MICROWAVE VACUUM

TUBE DEVICES
Professor (Dr.) Monojit Mitra
Department Of E&TC Engineering
Indian Institute of Engineering Science
& Technology (IIEST), Shibpur,
Howrah
 High Frequency Limitations of
Conventional Tubes
(i) Lead Inductance & Inter-electrode
Capacitance effects:
Space between the two electrodes cathode
and anode of a diode or between cathode
and grid or grid and anode of a triode is
either vacuum or filled with some inert
gases give rise of some capacitance
called inter-electrode capacitance and an
inductance effect due to lead connected
limits the frequency of operation of the
conventional tubes. As expression for
frequency of oscillation of any LC circuit is
given by f = 1/2π√(LC)
Thus higher the value of L and C lower will
be the frequency of operation.
This problem can be overcome by reducing
the length of the lead, which reduces the
value of L. On the other hand by reducing
the area of the electrodes or increasing the
distance between electrodes value of C can
be reduced.
 (ii) Transit Time Effect:
Transit time is the time taken by the charge
carriers to cross the active region of the
device. For a diode valve it is the time taken
by electrons to move cathode to anode.
Again frequency of operation f = 1/τ. Thus τ
can be reduced by decreasing the distance
between two electrodes.
Decrease in distance between the
electrodes indirectly increases inter-
electrode capacitance. Also for effective
heat radiation area of the electrodes should
be large.
 (iii) Skin Effect:
magnetic field develops around the path of
the electron flow increases rapidly with
frequency. Thus this strong magnetic field
around all the electrons will repel each
other and as a result all the electrons will be
accumulated beneath the skin of the
conductor. This reduces the effective area
of the conductor and thus increases the
resistance of the conductor. As current will
flow just below the skin of the conductor
hence it is known as skin effect.
In a suitably designed electron tube the
transit time phenomenon is employed
usefully to generate microwave frequencies.
Some examples of such tube in
chronological order are: (i) two cavity
klystron, (ii) reflex klystron, (iii) Magnetron,
(iv) a large of family of Travelling Wave
Tubes (TWTs).
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

The Klystron tube operates on the principle

of velocity modulation instead of current
density modulation employed in
conventional tubes. The idea of Klystron
amplifier was introduced by Varian
brothers in 1939.
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
The schematic diagram of a two cavity
klystron amplifier is as shown:
Electrons emitted by the cathode are
focused by one or more focusing electrode
kept in front of the cathode. Electron then
passes through the buncher cavity where it
interacts with applied rf or microwave and
as a result their velocity will be modulated
and finally when they comes out from the
buncher cavity forms bunches. These
bunches will now move over the drift space
and will enter into the catcher cavity where
they will induce some energy. Finally
electron bunches when comes out from the
catcher cavity will be collected by collector.
Let a beam of electrons accelerated by a d.c.
voltage Vdc to pass through a pair of grids to
which a sinusoidal voltage V1sinωt1 ia
applied and vo be the resultant velocity of
electron, then from modern physics
eVdc = ½mvo2
where m be the mass and e be the charge of
an electron.
or, vo = √(2eVdc/m) (1)
Now voltage at grid 1 = Vdc
and voltage at grid 2 = Vdc + V1sinωt1
Let v1 be the electron velocity after leaving
grid 2 and V1 be the amplitude of rf signal to
be amplified. Then
e(Vdc + V1sinωt1) = ½mv12
or, v1 = √(2e/m)(Vdc + V1sinωt1)
= √(2eVdc/m)√{1+ (V1/Vdc)sin ωt1}
= vo {1+ (V1/Vdc)sin ωt1}½
Expanding binomially and neglecting higher
terms we get,
v1 = vo{1+ (V1/2Vdc)sin ωt1} (2)
So here by varying the amplitude of rf
voltage the velocity of the beam is varying
and the process is called velocity
modulation.
If S be the drift pace and T is the
transit time, then
T = S/v1 = S/ vo{1+ (V1/2Vdc)sin ωt1}
If t2 be the time taken by the electron to
reach to the catcher grid; then
t2 = t1 + T
or, ωt2 = ωt1 +ωT
 Power Output at Catcher grid
Let V2sinωt2 be the amplified voltage
induced in the catcher grid. Hence energy
given by an electron is equal to
– eV2sinωt2 = w’
Negative sign indicates that the energy is
given by the electron.
Average energy given by an electron to the
field,
Pav = (1/2π) o∫2πw’d(ωt1)
 Pav = (1/2π)0∫2π(–eV2sinωt2)d(ωt1)

= –(eV2/2π)0∫2πsin[ωt2+{ωS/vo(1+(V1/2Vdc))
sinωt1}d(ωt2)
= – eV2J1(x)sinα (3)
where x = αV1/2Vdc and J1(x) is the Bessel
function of 1st order and
α = ωS/vo= dc transit angle = αdc

Let N number of electron reaching to the

catcher cavity per second
 Pac= Npav
= – NeV2J1(x)sinα (from equation 3)
= IdcV2J1(x)sinα [As Ne = Idc]
Now dc power at the input of the Klystron
Pdc= IdcVdc
Efficiency η = Pac/Pdc= –IdcV2J1(x)sinα/VdcIdc

= – (V2/Vdc)J1(x)sinα (4)
For maximum theoretical efficiency
J1(x)=0.58 at x=1.84 as obtained from the
table of Bessel function and considering
 Sinα = –1, from equation (4) we get
ηmax= (V2/Vdc)0.58
As the amplitude of amplified signal can not
be more than applied dc voltage, thus
considering V2 = Vdc
ηmax= 58%
 Applegate diagram
Principle of velocity modulation can also
explain with the help of Applegate diagram
Typical characteristics of a two cavity
Klystron Amplifier

Frequency : up to 60 GHz `
Power output: 100 Kw at 60 GHz
250Kw (CW power) at 10 GHz
30 Mw (pulsed) at 3Ghz
Power gain : About 30 dB
Efficiency : About 40%
 Klystron Oscillator

There are two types of Klystron oscillators:

(i) Two resonator Klystron Oscillator

(ii) Single resonator Klystron oscillator or

Reflex Klystron.
(i) Two Resonator Klystron Oscillator
By employing proper feedback between
the catcher and buncher cavity
converts a Klystron amplifier into an
oscillator as shown
Here a fraction of the output power is
feedback to the input buncher cavity with a
loop gain of unity and a phase shift of
multiple of 2π, to start oscillation. However
a two cavity Klystron oscillator is not
usually constructed because when the
oscillation frequency is varied, the resonant
frequency of each cavity and the feedback
path phase shift must be readjusted to
maintain a positive feedback. By breaking
the vacuum and glass tuber it is not
possible.
 Reflex Klystron

It consists of an electron gun producing a

collimated beam of electron, which when
passes through resonator cavity gets
accelerated under a dc accelerating
voltage Vdc. The dc electron velocity in the
beam will be
vo = √(2eVdc/m)
The schematic block diagram of a Reflex
Klystron is as shown:
Schematic block diagram of Reflex
Klystron
The repeller which is placed very close to
cavity is kept at a negative potential (VR)
respect to cathode and consequently it
retards and finally reflects the electron
which then turn back through the resonator
grid.
On passing through the cavity gap the
electron beams get velocity modulated and
get bunch on the drift space existing
between the cavity and the repeller.
Electrons with highest velocity will penetrate
more in the drift region towards the repeller
and will take more time to return to the
cavity gap than the electron with lower
velocities, which penetrates shorter distance
in the drift space. Thus the electrons leaving
the gap at different instances returning back
to the cavity at the same time resulting the
desired bunching effect. Then these bunch
of electron after come to the cavity will
induce energy collectively.
Voltage difference between the points X and
Y is
VR – (Vdc + V1sinωt1) ≈ VR –Vdc
Thus the electric field between the point X
and Y is
E = – (VR –Vdc)/d
and Force = –eE = – e(VR –Vdc)/d (5)
On the other hand
Force = mass × acceleration = m(d2x/dt2)
(6)
x is the displacement of electron from the
cavity towards the repeller.
Thus equation (5) and (6) are equal in
dimension
m(d2x/dt2) = – e(VR –Vdc)/d

or, d2x/dt2 = – e(VR –Vdc)/md

or, dx/dt = – e(VR –Vdc)t/md + C (7)

At t = t1, v = v1, thus equation (7) becomes
v1 = – e(VR –Vdc)t1/md + C

or, C = v1 – e(VR –Vdc)t1/md

 Substituting the value C in equation (7)
dx/dt = (e/md)(VR – Vdc)(t – t1) + v1

or, x = (e/2md)(VR – Vdc)(t – t1)2 + v1t + C1

(8)
Again at t = t1, x = 0, then equation (8) gives
0 = (e/2md)(VR – Vdc)(t1 – t1)2 + v1t1 + C1
or, C1 = – v1t1

Again at t = t2, x = 0, i.e., when the electron

comes back to the cavity then equation (8)
 t2 – t1 = –2mdv1/e(VR – Vdc)
or, ω t2 = ωt1 –2mωdv1/e(VR – Vdc)

Transit angleωt2=ωt1–α’{1+(V1/2Vdc)sin ωt1}

where α’ corresponds to centre of bunch
electrons and given by;
α’ = 2mωdvo/e(VR – Vdc)
and the bunching parameter is given by
x’ = α’V1/2Vdc
For sustaining oscillation the value of α’
should be equal to 2nπ – π/2
Calculation of Efficiency:
We have vo=√(2eVdc/m)
Now, vo2 = 2eVdc/m
or, Vdc = mvo2/2e

Also α’ = 2mωdvo/e(VR – Vdc)

or, vo2= [α’e(VR – Vdc)/2ωmd]2

or,
Vdc/(VR–Vdc)2=(m/2e)(e2/4ω2m2d2)(2nπ–π/2)2
Or, Vdc/(VR–Vdc)2= e(2nπ–π/2)2 /8ω2md2

Now bunching parameter

x’ = V1α’/2Vdc
or, V1/Vdc = 2x’/α’ = 2x’/(2nπ–π/2)
Thus ac power output
Pac = IdcV1J1(x’)
= 2VdcIdcJ1(x’)/(2nπ–π/2)
and the input dc power
Pdc = IdcVdc
Efficiency η = Pac/ Pdc = 2x’J1(x’)/(2nπ–π/2)
Efficiency will maximum, when the value of
n = 1and the maximum value of J1(x’)
obtained from the table of Bessel function
as 0.58 fro x’=1.84 and thus the maximum
theoretical efficiency,
η = 27.78%
 Tuning
Tuning means variation of frequency of the
oscillator to obtain reasonable power
output over the operating bandwidth. Two
methods of tuning are:
(i) Mechanical Tuning: By varying dimension
of the resonant cavity different
frequencies can be obtained. Reduction of
cavity dimension is possible by inserting a
metal rod through the open end of the
cavity. On the other hand by adding
similar type of cavity with the existing
called flaring the freq. variation possible.
(ii) Electronic Tuning: By varying the
repeller voltage tuning is possible. If V1
repeller voltage produces a frequency of f1
and when repeller voltage changes to V2
produces a frequency f2 then Electronic
Tuning Sensitivity (ETS) can be defined as
ETS = (f2 – f1)/(V2 – V1) MHz/Volt
 Transit Time Calculation
If an electron reaches a maximum distance
of Smax when the final velocity become
zero, the equation of motion
0 = vo2 + 2a Smax (9)
Where vo is the initial velocity of electron
under dc field and ‘a’ be the acceleration
of the electron,
Thus a = – e(VR – Vdc)/md
Now from equation (9) we get
 Smax= – vo2/2a

= –½(2eVdc/m)/[–e(VR –Vdc)/md]
= Vdcd/(VR–Vdc)
Total transit time (T) in repeller region is
twice the time which the electron takes to
travel the distance Smax
Thus,T=2Smax/vo= 2[Vdcd/(VR–Vdc)]/√(2eVdc/m)
Frequency f = 1/T= √(2mVdc/e) [Vdc –VR]/d
Expression fro frequency tells that
frequency can be varied by varying repeller
voltage as other parameters are constant.
 Typical Characteristics of Reflex
Klystron

Frequency : A few GHz to few hundred GHz

Power output: 10 Mw to 2.5 Mw
Repeller voltage: – 15 to – 300 volts
Cavity Voltage : 275 to 300 volts
Efficiency : 10%
 Repeller Protection

At a very high voltage a large current flows

through the repeller which causes an
overheating in the repeller and thus can
damage the repeller. So a high resistance
should be connected with it to control the
current and to stop the overheating of the
repeller.
 Advantages:

Produces high output power.

Operates up to a very high frequency.

Disadvantages:

• Very low efficiency.

• Repeller protection is very much
essential.
 Application

(i) As local oscillator in microwave receiver.

(ii) As a microwave signal source.

(iii)Pump oscillator for parametric amplifiers.

(iv) As a source for radar.

 Magnetron
Magnetron was invented by Hull in the year
of 1921 and it was used later on as a prime
source for radar during the time of 2nd
World war.
Here a number of identical resonators
arranged in a cylindrical pattern around a
cylindrical cathode. Output power is taken
by using coaxial loop from any one of the
resonant cavity.
Cutaway view of Magnetron
Top View of Magnetron
Magnetron is a crossed field device, in
which the magnetic field is applied parallel
to the axis of the cylindrical cathode and
electrical field is applied perpendicular to
the axis of the cathode. The space between
the cathode and the anode is the interaction
space for the electron (emitted by the
cathode) and cross field.
Under the magnetic field the electron will
rotate in a circular path and at any point this
centrifugal force of electron will be
balanced by the force exerted by the
magnetic field
 mv2/r = Bev
or, r = (mv/e)/B
So radius of curvature of electron rotation
is inversely proportional to the magnetic
field. Under zero magnetic field the electron
will move radially outward in a straight path
towards the anode. When the magnetic field
is very strong the electron will rotate with a
very small radius of curvature and will go
back to cathode as shown in the figure
below. Both the type of electron motion are
useless for the operation of magnetron.
Field distribution of a Magnetron within
interaction region is shown below where the
phase difference between the adjacent
cavities is π-radians, hence it is called π-
mode of operation of Magnetron.
 EXPRESSION FOR CRITICAL MAGNETIC
FIELD
The force exerted by the magnetic field is
given by the relation
F = -(v×B)e
Under the magnetic field electron will rotate
in a circular path and at any point this
centrifugal force of electron will be
balanced by the force exerted by
magnetic field.
mv²/r = Bev
 v = (Be/m)r …(1)
From equation (1) we see that B, e, m are
constants, hence v∞r and for a particular
velocity B∞1/r, i.e., the radius of curvature
of the trajectory decreases with the
increase of magnetic field. Thus the
effective value of magnetic field should be
such that the electron will not reach the
surface of the anode but will graze it and
will rotate around the interaction space
between cathode and anode.
Magnetron consists of two concentric
cylinders of radius ra and rc , where ra > rc .
Anode is kept at positive dc potential Vdc
with respect to cathode.

In cylindrical co-ordinate system the

equation of motion of an electron is given
by,
1 d dφ e dr
— — (r²—) = — B —— …(2)
r dt dt m dt
Now from equation (1)
ω = v/r = Be/m
Thus equation (2) becomes
1 d dφ dr
— —(r² — )= ω —
r dt dt dt
On integrating we get

dφ ωr²
r² — = — + K …(3)
dt 2
where K is the integrating constant.
Now at the surface of the cathode (i.e.at r
=r ) angular velocity dφ/dt = 0.
c

Thus equation (3) becomes

ωr ²
c

—— + K = 0
2
or, K = - ωr ² /2
c

Substituting the value of K in equation (3),

we get
dφ 1
r² — = — ω(r² - r ²)
c …(4)
dt 2
If v be the velocity of electron under electric
field
eV = ½ mv²
dc

or, v² = 2eV /mdc …(5)

But velocity of electron under electric field

has two components – radial velocity (v ) r

and tangential velocity (v ).

φ

Thus,
v² = v ² + v ² = 2eV /m
r φ dc
 dr dφ 2eVdc
(—)² + (r — )² = —— …(6)
dt dt m

When an electron is just grazing an anode

then r = r and dr/dt = 0.
a

Thus equation (6) becomes to

dφ 2eV
dc

r ² (—)² = ——
a

dt m
 r (dφ/dt) = √(2eV /m)
a dc …(7)
and rewriting equation (4)
dφ 1
r ² — = — ω(r ² - r ²) …(8)
a a c

dt 2
Comparing equation (7) and (8),
1 ω 2eV dc

— — (r ²- r ²)= √(——)
a c

2 r
a m
or, 1 Be r² 2eV
c dc

— — r (1- —) = √(——)
a

2 m r² a m
The value of the cut-off magnetic field for
the operation of a Magnetron is

Bo = (1/ra)√(8Vdcm/e)[1/{1- (rc/ra)²}]

This means that the applied magnetic field B

should be slightly greater than Bo, then for a
given Vdc the electron will not reach the
anode but will just graze the surface of the
anode i.e., the anode current is zero.
If there are N number of cavities the phase
shift between the adjacent cavities is Ø =
2πn/N where n is an integer. Thus for π
mode of operation number of cavities N = 2n
i.e even.

The mechanism by which the electron

bunching and synchronization with
the rf field takes place is called phase
focusing.
The phase focusing effect is illustrated
below
An electron at ‘A’ is in the vicinity of the
positive anode and the component of the rf
field aids the radial dc field, which
increases the velocity of electron. Whereas
the electron at ‘B’ experiences the equal
amount of field due to its position and thus
velocity remains unchanged. The electron
at ‘C’ nearer to the negative anode and
experiences a lower relative magnitude of
dc field and thus its velocity decreases.
This causes a bunching action around
the electron whose relative position is
indicated as B. The selective grouping
of electrons results in a spoke shaped
space charge in the cloud of electrons
spinning around the cathode and
induces energy into the cavities. The rf
power is coupled out from any one of
the cavities by using a co-axial loop.
 Mode Jumping in Magnetron
If the frequencies of the different modes of
operation are far apart, the magnetron
has a tendency of mode jumping during
the operation. It can be overcome by
using strapping where two ring are
connected only to alternate anode poles.
At π-mode each ring is at uniform
potential but of opposite polarity and thus
present a capacitive loading to the
cavities, which lowers the frequency of
this mode.
For other modes each ring is not at
an uniform potential so that current
flows in the rings. This places an
inductive loading in the cavities to
raise the frequency for other modes.
Strapped Magnetron
Strapped Magnetron
 Advantages:

Efficiency is quite high.

Improvement of performance using
modified structures.

Disadvantages:

Mode jumping.
Requires a critical magnetic field to start
the operation.
 APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETRON

Mostly used in a transmitter of a

radar system.

Used as heating source of a

microwave oven.
 TRAVELLING WAVE TUBES (TWTs)
TWTs
|
|¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯|
Forward Wave Backward Wave
Amplifier (FWA) Oscillator (BWO)
| |
|¯¯¯¯¯¯| |¯¯¯¯¯¯¯|
O-type M-type M-type O-type
|
|¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯|
Linear M Circular M
Carcinotron Carcinotron
M-TYPE TWTA
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Electrons emitted by the cathode will initially
moves towards anode but the applied
magnetic field deflects electron towards
collector. Sole does not allow the beam to
move further in the downward direction. In
M-type TWT electron gains energy from
both magnetic as well as electric field.
RF field when moves through the slow wave
structure its velocity reduces and when it
reacts with electron beam a prolong
interaction takes place and by the process
the energetic electron beam transfers
energy to the rf field.
 SLOW WAVE STRUCTURES

Slow wave structures are special type

of circuits, used in the microwave
tubes to reduce the wave velocity in a
certain direction so that a prolong
interaction between the electron
beam and the signal may take place.
DIFF. SLOW WAVE STRUCTURES
Characteristics of M-type TWTA

• Frequency Range: 1.2 to 1.5 GHz

• Gain in dB: 10 to 20
• Power Output in Watt: 200 to 400
• Efficiency: 30 to 40%
O-TYPE TWTA
Helical type slow wave structure is
used between the input and output
port, through which the collimated
beam of energetic electron moves
toward collector and as a result a
prolong interaction takes place
between the rf field of the slow wave
structure and the electron beam.
Bunching of Electrons of O-type
TWT
There are many rf cycles present in the
length of the tube. Where the rf voltages are
positive, nearby electrons will be
accelerated and those where rf voltages are
negative, nearby electrons were slowed
down and electrons velocity remains
unchanged for the zero values of the rf
field. Thus the velocity of electron beams
will be modulated. This velocity modulation
results density modulation, which finally
leads to bunching of the electron beam.
During their motion towards the
collector the bunches of electron
induces a voltage in the helix by their
charges and this induced voltage adds
up with the existing voltage of the e.m.
wave – which results in an
amplification of e.m. wave.
Since the interaction takes place
along the whole length of the tube,
thus the gain of TWTA is proportional
to its length.
One major problem of TWTA is that
due to mismatch of output port
reflection results, so a part of the
forward wave will come back
towards the input and results
unwanted oscillation.
A graphite is placed to attenuate
the reflected signal and thus
prevents oscillation but at the same
time reduces the gain of the tube.
Characteristics of O-type TWTA

• Frequency Range: 0.1 to 10 GHz

• Power Gain : 20 to 40 dB.
• Efficiency: 10 to 40%
• Power Output: 1000W (CW)
100 KW (Pulsed)
 APPLICATION OF TWTs

In CW radar and for radar jamming.

At the final stage of a satellite
transponder.
As a repeater amplifier in wide
band communication link.
As a sweep generator.
 TRAVELLING WAVE TUBES
Advantages:
• High gain amplifier.

Disadvantages:
• Long length for higher gain.
• Operates at very lower microwave
frequency range.
BACKWARD WAVE OSDILLATOR
(BWO)
Here the output port is terminated by rf
termination and thus the reflected wave
is superimposed on the incident in
phase results positive feedback and
thus produces oscillation. The
generated rf oscillation is then taken
out through the input end of the tube
i.e., the output terminal is near the gun
end of the tube.
In linear M-carcinotron the structure is
kept straight, i.e. slow wave structure
along with the sole are kept straight
between cathode and collector. To
increase the effective length of the
tube for higher gain the structure can
bend to form a circle and then it is
called circular M-carcinotron.
Again M-type uses magnetic field
for electron deflection but O-type do
not require any magnetic field.
 APPLICATION OF BWO

• As a sweep generator, since the

frequency of oscillation varies
widely.
• Can be used for amplitude
modulation.
• Can be used as a voltage tunable
band pass amplifier.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT
MICROWAVE VACUUM TUBE SOURCES
Parameters Klystron Magnetron TWTs

Frequency Few GHz 1 – 25 GHz 1 to10 GHz

to hundred
GHz

Output 10 MW Several KW Order of KW

Power

Efficiency 10 % 30 – 60 % 20%

Uses Oscillator Oscillator Oscillator

& &
Amplifier Amplifier
Thank You