Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)

Tuesday, 18 – 09 – 2018
18.30 – 21.30 (BKS – 1. Food 5)
 1.4. Safety, Damage and Fermentation
Microorganisms in Food
Microorganisms are important in many
different ways:
• Pathogenic, or disease causing,
microorganisms can cause illness Safety
• Spoilage microorganisms cause a food
to smell, taste, and look unacceptable Damage
• Fermentation microorganisms
produce a desired food product Fermentation
• Other microorganisms do nothing in
foods
 What is food safety?
• Potential health risks from food consumption
– microbiological, viral and parasitic concerns
– hormone residues (growth promoters)
– animal drugs (antibiotics)
– chemical residues (pesticides)
– preservatives
– bioengineered foods
 Food Poisoning
What is Food Hygiene?
• The science of preserving health
• It involves all measures necessary to ensure the safety and
wholesomeness of food during it’s preparation and storage

What does it involve?

• Rejecting contaminated food
• Decontaminating food
• Protecting food from contamination through high standards of
personal hygiene, cleaning and disinfection
• Preventing any organisms multiplying
• Destroying any harmful bacteria by thorough cooking
• Discarding unfit or contaminated food
 Food Poisoning
• Normally associated with symptoms such as diarrhoea and
vomiting
• May also include headache, stomach cramps and fever
• Bacteria are responsible for most cases
• Other causes include mycotoxins (poisonous chemicals produced
by some moulds)
• Physical contamination:- objects falling
in to food – metal, glass, packaging
materials etc.
• Chemical contamination:- Bleach,
cleaning chemicals getting in to food
• Natural contamination: Poisonous
plants and berries, undercooked red
kidney beans
 Poisonous mushrooms
The deathcap – one bite can prove fatal

And also…..The deadly Puffer fish!

 Food poisoning
Vulnerable Groups
Food poisoning is more likely to affect people with
lowered resistance to disease than healthy people who
might show mild symptoms or none at all.
The following are particularly vulnerable to food
poisoning: -
• Elderly or sick people
• Babies
• Young children
• Pregnant women
 Most food poisoning is caused by?
Bacteria

Types of bacteria
• Spoilage: Not particularly harmful
bacteria which cause food to go off
• Beneficial: “Good Bacteria” which are
used to make yoghurt and cheese
• Pathogenic: Illness causing bacteria
 In order to grow and multiply germs need:

Time Moisture Food Warmth

Remember it like this

Too Many Flies Waiting

 cooking chicken to a core temperature
Time : 9.30 Bacteria : 0 of 75°C should kill most of the bacteria

Time : 9.40 Bacteria : 12,000

Time : 9.50 Bacteria : 24,000 Knife
contaminated
Time : 10.00 Bacteria : 48,000 by blood

Time : 10.10 Bacteria : 96,000

Time : 10.20 Bacteria : 192,000
Time : 10.30 Bacteria : 384,000
Time : 10.40 Bacteria : 768,000
Time : 10.50 Bacteria : 1.5 million

From 0 to 1,536,000 in
only 80 minutes !!!!!!
 Toxins
Some bacteria release poisons known as toxins which cause
food poisoning. Some toxins, known as exotoxins multiply
in food. These toxins are not easily destroyed by cooking
and may remain in food once they have developed. Other
bacteria produce toxins inside the human body only
after the food has been eaten. These are called
endotoxins
Moulds and Yeasts
• Moulds are a type of fungi that will grow on most foods and at
many temperatures. Some are used in food production such as
cheese manufacture. Unwanted moulds usually spoil the food but
do not cause food poisoning.
• Yeasts are another type of fungi that will grow in food. They are
used in making food such as bread and beer but also spoil many
foods including jam, fruit juice, yoghurts and meats
 Food Poisoning bacteria
• Usually need millions of bacteria to cause illness.
• The multiplication of bacteria within the food plays an
important part in the disease

Salmonella Clostridium Perfingens

Found in animals, raw Staphylococcus Aureus Found in animals and birds
poultry and birds Found in human nose and
throat (also skin)

Clostridium Botulinum
Bacillus Cereus Found in soil, Found in the soil and associated with
vegetation, cereals and spices vegetables and meats
What is food spoilage?

Food spoilage means the original nutritional value, texture, flavour of the
food are damaged, the food become harmful to people and unsuitable to eat.

The picture of food spoilage

Most natural foods have a limited life. Perishable foods such as fish, meat,
milk, bread, tomatoes and potatoes have a short life span. Other foods keep
for a considerably longer time but decompose eventually. Once food has
been harvested, gathered or slaughtered it begins to deteriorate until
eventually it becomes unfit for consumption.

This deterioration is known as decay and leads to food spoilage.

 Causes of food spoilage

Food spoilage is caused by two main factors, namely;

1. Natural decay in foods

2. Contamination by microorganisms
1. Natural decay
This comes about as a result of moisture loss and the action of enzymes.

1.1 Moisture loss

Moisture loss mostly occurs in fruit and vegetables which contain large amounts
of water. Fruits and vegetables continue to respire after harvesting and
therefore lose water through their leaves and skin. Such water could be
replaced from the soil through the roots when not harvested. The water retains
the structures of the cells of the plants and makes them look fresh. After
harvesting, there is no way that the lost water can be replaced so the vegetable
or fruit shrinks in size, becomes limp and its skin becomes wrinkled and
leathery. Moisture loss occurs in other foods like meat, fish, cheese, due to
evaporation of water from the surface.
1.2 Enzyme action in the food
Food spoilage can also come about through the action of enzymes presents in
the food. Enzymes are chemicals which are present in all food. They speed up
chemical changes that result in loss of flavour, colour and texture. As enzymes
are mainly composed of protein, they are sensitive to heat. They are active in
temperatures found in a kitchen on a warm sunny day. They can remain very
slightly active at very low temperatures such as those found in the freezer. This
is why there is a limit to the time food can be stored in a freezer. The activity of
these enzymes stops when they are heated above 70 oC. Heat treatment by
blanching (i.e. pouring boiling water on the food) is recommended. Some
enzymes remain inactive until the food is harvested or slaughtered. Once
activated, such enzymes speed up the process of decay by breaking down the
tissues and components of the food in the various ways such as oxidation,
browning and ripening.

1.2.1 Oxidation
When Oxidation occurs (i.e. when food comes into contact with oxygen) the
enzymes cause the destruction of certain nutrients e.g. vitamin c, thiamine and
carotene.
The activity of enzymes in food makes it easier for the microorganisms
responsible for food spoilage to enter the food.
1.2.2 Browning
Enzymes again cause browning in certain foods the moment they are exposed to
air. When you cut or bruise food such as apple or yam, the exposed surface will
discolour and turn brownish due to the activity of enzymes.

1.2.3 Ripening
Enzymes are involved in the process that causes ripening in certain foods such as
fruits and vegetables. Unripe bananas for example contain starch which is
gradually converted to sugars, until the banana becomes very sweet, and its skin
colour changes from green to yellow. Eventually, the skin colour changes to dark
brown and it is no longer fit to be consumed.
1.3 Other factors
•Infestations (invasions) by insects and rodents, which account for huge losses
in food stocks.
•Low temperature injury - the internal structures of the food are damaged by
very low temperature.
Chilling injury in cucumber
Internal mahogany
caused by low
browning of potato caused
temperature. Note the
by low temperature injury.
watery surface.
 2. Contamination by microorganisms
There are three types of microorganisms that cause food spoilage -- yeasts,
moulds and bacteria.

•Yeasts growth causes fermentation which is the result of yeast metabolism.

There are two types of yeasts true yeast and false yeast. True yeast metabolizes
sugar producing alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. This is known as fermentation.
False yeast grows as a dry film on a food surface, such as on pickle brine. False
yeast occurs in foods that have a high sugar or high acid environment.

•Moulds grow in filaments forming a tough mass which is visible as `mould

growth'. Moulds form spores which, when dry, float through the air to find
suitable conditions where they can start the growth cycle again.
•Mould can cause illness, especially if the person is allergic to molds. Usually
though, the main symptoms from eating mouldy food will be nausea or vomiting
from the bad taste and smell of the mouldy food.

•Both yeasts and moulds can thrive in high acid foods like fruit, tomatoes, jams,
jellies and pickles. Both are easily destroyed by heat. Processing high acid foods
at a temperature of 100°C (212°F) in a boiling water canner for the appropriate
length of time destroys yeasts and moulds.
 Fungal Spoilage

Storage rot in grapes caused by Botrytis cinerea.

Storage rot in strawberry caused by Botrytis cinerea.

Blue mould rot in tomato caused by Penicilliumi spp. (also

by Fusarium spp.)

Black mummy rot of grapes caused by Guignardia bidwellii

Watery soft rot in apple caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

Blue mould on oranges caused by Penicillium digitatum.

Bacteria are round, rod or spiral shaped microorganisms. Bacteria may grow
under a wide variety of conditions. There are many types of bacteria that cause
spoilage. They can be divided into: spore-forming and nonspore-forming.
Bacteria generally prefer low acid foods like vegetables and meat. In order to
destroy bacteria spores in a relatively short period of time, low acid foods must
be processed for the appropriate length of time at 116°C (240°F) in a pressure
canner. (Temperatures higher than 100°C [212°F] can be obtained only by
pressure canning.)
Eating spoiled food caused by bacteria can cause food poisoning.
Bacteria are the most widespread of the micro-organisms found in food. They
are minute single cells of various shapes. Under ideal conditions, they divide
into two every 20 minutes, consequently, millions of them may develop in
contaminated food in a short time. They are more dangerous than moulds and
yeast because food may be severely infected but not smell, taste or look bad.
Many types of bacteria present are harmless but some do cause illness. The
bacteria that cause infections in humans are known as pathogens.

Soft rot in tomato caused by Erwinia carotovora.

 Three types of food decay
1. Putrefaction
Biological decomposition of organic matter, with the production of ill-smelling
and tasting products, associated with anaerobic (no oxygen present) conditions.
Formula of putrefaction:

2. Fermentation
Fermentation , chemical changes in organic substances produced by the action of
enzymes. This general definition includes virtually all chemical reactions of
physiological importance, and scientists today often restrict the term to the
action of specific enzymes, called ferments, produced by minute organisms such
as molds, bacteria, and yeasts. For example, lactase, a ferment produced by
bacteria usually found in milk, causes the milk to sour by changing lactose (milk
sugar) into lactic acid.
Formula of fermentation:
 3. Rancidity
(3. 1) Microbial rancidity
Like all food components, fats undergo deteriorative changes with time,
which result in undesirable flavors and odors. These changes in fats are given
the term "rancidity".
Formula of microbial rancidity:
(3.2) Hydrolytic rancidity
Fatty acids formed through hydrolysis of the lipid(fat) by the water which it
contains. Some of the liberated fatty acids are volatile, and some have very
unpleasant odours and flavours.
Formula of hydrolytic rancidity
(3.3) Oxidative rancidity
The oxidation of acylglycerols which
occurs in air, without the presence of
enzymes, is called autoxidation.
Among the products of autoxidation
are hydroperoxides, ROOH.
These have no taste, but they decompose easily to form aldehydes, ketones
and acids, which give oxidised fats and oils their rancid flavours.
It can be slow down by addition of antioxidants.
 Microorganisms involved in food spoilage
Microorganisms involved in food spoilage(Other than Canned Foods) with some examples of causative organisms
Food Type of Spoilage Microorganisms involved
Mouldy Rhizopus nigricans ; Penicillium ; Aspergillus niger
Bread
Ropy Bacillus subtilis
Ropy Enterobacter aerogenes
Yeasty Saccharomyces ; Zygosaccharomyces
Maple sap and syrup
Pink Micrococcus roseus
Mouldy Aspergillus ; Penicillium
Soft rot Rhizopus ; Erwinia
Fresh fruits and vegetables Gray mold rot Botrytis
Black mold rot A. niger
Pickles, sauerkraut Film yeasts, pink yeasts Rhodotorula
Fresh meat Putrefaction Alcaligenes ; Clostridium ; Proteus vulgaris ; P. fluorescens
Mouldy Aspergillus ; Rhizopus ; Penicillium
Cured meat Souring Pseudomonas ; Micrococcus
Greening, slime Lactobacillus ; Leuconostoc
Discoloration Pseudomonas
Fish
Putrefaction Alcaligenes ; Flavobacterium
Green rot P. fluorescens
Eggs Colorless rots Pseudomonas ; Alcaligenes
Black rots Proteus
Concentrated orange juice "Off" flavor Lactobacillus ; Leuconostoc ; Acetobacter
Poultry Slime, odor Pseudomonas ; Alcaligenes
 Common mould on bread
1. Rhizopus stolonifer
2. Penicillin expansum
3. Aspergillus niger
4. Chrysonilia sitophila
Rhizopus stolonifer
Penicillin expansum Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus niger
 Chrysonilia sitophila
Species of Chrysonilia, including C. sitophila, the red
bread mould, produce very fast growing pink
colonies and numerous spores. The spores are dry
and easily detached from one another. Because they
combine rapid growth and prolific reproduction,
species of Chrysonilia can contaminate other
laboratory cultures very rapidly. In the school or
university laboratory where many students may be
cultivating fungi at the same time these fungi can
cause lab-wide epidemics, ruining every culture
they contact. The best strategy is to discard all
rapidly growing, pink, powdery cultures without
opening them.
Canned food spoilage
 Changes in cans as a result of
microbial spoilage

1. Normal can; note 3. Severe swell due to

that the top of the entensive gas production.
can is indented due Note the great
to negative pressure deformation of the can.
(vaccum) inside. This can is potentially
dangerous, and could
explode if dropped or hit!

2. Slight swell 4. The can shown in

resulting from above was dropped and
minimal gas the gas pressure
production. Note that resulted in a violent
the lid is slightly explosion. Note that the
raised. lid has been torn apart.
FOOD SPOILAGE

Food decays or goes off, due to the microorganisms that always exist in food;-
they are not necessarily the bacteria that cause food poisoning. The signs that
food is spoiling are:
1) ODOUR - "off odours" are smells (sometimes like rotten eggs) that are
produced when bacteria break down the protein in food, (usually fatty foods).
This process is called putrefaction.
Taints due to flavour change may also occur.
2) SLIMINESS - Food becomes slimy as the bacterial population grows.
Moulds may also form slimy whiskers.
3) DISCOLOURATION - Foods can become discoloured by microbial growth.
Some moulds have coloured spores that give the food a distinctive colour, for
example, black pin mould on bread, or blue and green mould on citrus fruit
and cheese.
4) SOURING - Foods go sour when certain bacteria produce acids. A common
example is when milk sours from the production of lactic acid.
5) GAS - Bacteria and yeasts often produce gaseous by-products that can affect
food. You may have noticed meat becoming spongy, or packages and cans
swelling or having a popping or fizzing sound on opening.
 Reasons for keeping food commodities from spoilage
1. Deterioration may cause food to be wasted
2. Contaminated food can cause illness and in severe cases, this is known as food
poisoning
3. Money is saved when food commodities are kept from spoilage
4. When food is kept from spoilage, it maintains it nutritive value
5. It also ensures food is available for use even during lean season
The effects of spoilage on the various food commodities
1) Protein food
They go putrefied when they are contaminated. This is the situation where
protein foods rot, and produce very bad smell.
2) Fats and oils
They go rancid. This is the condition where food containing fats and oils begin to
smell and tasted bad when they are old.
3) Carbohydrates
Cooked cereals become marshy and slimy when affected by micro-organisms.
This condition is known as serenities. Flour products smell and taste unpleasant
when they are spoilt. They are described as being stale.
4) Fruits and vegetables
They rot, ferment and decay.
 Eating spoiled food caused by bacteria can cause
food poisoning
What is food poisoning?
Food poisoning (or food borne illness) is an illness that you may get after
eating food contaminated by certain bacteria, parasites, viruses, or
chemicals.
During October, 1997, there were hot news about Dreyer's Ice Cream Bars
contaminated with Listeria monocytogens, and Fantastar contaminated with
fungus
Common causes of food poisoning
Food poisoning is commonly caused by certain bacteria or their toxins, which
are poisonous proteins produced by these bacteria.
Example of food poisoning caused by bacteria
a. Botulism
Botulism is an often fatal disease that results from eating improperly canned
foods( spoiled canned food) , improperly processed, low-acid foods such as green
beans, mush-rooms, spinach, olives and beef or fish contaminated with toxins
released by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum.
•Clostridium botulinum causes Botulism
Clostridium botulinum is the spore-forming bacteria that is the cause of
concern when home canning low acid foods. While the bacteria is destroyed
at 100°C, it has the ability to form hardy spores that can survive boiling water
processing. These spores can germinate and grow in a low acid environment in
the absence of air. As they grow they give off a deadly toxin. Clostridium
botulinum spores can be destroyed by heat processing at a temperature of
116°C. Foods that are low in acid such as meat, poultry, seafood or vegetables
must be processed in a pressure canner in order to obtain temperatures of
116°C.
Clostridium botulinum is not a spoilage concern in high acid foods. The spores
cannot grow or produce the deadly toxin in high acid foods. High acid foods
can be safely heat processed in a boiling water canner.
•The symptoms of botulism
Generally, victims experience symptoms 12-36 hours after eating, although
symptoms have started as long as 96 hours after an exposure. The effects of
botulism include blurred or double vision, dilated pupils, droopy eyelids that are
difficult to open, dry, sore mouth and throat, a weak grip, and muscle weakness.
Other symptoms can include difficulty swallowing and speaking, difficult
breathing, major muscle weakness and paralysis.
b. Staphylococcus
Staphylococcus is a bacterium which causes pimples, boils and septic wounds.
It also causes food poisoning. Staphylococcus produces a toxin in infected food.
It does not form spores, and it is quickly killed by boiling. The toxin is more
persistent, and food must be kept at 100°C for 30 minutes to destroy all the
toxin. Many foods cannot be heated to such a high temperature, such as
cream-filled pastries, and these may be a source of food-poisoning by
Staphylococcus.
CONTROL OF MICROORGANISMS
Control of microorganisms is needed to prevent:
1. The spread of disease and infection.
2. The spoilage of foodstuffs.
3. Contamination of food.
The most common ways of killing microorganisms are by heat and by chemicals.
Other less common means include, irradiation, ultrasonic sound and very high pressure.
Some bacteria, and almost all virus, yeast and mould cells are killed by a temperature of
60°C for 10 to 20 minutes.
Yeast and mould spores, and most other bacteria are destroyed at temperatures between
70 - 100°C for 5 to 10 minutes exposure.
Bacterial spores however, are very difficult to destroy. Some for example, need at least 10
minutes at 100 to 120°C.
 Security, damage and fermentation
What is food security?
There are many different definitions of food security. The definition
below is frequently used.
The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing
“when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe,
nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life”.

Food security includes the following aspects:

• Availability
• Access
• Affordability
• Quality
• Nutrition
• Safety
Think of an example of an issue which may affect each aspect of
food security.
Food damage Food contamination
There are three ways which food can be contaminated:
• Physical;
• Chemical;
• Bacterial.

Physical contamination
This can occur in a variety of ways at different stages of food
processing and production. Some examples are:
• soil from the ground when harvesting;
• a bolt from a processing plant when packaging;
• a hair from a cook in the kitchen.
Care must be taken at each stage to prevent physical
contamination.
 Chemical contamination
This can occur in a variety of ways at different stages of food
processing and production. Some examples are:
• chemicals from the farm;
• a cleaning product used in the processing plant when
packaging;
• fly spray used in the kitchen when preparing food.
Care must be taken at each stage of food production to prevent
chemical contamination.
Bacterial contamination
As soon as food is harvested, slaughtered or manufactured into a
product it starts to change. This is caused by two main processes:
• Autolysis – self destruction, caused by enzymes present in the
food;
• Microbial spoilage – caused by the growth of bacteria, yeasts
and moulds.
 Desirable food changes

Autolysis and micro bacterial changes are sometimes desirable

(and are not referred to as spoilage), for example enzymes cause
fruit to ripen.

Here are some positive micro bacterial

changes below.

Bacteria in yoghurt Mould in some cheeses, Yeast in bread

production. e.g. Stilton. production.
 Autolysis - enzymes

Enzymes are chemicals that are found in food.

These chemicals have important uses in food. They can cause
food to deteriorate in three main ways:

• ripening – this will continue until the food becomes inedible,

e.g. banana ripening;

• browning – enzymes can react with air causing the skin of

certain foods, e.g. potatoes and apples discolouring;

• oxidation – loss of certain nutrients, such as vitamins A, C and

thiamin from food, e.g. over boiling of green vegetables.
 Microbial spoilage - bacteria
These are single celled micro-organisms (they cannot be seen by
the naked eye) which are present naturally in the environment.
There are many different kinds, some are useful, e.g. in the
production of yogurt, and some harmful.
The presence of bacteria in food can lead to digestive upset.
Some bacteria produce toxins which can lead to this also.
Spores can also be produced by some bacteria leading to toxins
being produced.
Microbial spoilage - yeast
Yeasts are single celled fungi which can reproduce by ‘budding’. This
means that a small offshoot or bud separates from the parent yeast
cell. Yeasts can also form spores which can travel through the air.
These are easily killed by heating to 100ºC.
In warm, moist conditions in the presence of sugar, yeasts will cause
foods like fruit to ferment producing alcohol and carbon dioxide gas.
Yeast is used in the production of bread and wine.
 Microbial spoilage - mould
Moulds are fungi which grow as filaments in food. They reproduce by
producing spores in fruiting bodies which can be seen on the surface
of foods.
These fruiting bodies sometimes look like round furry blue-coloured
growths, e.g. mould on bread.
Some moulds can be seen by the naked eye, e.g. on bread.

Conditions for bacterial growth

Micro-organisms need conditions to survive and reproduce
these can include:
• temperature;
• moisture;
• food;
• time;
• oxygen;
• pH level.
 Conditions for bacterial growth

Temperature
Bacteria need warm conditions to grown and multiply.

The ideal temperature for bacterial growth is

30ºC – 37ºC.

Some bacteria can still grow at 10ºC and 60ºC. Most bacteria are
destroyed at temperatures above 63 ºC. Bacterial growth danger
zone in 5ºC - 63ºC.

At very cold temperatures, bacteria become dormant – they do

not die, but they cannot grow or multiply.
 Conditions for bacterial growth

100ºC Water boils

82ºC Core temperature of hot food

5ºC - 63ºC danger zone for

rapid growth of micro-organisms

1ºC - 4ºC temperature of fridge

0ºC Freezing point of water

-18ºC temperature of freezer

 Conditions for bacterial growth
Moisture
Where there is no moisture bacteria cannot grow. However,
bacteria and moulds can both produce spores which can survive
until water is added to the food.
Food
Bacteria need a source of food to grow and multiple, these
food usually contain large amounts of water and nutrients.
Time
One bacterium can divide into two every 20 minutes. Food
where bacteria rapidly multiple in are called perishable foods.
Oxygen
Some bacteria need oxygen to grow and multiply. These are
called aerobic bacteria. Other bacteria grow well when there is no
oxygen present, these are known as anaerobic bacteria.
pH level
An acidic or alkaline environment can promote of inhibit
microbial growth. Most bacteria prefer a neutral pH (6.6 – 7.5).
Moulds and yeasts can survive at pH levels of 1-1/5 (very acidic),
food spoilage usually occurs by yeast and moulds.
 Fermented Foods
• Foods that have been subjected to the action of micro-organisms or
enzymes, in order to bring about a desirable change.
• Numerous food products owe their production and characteristics
to the fermentative activities of microorganisms.
• Fermented foods originated many thousands of years ago when
presumably micro-organism contaminated local foods.
Foods from bacteria

yogurt cheese sauerkraut

 Definition
Beneficial microorganisms

• Helpful bacteria and fungi that are either added or naturally

occur in foods.
• Create unique flavors and textures or improve
the body’s ability to digest foods or fight disease.
Bacteria

• The most important bacteria used in food production are

the Lactobacillaceae family.
• This family produces lactic acid from carbohydrates,
resulting in changes in certain foods.
• Example: milk to yogurt.
Yeast
• The most beneficial yeasts for food production are from the
genus Saccharomyces.
• Yeasts produce desirable
chemical reactions.
• Example: leavening of
bread and production of
alcohol.

Molds

 Molds from the genus Penicillium

are associated with the ripening
and flavor of cheeses.
 Fermented Foods
• Micro-organisms cause changes in the foods which:
– Help to preserve the food,
– Extend shelf-life considerably over that of the raw materials
from which they are made,
– Improve aroma and flavour characteristics,
– Increase its vitamin content or its digestibility compared to
the raw materials.

• The term “biological ennoblement” has been used to describe

the nutritional benefits of fermented foods.

• Fermented foods comprise about one-third of the world wide

consumption of food and 20- 40 % (by weight) of individual
diets.
Table 1 History and origins of some fermented foods

Food Approximate year Region

of introduction

Mushrooms 4000 BC China

Soy sauce 3000 BC China, Korea, Japan
Wine 3000 BC North Africa, Europe
Fermented milk 3000 BC Middle East
Cheese 2000 BC Middle East
Beer 2000 BC North Africa, China
Bread 1500 BC Egypt, Europe
Fermented Meats 1500 BC Middle East
Sourdough bread 1000 BC Europe
Fish sauce 1000 BC Southeast Asia, North Africa
Pickled vegetables 1000 BC China, Europe
Tea 200 BC China
Table 2 Worldwide production of some fermented foods
Food Quantity (t) Beverage Quantity (hl)
Cheese 15 million Beer 1000 million
Yoghurt 3 million Wine 350 million
Mushrooms 1.5 million
Fish sauce 300 000
Dried stockfish 250 000
 Table 3 Individual consumption of some fermented
foods: average per person per year
Annual
Food Country
consumption
Beer (I) Germany 130
Wine (I) Italy, Portugal 90
Argentina 70
Yoghurt (I) Finland 40
Netherlands 25
Kimchi (kg) Korea 22
Tempeh (kg) Indonesia 18
Soy sauce (I) Japan 10
Cheese (kg) UK 10
Miso (kg) Japan 7
Benefits of fermentation
Raw Fermented
Benefit
material food
Preservation Milk Yoghurt, cheese
(Most materials)
Enhancement of safety
Fruit Vinegar
Acid production
Barley Beer
Acid and alcohol production
Grapes Wine
Meat Salami
Production of bacteriocins
Cassava Gari, polviho azedo
Removal of toxic components
Soybean Soy sauce

Enhancement of nutritional value Bread

Wheat
Improved digestibility Kimchi, sauerkraut
Leafy veges.
Retention of micronutrients Nata de coco
Coconut
Increased fibre content Bifidus milk, Yakult,
Milk
Synthesis of probiotic compounds Acidophilus yoghurt
Coffee beans Coffee
Improvement of flavour
Grapes Wine
 1.2 The importance of HACCP system in food industry
Consumers expect protection from hazards occurring along the
entire food chain, from primary producer through consumer (often
described as the farm-to-table continuum).

Protection will only occur if all sectors in the chain operate in an

integrated way, and food control systems address all stages of this
chain.

As no mandatory activity of this nature can achieve its objectives

fully without the cooperation and active participation of all
stakeholders e.g. farmers, industry, and consumers, the term Food
Control System is used in these Guidelines to describe the
integration of a mandatory regulatory approach with preventive
and educational strategies that protect the whole food chain.
Thus an ideal food control system should include effective
enforcement of mandatory requirements, along with training
and education, community outreach programmes and promotion
of voluntary compliance.

The introduction of preventive approaches such as the Hazard

Analysis Critical Control Point System (HACCP), have resulted in
industry taking greater responsibility for and control of food
safety risks.

Such an integrated approach facilitates improved consumer

protection, effectively stimulates agriculture and the food
processing industry, and promotes domestic and international
food trade
 1.5 Loss caused by food damage
Postharvest loss:
Is defined as any change in the quality or quantity of the
product after harvest that decreases its value.

The losses may range from slight defects to total loss of the
produce!
Small defects Total loss
(rind breakdown) (sour rot)
 Estimated Levels of Postharvest Losses in the
Asia Pacific Region
COUNTRY LEVEL OF LOSS (%)
India 40
Indonesia 20 – 50
Iran >35
Korea 20 – 50
Philipines 27 – 42
Sri-Lanka 16 – 41
Thailand 17 – 35
Vietnam 20 - 25
R.S. Rolle, Agr.Industries Officer, FAO, 2004
 CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSSES
• External factors

Mechanical injuries
Parasitic diseases V

• Internal factors

Physiological deterioration
 SANITATION:
before, during and after harvest
Dropped fruit and plant debris – a
source of infection.
Remove it from the grove.

Repeatedly used infected packages and

tools – a source of infection. The tools
Dropped fruit
collected for must be cleaned and sterilized. Used
elimination carton packages should be discarded.
 POSTHARVEST LOSSES MAY OCCUR AT DIFFERENT
STEPS DURIN THE MARKETING CHAIN
Losses at harvest: injuries, pressure damage
Losses at the packinghouse: chemicals, brushes and wax damage
Losses during storage: chilling injuries, decay, peel disorders
Losses during transport: bruising, deformation, decay
Losses at retail: decay, softening, wilting
Losses at the consumers: decay, softening, wilting
Pressure damage Mechanical injury Spliting
Long button injury WOUNDING BY THE STEMS

BIN DAMAGE Chemical spray injuries

Many studies showed that hot water dips (2-3 min at 53ºC)
reduces decay development.
Recently, a new method combining a short hot water
rinsing and brushing treatment (55-60ºC for 20-30 s) was
developed to clean and disinfect agricultural products.
Brushes damage Hot tank damage Wax damage

Losses during Storage

Decay
MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE OF
TOMMY ETKINS MANGO
Physiological disorders Rind breakdown

Chilling
injuries

Stem-end
Rind breakdown
CHILLING INJURIES
 Losses at various stages of marketing of
two mango varieties
Losses at Kind of loss ‘Totapuri’ ‘Alphonso’
level of (damage) loss (%) loss (%)
HARVEST Mechanical 0.73 0.80
Spoilage 1.41 0.68
(decay)
Bird damage 0.20 0.26
Over-ripe 0.69 0.13
Pilferage 0.21 0.00
Hail storm 0.28 0.03
Total 3.52 1.90
 Losses at various stages of marketing of
two mango varieties
Losses at Kind of loss ‘Totapuri’ ‘Alphonso’
level of (damage) loss (%) loss (%)
Transport Breakage 1.24 1.63
And whole- Spoilage 0.77 1.31
sale market (decay)
Over-mature 1.07 0.51
Immature & 1.77 0.17
unmarketable
size
Total 4.85 3.62
 1.6 Implications for human safety and security
What are some of the issues affecting world food security?
Food security is one of the biggest challenges facing humankind.
There are many factors which have combined to make food
security such a large issue. This includes:
Increasing population - In 2009, the world population was 6
billion. By 2050, it is predicted to reach 9 billion. Our current
output of food is not enough to feed a population of 9 billion.

Changing diets - As countries develop and people become

richer they tend to eat a more varied diet, including more meat,
which requires more energy to produce. This also means there
is more competition for the same types of food.

Reduced arable land - The drive to produce more biofuels for

transport uses edible crops and has reduced arable land.
What are some of the issues affecting world food security?

Transport costs - The relatively high price of oil in recent years has
increased the price of food storage and distribution.

Climate change - Climate change is leading to a warmer world

which will affect what crops can be grown where. Climate change
can also lead to more frequent extreme weather events (e.g.
floods) which can damage crops.

Pests and diseases - Pests and diseases are becoming more

resistant to pesticides and sprays. The changing climate is also
bringing pest and diseases into new areas where they could not
previously survive.
What is being done?
There are a number of EU funded projects investigating
how food security can be improved.
Environmental Links to Health Concerns

• Drinking Water
• Food
• Land
• Built
Environment
• Indoor Air
• Emergencies
 Foodborne Illness Definitions
• Outbreak the occurrence of two or more cases of a similar
illness resulting from the ingestion of a common food. (CDC)

• Agro-terrorism: [Terrorism] directed against agriculture,

livestock, or other food supplies with biological, chemical, or
[physical] radiological weapons. (FBI)
Importance of Preventing Foodborne Diseases
• Many are ill or die
– 76 million US cases each year (estimated)
– Of these…,
• 325,000 hospitalized
• 5,000 died (CDC)
• Cost in 2000: $6.9 billion per year for 5 bacterial
pathogens (USDA/ERS)
 Complex System, Many Food Interests
Inputs
Food can be
Farm contaminated
at any point,
from farm
Transport inputs
Mill / Slaughter / to fork.
Food Processor
Transport/Imports

Restaurant/Retail
Photo: www.bcsalmon.ca/bcsmc/ffact2.htm
Consumer
 Strategies: Community/Retail Standards Protect Consumers
• Adherence to existing standards
1. Verification and Assurance
2. Common Sense Management Plans
3. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points
4. Active Managerial Control of Risk Factors

…BUT…be aware… “Complete Safety” cannot be assured!

1. Verification and Assurance

• Inspections
• Investigations
• Industry education
 2. Common Sense - Management Plans

- Do I know my process/product?
– Am I aware of what could cause a problem?
– Do I understand how to control threats?
– Have my key employees been involved in planning?
– Has effective training occurred?

3. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP)

• A system for ensuring safe food production
• May be used from “Farm to Fork”

The objective is to make the product safely and to be able

to prove it!-- Bill Schafer, U of M
 HACCP Principles

1. Hazard Analysis
2. Critical Control Point
3. Criteria/Standards
4. Monitoring
5. Corrective Action
6. Record Keeping
7. Verification/Validation
 4. Active Managerial Control (AMC) of Risk Factors
• System for controlling risk
• Places responsibility on establishment
• Manager certification
• On-going worker education
• Recognizing accomplishment of safe food!
• Private and public cooperation is required to maintain and
strengthen the food system.
• Following established guidelines will enhance security,
including watching for signs and symptoms of:
chemical , biological, and physical contamination.
• Core public health measures help ensure safer food,
including:
assessing threats, developing common sense and practical
policies, communicating, and assuring food safety
standards are met.