Accepted Manuscript

3D printed microfluidics and microelectronics

Ryan D. Sochol, Eric Sweet, Casey C. Glick, Sung-Yueh Wu,

Chen Yang, Michael Restaino, Liwei Lin

PII: S0167-9317(17)30407-0
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mee.2017.12.010
Reference: MEE 10682
To appear in: Microelectronic Engineering
Received date: 15 June 2017
Revised date: 14 December 2017
Accepted date: 16 December 2017

Please cite this article as: Ryan D. Sochol, Eric Sweet, Casey C. Glick, Sung-Yueh Wu,
Chen Yang, Michael Restaino, Liwei Lin , 3D printed microfluidics and microelectronics.
The address for the corresponding author was captured as affiliation for all authors. Please
check if appropriate. Mee(2017), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mee.2017.12.010

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

3D PRINTED MICROFLUIDICS AND MICROELECTRONICS

Ryan D. Sochol*ab, Eric Sweetcd, Casey C. Glickcde,

Sung-Yueh Wucd, Chen Yangcd, Michael Restainob and Liwei Lin†cd

a.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park

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b.
Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park

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c.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley
d.
Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center

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e.
Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley
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* Ryan D. Sochol, 2147 Glenn L. Martin Hall, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
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20742, USA; rsochol@umd.edu

†
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Liwei Lin, 5135 Etcheverry Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA;

lwlin@me.berkeley.edu
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Abstract

Submillimeter-scale domains offer wide-ranging benefits for chemical and

biological fields, which have motivated researchers to develop a diversity of strategies

for manufacturing integrated microfluidic systems. Historically, microfluidic device

construction has predominantly relied on micromachining technologies that are rooted in

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the semiconductor and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) industries. These

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methodologies have enabled microfluidic platforms to be fabricated with fully-integrated

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microelectronics – a critical requirement for applications such as electrophoresis and

dielectrophoresis (DEP), surface acoustic wave (SAW) actuation, digital microfluidics

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(e.g., via electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) phenomena), and on-chip electrochemical
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detection. Despite the distinguishing capabilities afforded by conventional

microfabrication protocols, a number of inherent limitations have given rise to increasing

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interest in alternative approaches for microdevice construction in the form of additive

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manufacturing or “three-dimensional (3D) printing” techniques. Here we review recent

progress in the development of both 3D printed microfluidics and 3D printed

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microelectronics. We evaluate the distinctive benefits and constraints associated with

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emerging 3D printing technologies with respect to the fabrication of both microfluidic

and microelectronic systems. Lastly, we examine the potential use of 3D printing-based

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approaches for manufacturing microfluidic devices with integrated microelectronics.

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1. Introduction

The controlled manipulation of fluids at submillimeter length scales affords

significant and wide-ranging advantages for applications in chemistry and biology [1-3],

including rapid thermal and biochemical diffusion times [4], low reagent volumes [5],

laminar flow profiles [6], precision handling of microparticles (e.g., microbeads and living

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cells) [7, 8], and controlled regulation of microenvironmental characteristics [9, 10].

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To benefit from these characteristics, researchers have utilized and/or adapted

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conventional micromachining methods to fabricate fluidic systems at smaller scales [11-

13]. Initially, these protocols involved manufacturing microfluidic devices comprised of

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standard semiconductor materials, including silicon [14] and glass [15, 16]; however,
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disadvantages associated with the use of such materials for microfluidic applications

engendered the predominant method for fabricating microfluidic devices: soft

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lithography [17-19]. Building upon the elastomeric replication methods developed at

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Bell Labs [20], Duffy et al. introduced a technique for micromolding and bonding the

silicone elastomer, poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), to form enclosed channels for

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transporting fluids [21]. An example of a soft lithography protocol for micromolding a

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single layer of PDMS is shown in Figure 1 – left, which consists of five fundamental

steps: (i) photoresist (e.g., SU-8) is spin-coated onto a Si wafer; (ii) microchannel
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designs are photolithographically defined (e.g., using a photomask and UV light); (iii) the

exposed photoresist is chemically developed, which selectively removes undesired

photoresist; (iv) liquid PDMS is poured onto the Si wafer with patterned photoresist,

which serves as a negative master; and (v) after the PDMS is thermally cured, the

molded PDMS is removed from the Si wafer, allowing individual devices to be cut and

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then punched with holes at designated inlet/outlet port locations [22-24]. Following this

micromolding process, the PDMS devices can be bonded to a substrate (e.g., a glass

slide or another PDMS layer) using methods including UV ozone or Oxygen plasma

treatment to form enclosed microchannels.

Soft lithography can also be extended to construct microfluidic devices

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comprised of multiple discrete layers that are bonded together – a process termed

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“multilayer soft lithography” [25, 26]. The use of multiple layers allows for each tier to

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serve a distinct functionality. For example, certain layers can operate as relatively rigid

components, while other layers can operate as flexible or deformable components to

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yield fluidic routing capabilities that mimic those of electronic circuits [27-29]. In addition
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to differences in physical or mechanical functions, each layer can also be designed with

distinct biochemical properties, such as multilayer microfluidic systems comprised of an

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intervening permeable layer that supports biochemical transport for biological studies
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[30-33]. Researchers have also developed methods to create non-planar molds for

PDMS micromolding, such as by executing multiple photolithography steps [34] or using

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grayscale lithography techniques [35-38]. These approaches are fundamental to

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applications including microfluidic railing via microchannels with multiple heights [39-42]

and the hydrodynamic immobilization of cells in multilevel trapping structures [43-45].

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Although researchers have demonstrated the use of solely fluidic microdevices

for diverse biochemical applications [46], the incorporation of microelectronics with

microfluidics can greatly extend the capabilities of self-contained lab-on-a-chip

technologies. A variety of techniques can be employed to integrate electronic

components with microfluidic systems. One approach involves the manual insertion of

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conducting wire [47] or other electrode material [48] into microfluidic channels or ports.

Alternatively, the protocols for soft lithography can be adjusted to achieve PDMS

bonding to a substrate with a planar electronics layer, such as a glass slide [49] or PCB

board [50]. Figure 1 illustrates an example protocol for fabricating a microfluidic device

with embedded electrodes. The process for fabricating the metal-patterned glass

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substrate includes five key steps: (i) photoresist is spin-coated onto a glass substrate;

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(ii) electrode designs are photolithographically defined; (iii) a thin layer of a secondary

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metal to support electrode adhesion is deposited (e.g., via physical vapor deposition

(PVD) or electroplating); (iv) a layer of a primary metal electrode is deposited; and then

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(v) the substrate in chemically developed, resulting in liftoff (i.e., removal) of the
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undesired photoresist-metal features (Fig. 1 – right). Thereafter, micromolded PDMS

can be bonded to the metal-glass substrate, resulting in enclosed microchannels that

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interface with metal electrodes, pads, and interconnects (Fig. 1 – bottom). To support
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this bonding process and the ultimate sealing of the microchannels, researchers have

also augmented conventional techniques with surface treatments, such as adhesive

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layers [51], plasma surface modification [52], dielectric barrier discharge [53], and
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modified Parylene layers [54].

An alternative approach for electronics integration is to augment the

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microchannels directly (rather than the planar substrate) by fabricating electroactive

PDMS composites. Such composites can be achieved by mixing liquid-phase PDMS

with a conductive nanoparticle filler, such as carbon black [55], silver [55], zinc [56], or

carbon nanotubes [57], prior to thermal curing. This technique allows for the assembly

of vertical sidewall electrodes directly in contact with the microfluidic channel [58] and

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can also be used to place other active polymer composites adjacent to microfluidic

channels [59].

The ability to incorporate microelectronics into microfluidic systems has enabled

a wide range of on-chip capabilities. In a number of cases, direct fluid contact with the

electrodes is not required, such as for electrode-generated heat sources [60-62] or cell

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manipulation via magnetic fields [63-65]. Similarly, electrically-generated effects can be

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performed with isolated electrodes for applications including fluorescence-activated cell

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sorting [66], electrorheological fluid [67] and valve manipulation [68-70], and droplet

electrocoalescence [71, 72]. For electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) – a process by

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which individual microfluidic droplets can be manipulated by dielectrically altering their
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surface energy [73] – only partial electrode isolation is required as fluid droplets remain

in direct contact with a common grounding electrode while isolated from control
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electrodes by a layer of dielectric material [74, 75]. In contrast, electrodes are directly
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integrated into microfluidic systems when a direct conducting path into the fluid is

needed, such as for electrophoresis [76], dielectrophoresis [77, 78], fluid manipulation
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via electrokinetic effects [79, 80], and hydrogel [81-83] and cell manipulation [84, 85].
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Although the aforementioned methods of microdevice construction afford

significant benefits in terms of microscale precision and microelectronics integration,

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limitations inherent to such protocols remain a pervasive impediment to progress in

chemical and biological fields [86]. A critical barrier for those outside of engineering

fields is that gaining access to the necessary equipment for device construction (e.g., in

microfabrication facilities) is often difficult, and may require considerable technical

training and high usage fees [87]. Furthermore, the clean room-based procedures for Si

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wafer processing are typically executed manually, which can be exceedingly cost, time,

and labor-intensive [88]. These issues are exacerbated when fabricating multilayer or

multilevel device designs that require distinct tiers to be manually aligned and/or

assembled – procedures that can diminish the precision and reproducibility associated

with microdevice manufacturing [89, 90]. Thus, replicating microfluidic and

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microelectronic advancements on-site can be challenging (especially for those outside

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of engineering fields). Another critical issue is the intrinsic restriction of monolithicity,

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which renders relatively common features of macroscale fluidic components (e.g.,

circular channels with varying diameter, non-planar physical architectures, etc.) difficult

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or impossible to achieve in microscale domains. This monolithicity also constrains the
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assembly and packaging of microfluidic systems to relatively planar geometries [91].

More significantly, planar systems restrict the geometry of applied electromagnetic fields
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[92] as planar electrodes cannot generate parallel electric fields [93] (e.g., a requirement
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for optimal capacitive cell cytometry and droplet detection [94]). Consequently,

alternative micromanufacturing methods capable of bypassing the aforementioned

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limitations could offer significant promise for diverse academic and industrial fields.
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Thus, just within the last few years, research into the potential for 3D printing of

microfluidic devices has already begun to expand the general understanding of the
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inherent advantages – and areas for further development – of 3D microfluidic devices

[95, 96].

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2. Additive Manufacturing Approaches

Additive manufacturing – widely referred to as “three-dimensional (3D) printing” –

encompasses a number of strategies for constructing 3D structures through point-by-

point and/or layer-by-layer processes. In general, computer-aided design (CAD) tools

are used to generate a digital 3D model (e.g., in STL file format), which is then imported

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into computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software corresponding to a specific 3D

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printer or 3D printing process. Lastly, the resulting 3D printing code (e.g., G-code) is

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electronically imported into the 3D printer to enable autonomous device construction.

Although researchers have developed a wide range of 3D manufacturing methodologies

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for applications throughout broad academic and industrial fields (e.g., selective laser
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sintering, laminated object manufacturing, and binder jetting), the micro/nanoscale 3D

printing techniques with advantageous characteristics for lab-on-a-chip systems stem

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from three fundamental approaches: (i) extrusion-based 3D printing, such as fused

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deposition modeling and direct ink writing, (ii) stereolithography, and (iii) multijet (or

polyjet) modelling.
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Extrusion-Based 3D Printing
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At present, extrusion or nozzle-based 3D printing technologies have garnered the

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most interest across academic, industrial, and commercial spaces. In 1988, S. Scott

Crump introduced the first extrusion-based 3D printing approach. Stemming from his

experiences making a toy frog (for his daughter) using a hot glue gun loaded with a

mixture of polyethylene and candle wax, S. Scott Crump described and patented an

extrusion-based method termed “fused deposition modeling (FDM)”, by which a 3D

object is formed using dispensing heads (e.g., nozzles) to directly deposit heated

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thermoplastic materials onto a substrate via a point-to-point, layer-by-layer process

(Fig. 2a) [97]. FDM – alternatively referred to as “fused filament fabrication (FFF)” as

FDM is Trademarked by Stratasys, Ltd. – supports the 3D printing of a variety of

thermoplastic or thermosetting materials, such as acrylonitryl butadiene styrene (ABS),

polylactic acid (PLA), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). In the late 1990s,

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Ceserano and Calvert adapted this concept to extrude and deposit pseudoplastic

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materials [98], including ceramics and composites, via a technique termed

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“robocasting”. Further extensions of these methodologies in which materials or “inks”

are extruded through a nozzle and deposited point-to-point, layer-by-layer to generate

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3D structures without requiring thermal processing steps (i.e., heating or cooling) are
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characterized as “direct ink writing (DIW)” [99-101].
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Stereolithography

In 1981, Hideo Kodama presented and demonstrated several strategies for

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building 3D objects by exposing a liquid-phase photo-hardening polymer to light in

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layer-by-layer protocols [102]. Although he filed an initial patent application, Kodoma

did not file a full patent specification. In 1984, Charles W. Hull filed a patent for a similar
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system, which he termed a “stereolithography apparatus (SLA)” [103]. SLA 3D printing

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involves using a bath of liquid-phase photoreactive material and focused light to

photocure (i.e., solidify) the material in specified locations in a point-by-point, layer-by-

layer fashion to ultimately fabricate a 3D object comprising cured material (Fig. 2b)

[103]. It should be noted that the initialism “SLA” has since come to be used to describe

the process, rather than the apparatus; however, the initialism “SL” is often used

instead. In developing SLA, Hull also created the widely-used STL file format for 3D

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models, and pioneered the digital slicing and hatching (i.e., infill) approaches that

underlie many 3D printing technologies. “Direct Laser Writing (DLW)” – an extension of

SLA in which two-photon absorption phenomena are harnessed to initiate spatially-

controlled photopolymerization at a single point in space – has enabled 3D

manufacturing with resolutions down to the 100 nm range [104]. Subsequent

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adaptations of SLA have included: (i) the use of projection-based photoexposure (e.g.,

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via digital micromirror device (DMD) or digital light processing (DLP) technologies) to

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cure an entire layer at once (in contrast to the point-by-point process inherent to the use

of a focused laser), (ii) continuous-exposure versions of this concept, such as

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continuous liquid interface production (CLIP) [105], and (iii) holographic approaches for
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curing entire volumes in a single step [106].
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Multijet Modelling

In the early 1990s, Yamane et al. invented a technique for building 3D structures
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by inkjet printing a photosetting or thermosetting material layer-by-layer [107], which

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combined with the simultaneous printing of a sacrificial support material [108] and

parallel dispensing strategies [109], became the basis for “Multijet Modelling (MJM)”
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approaches. Referred to as either “Multijet” or “Polyjet” 3D printing, MJM entails the use
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of high numbers of microscale inkjets in parallel to simultaneously deposit microdroplets

of photopolymer/photoplastic materials and sacrificial support materials in a line-by-line,

layer-by-layer process (with continual UV photocuring) to produce 3D objects (Fig. 2c).

After completion of the 3D printing process, the support material – typically a water-

soluble gel-like material or a meltable wax – can be removed through post-processing

procedures [110, 111].

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3. Microfluidic Systems via 3D Printing

3D Printed Transfer Molding

One of the earliest examples of utilizing 3D printing technologies for microfluidic

applications involved shaping of elastomeric polymers using a 3D printed mold [112].

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McDonald et al. applied an earlier MJM approach, referred to as “solid-object printing”,

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to 3D print various molds for PDMS micromolding (Fig. 3a), enabling microfluidic

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systems with serpentine channels and multilayered vias [112]. Subsequently,

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researchers have extended this work to create molds using SLA [113] and MJM [114].

In addition to patterning features using external molds, researchers have also 3D

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printed molds of internal features, which can be removed after PDMS curing [115-118].
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For example, Hwang et al. created multiple MJM 3D printed molds that can be

assembled to surround liquid-phase PDMS during the curing process, and then
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removed thereafter (relying on the flexibility of PDMS) to create complex PDMS channel
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architectures (Fig. 3b) [117]. Costa et al. used a similar 3D printed template molding

technique to create a “Thrombosis-on-a-Chip” device by: (i) using SLA-printed 3D

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microchannel templates (~120-400 μm in diameter) designed to mimic the shape of

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healthy and diseased (narrowed) vascular structures, (ii) using the templates for PDMS

casting, and then (iii) removing the 3D printed templates to leave behind empty

microchannels within the solidified PDMS (Fig. 3x) [119]. Additionally, Glick et al.

introduced a double-sided molding procedure, which supports single-step fabrication of

structures including thin membranes as well as double-sided alignment structures to

decrease the time and labor associated with assembling multilayer microfluidic systems

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with many distinct layers (Fig. 3c) [118]. Compared to the concept of 3D printing an

entire microfluidic system, the use of 3D printing for fabricating molds provides several

advantages: (i) each mold can be used for the fabrication of multiple microfluidic

devices, saving on 3D printing times and costs, and (ii) the process is compatible with

conventional microfluidic fabrication materials, most notably PDMS [120-123]. The

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latter benefit allows for researchers to employ similar micromolding procedures, yet

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achieve geometric characteristics that would be exceedingly difficult to achieve using

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conventional methods. Nonetheless, the molds are still limited in geometric versatility

by the requirement that they must be able to support demolding processes. Thus,

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although 3D printed transfer molding procedures can overcome issues associated with
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clean room-based wafer processing, many of the limitations associated with protocols

subsequent to wafer mold fabrication remain.

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Microfluidic Systems via Extrusion-Based 3D Printing

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Among the types of extrusion-based 3D printing, FDM currently represents the

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most widely-used approach for commercial desktop 3D printing. Although a number of

efforts have employed FDM to build fluidic systems [124-128], the inherent trade-off
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between feature resolution and fabrication time has limited its efficacy for microfluidics
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manufacturing [95]. Instead, the use of extrusion-based 3D printing for microfluidics

applications has predominantly involved employing DIW methods to deposit sacrificial

materials or “fugitive inks” [101], which can then be casted and subsequently removed.

In particular, the Jennifer Lewis group has pioneered a number of fugitive ink-based

DIW strategies for resolving 3D microfluidic systems. In one of the earliest of these

approaches, Therriault et al. presented a four-step protocol for constructing 3D

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microfluidic networks: (i) DIW is employed to 3D print a network comprised of a fugitive

ink; (ii) the 3D printed network is then casted with a surrounding liquid resin; (iii) the

resin is solidified via a curing process; and (iv) the fugitive ink is heated to support

liquification, enabling vacuum-based extraction to leaving behind a 3D network of

hollow, interconnected microfluidic channels (Fig. 4a) [99]. Wu et al. adapted this

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approach by applying an omnidirectional printing technique [129] to print free-floating

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fugitive ink within a reservoir of a photocurable hydrogel (Fig. 4b) [130]. After the

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printing process, the researchers photocured the surrounding hydrogel, and then

evacuated the liquid-phase fugitive ink via vacuum. The resulting system included

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vascular-inspired 3D microchannels within the hydrogel matrix (Fig. 4b) [130]. Using a
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similar approach, Miller et al. 3D printed a 3D carbohydrate glass lattice; however, in

this case, the 3D sacrificial network was encapsulated with living cells and ECM before
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being dissolved in media [131]. Gelber et al. also 3D printed sacrificial structures using
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a carbohydrate glass fugitive ink, which was used to demonstrate a 3D combinatorial

fluid mixer (Fig. 4c) [132]. Kolesky et al. further extended this approach in a
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combinational method than involved using DIW to bioprint two distinct cell-laden gels
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adjacent to a fugitive ink, which was ultimately removed and then lined with endothelial

cells to emulate microvasculature [133]. It is important to note, however, that such

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sacrificial approaches are not limited only to extrusion-based processes as

demonstrated by Li et al. employing wax jetting for sacrificial material deposition for

subsequent casting (Fig. 4d) [134].

A significant advantage of conventional polymer filament-based FDM for

microfluidics is the ability to print using multiple filament material extrusion heads [135],

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which Li et al. utilized to fabricate microchannels with embedded membranes made

from a porous material in a single step for the detection of nitrate content in soil [136].

Notably, MacDonald et al. compared the accuracy and precision of FDM-printed

microfluidics with respect to alternative 3D printing approaches and observed that ~600

μm peak-to-peak surface abnormalities in FDM-based microchannels – created using a

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~300 μm-wide extrusion nozzle – provided additional surface area for laminar flow

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interfacial contact that expedited diffusive mixing [137]. Thus, FDM can be employed to

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fabricate FDM-printed laminar flow microfluidic mixers; however, the use of FDM-printed

microfluidic devices should be restricted to applications in which unintended multi-fluid

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mixing would not negatively affect the performance of the device [137].
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Microfluidic Systems via Stereolithography
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In recent years, SLA has emerged as the predominant method by which

researchers 3D print entire microfluidic systems [138-142]. Au et al. evaluated mail-

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order SLA-based microfluidic devices designed with rectangular microchannels that

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varied in size, revealing channel resolutions on the order of 300-400 µm and also

presenting methods to improve optical clarity (Fig. 5a) [90]. Concurrently, Shallan et al.
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presented the concept of using DMD projection-based SLA to fabricate 3D microfluidic

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gradient and microdroplet generators (Fig. 5b) [138]. Bhargava et al. developed a

number of discrete and reconfigurable elements, such as junctions as well as

microfluidic resistors in the form of 750750 µm2 microchannels with varying lengths

(and therefore, resistances) [139]. These elements were utilized for microfluidic

applications including fluidic mixing and droplet generation (Fig. 5c) [139]. Macdonald

et al. revealed that SLA-printed microchannels more reliably and accurately replicated

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as-designed dimensions (~26±20 μm wider) with lower surface roughness than those

fabricated using FDM (~109±36 μm narrower) or Polyjet (~40±36 μm narrower) [137].

The results revealed that SLA offers an effective technology for fabricating microfluidics

devices for applications in which limited laminar flow mixing is required, such as for

diffusive particle separation [137]. To support cell culture within a 3D printed

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microfluidic device, Urrios et al. demonstrated the use of several types of DLP-based

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SLA to fabricate microfluidic systems using a photocurable low-MW poly(ethylene

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glycol) diacrylate (MW 250) (PEG-DA-250) [140]. In contrast to the aforementioned

systems with static components, Au et al. also presented 3D printed microfluidic valves

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with deformable membranes, which were employed to create a peristaltic pump
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comprised of three valves and a multi-fluid perfusion chamber comprised of four valves

(Fig. 5d) [141]. Other groups have since demonstrated additional SLA-based valving
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capabilities for 3D printed microfluidic systems [142, 143].

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In terms of the maximum achievable feature resolution, SLA is the only 3D

printing approach that has been demonstrated, as of the writing of this review, capable
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of fabricating microchannels with sub-100 μm features, on a scale more comparable to

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that possible using conventional microfluidics manufacturing techniques [144]. Using a

commercially available SLA resin, Monaghan et al. demonstrated square partial-

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microchannels as small as 50 μm × 50 μm are achievable when fabricated onto a flat

surface, which can then be sealed to form an enclosed microchannel [145]. Below this

50 μm limit, the pixelated resolution of the UV light source resulted in unintended curing

of resin inside the channels. Because the precise chemical formulation of the SLA resin

has a significant effect on the practical resolution of SLA-printed features, Gong et al.

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developed customized PEGDA-based SLA resins with optimized formations of the UV

absorber molecules as well as lower viscosities than commercial resins [146], which

enabled them to fabricate microchannel networks 60 μm-tall voids containing with 20

μm-thick membranes [143]. Recently, the Nordin group further optimized a custom

SLA-resin to achieve 18 μm × 20 μm microchannels [147], which to the authors’

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knowledge, marks the smallest 3D printed microchannels reported in the literature at

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this time. Additionally, Kotz et al. created an SLA-compatible silica nanocomposite that

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enabled conversion to transparent fused silica glass (via heat treatment) following the

3D printing process, and demonstrated resolutions on the order of tens of microns [148].

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Thus, customization of SLA-compatible photomaterials appears to be a critical area of
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research to further improve the feature resolution and material versatility of SLA-printed

microfluidic systems.
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Researchers have also leveraged the submicron-scale precision of DLW to 3D

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print structures within conventionally fabricated microfluidic channels [149-151]. To

date, DLW approaches have achieved the highest feature resolutions for 3D printing
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[152-154]; however, similar to extrusion-based 3D printing, this feature resolution can

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also be a limitation. Specifically, for DLW, the trade-off between voxel size (i.e., the 3D

point of two-photon polymerization) and 3D printing time has typically limited the total
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build volume of 3D printed structures to within the 100 μm3 to 1 mm3 range [155]. Thus,

initial efforts toward using DLW for 3D printed microfluidics involved direct-writing

structures within pre-fabricated, single-layer PDMS microfluidic channels [149, 150]. By

first loading the photocurable material into microfluidic channels, researchers were able

to use DLW to photocure complex geometric structures in situ to facilitate improved

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diffusion-based mixing dynamics [149] and construct multidirectional fluidic vias [150].

Lamont et al. recently extended this approach to 3D print microfluidic diode components

within PDMS microchannels [151].

One condition of note for SLA-based methods, however, is the 3D printed

structures must be self-supporting. For geometries that do not satisfy this condition,

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fully-integrated support structures (e.g., pillar-like ribs) must be added to the design to

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facilitate successful prints [105]. Although such structures can be manually removed

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from macroscale objects following the 3D printing process, doing so for submillimeter-

scale systems can be extremely challenging or unfeasible [110].

Microfluidic Systems via Multijet Modelling

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The ability to simultaneously 3D print device materials as well as sacrificial
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support materials has enabled MJM-based microfluidic systems to be constructed with

the most complex physical geometries of any additive manufacturing approach. For
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example, Fig. 6a includes a 3D microfluidic system with a DNA double helix-like

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architecture comprised of eight microfluidic channels [110]. Initially, efforts to utilize

MJM to 3D print microfluidic devices involved the production of relatively simplified,

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straight channel geometries, yet demonstrated the potential for integrating non-3D
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printed parts, such as membrane inserts [156]. Lee et al. extended this concept by

presenting a modular, breadboard-inspired technique in which discrete microfluidic

components (e.g., channels, mixers, junctions, etc.) could be connected through the use

of non-3D printed rubber O-rings and metal pins to realize functional devices (Fig. 6b)

[157]. Taking advantage of the 3D structural versatility of MJM, Sweet et al.

demonstrated a 3D multi-fluid concentration gradient generator for clinical drug

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screening applications [158]. To investigate the potential of using MJM to enhance

device autonomy, Sochol et al. 3D printed a fundamental class of microfluidic circuit

components – namely microfluidic capacitors, diodes, and transistors (capable of

pressure-gain) (Fig. 6c – left) [110]. Larger, fully-integrated microfluidic circuits were

also 3D printed (comprised of multiple components), including a full-wave rectifier and

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single-input-regulated multi-flow controller (Fig. 6c – right) [110]. Sweet et al. later

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extended the use of these components by integrating several 3D printed fluidic circuit

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elements in order to realize finger-powered fluidic pumping and mixing systems [159].

An important benefit of MJM is that devices can be printed not only with a single

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part material and a support material [160], but also with additional part materials (or
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functional gradings of materials) to realize multi-material 3D printed microfluidic systems

[161, 162]. To demonstrate this concept, Keating et al. 3D printed a “Quake Valve” [26]
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with a rigid photoplastic for the overall system, but with a flexible rubber-like material for
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the valving membrane (Fig. 6d) [162]. Recently, Hubbard et al. demonstrated multi-

material microfluidic capacitors, diodes, and transistors, which comprised that comprise
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two distinct materials: (i) a non-compliant photoplastic material for functionally ‘rigid’
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features, and (ii) a flexible photomaterial for deformable diaphragms and sealing O-rings

(Fig. 6e) [163].

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Despite the aforementioned advancements, it is important to note that although

MJM technologies provide considerable advantages in terms of multi-material

integration, build volumes, print speeds, and geometric versatility, MJM material

selection remains limited to a relatively small number of proprietary materials [164, 165].

Among the materials that are available, the vast majority are limited in terms of

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biocompatibility, which may impede the adoption of MJM approaches for biological and

biomedical microfluidic applications [111]. In response, various techniques have been

demonstrated that improve MJM material biocompatibility, primarily by preventing

leaching of cytotoxic monomers into contacting fluid. For example, conformal PDMS

and polystyrene-based coatings offer one route to enhance endothelial cell adherence

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to inner microchannel surfaces for improved efficiency of cell lysis [166]. Similarly,

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researchers have observed that polyurethane-based scaffold drop-casting coatings can

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improve both substrate cytocompatibility and hydrophilicity for enhanced attachment

and proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) on 3D printed

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surfaces [167]. In addition, the use of sacrificial support materials results in all internal
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voids (e.g., microchannels) being filled with these materials directly after the 3D printing

process, which can demand significant post-processing procedures as well as

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component design changes. For example, to remove sacrificial wax support materials
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from device microchannels, Sochol et al. executed a multistep protocol including: (i)

immersing the devices in mineral oil heated to 80 °C; (ii) manually inputting hot mineral
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oil through the microchannels via a syringe; and (iii) inputting pressurized air through
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the microchannels [110]. In addition, the microfluidic components had to be designed

with additional input/output ports to facilitate this process, such as fluidic diodes that
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required four ports rather than the standard two (Fig. 6c – bottom left) [110]. The use

of water-soluble support materials can alleviate the need for such design changes;

however, it is important to note that the removal process for such materials is diffusion

dominated. In contrast to wax-based support materials, which can be liquefied upon

heating, water-soluble gel-based support materials can only be removed by either

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physically dislodging it [162] or allowing the material to dissolve over time (often over

multiple days) [137, 163, 168]. The diffusion-limited challenges associated with the

dissolution of gel-based support material from within microchannels with complex

shapes and enclosed structures [169] often guide the design of devices to support

physical removal by using primarily straight and/or millifluidic-scale microchannels that

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can accommodate the insertion of a removal tool [156, 162]. Although the addition of

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multiple access ports and external stimuli (e.g., sonication) can accelerate the

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dissolution process [163], the removal time is directly related to the length of internal

microchannels and inversely related to the microchannel diameter. As a result, many

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microdevice geometries, such as the DNA-inspired microfluidic system shown in Figure
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6a, would be difficult or unfeasible to achieve due to the challenges associated with the

water-soluble support material removal process.

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4. Microelectronics via 3D Printing

3D Printing of Conductive Materials

In contrast to the area of 3D printed microfluidics in which advancements have

mainly stemmed from demonstrating devices with newly manufacturable forms (e.g.,

microchannel geometries), the field of 3D printed microelectronics has instead focused

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predominantly on function – i.e., achieving printable conductive materials with desired

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electrical characteristics [170]. At present, researchers have primarily employed

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extrusion-based 3D printing approaches for electronics applications; however, there

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have been adaptations of such processes to enable new capabilities. In particular, Ahn

et al. demonstrated an omnidirectional printing strategy to achieve flexible and spanning

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microelectrodes with out-of-plane vias (Fig. 7a) [129]. Adams et al. extended this
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technique to 3D print electrically-conductive antennas onto convex and concave

substrates (Fig. 7b) [171]. Notably, Zhou et al. further extended these strategies to 3D
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print a silver-nanoparticle ink to create both in-plane and out-of-plane passive radio
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frequency (RF) structures, including various designs of inductors, transformers, and

oscillators (Fig. 7c) [172]. The researchers were able to integrate fully printed
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structures with discrete transistors to create RF circuits capable of being directly

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incorporated with complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) chips [172]. To

improve the potential for out-of-plane 3D printing, Skylar-Scott et al. demonstrated a

laser-enhanced DIW approach in which a laser is used to selectively anneal conductive

inks during the deposition process to create conductive metallic interconnects and

freestanding spiral architectures (Fig. 7d) [173]. Liu et al. presented an additional

adaptation of DIW, termed “low-temperature DIW (LTDW)”, which enabled 3D printing

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of highly porous 3D LiFePO4 electrodes [174]. Although the aforementioned works

provide a number of deposition strategies, fundamentally, it is the conductivity (and

reproducibility) of printed materials that underlie to efficacy of 3D printed

microelectronics.

One of the key challenges of 3D printing electrically conductive inks is that the

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porosity of fabricated parts may cause electrical shorts due to the spreading of the inks

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on surface layers [175] or between stacked layers [176]. To reduce such issues, one

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approach is to use micromachining techniques to build fine channel features that serve

to guide the deposition of conductive materials, while electronic components can be

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manually placed in desired locations (Fig. 8a) [177]. Alternatively, through process
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optimization, conductive inks can be directly printed without the need for guiding

grooves [178-182]. For example, researchers have reported resistivities for silver inks
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in the range of 1 × 10−7 Ωm to 1 × 10−5 Ωm [177, 183]. To improve the properties of

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deposited silver inks, researchers have demonstrated that local annealing of printed

silver conductive traces yielded a resistivity of 4.3 × 10 −8 Ωm – close to the bulk silver
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resistivity of 1.9 × 10−8 Ωm [184]. As DIW technologies improve, research into

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alternative, application-specific inks with additional desirable properties, such as

elasticity and viscoelasticity, biocompatibility, high temperature stability and controllable

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porosity [185-188].

As the capabilities of DIW increase, the much-needed validation of the

technology and its potential uses in the real world become closer to a reality. Gubanova

et al. integrated DIW with CMOS manufacturing to construct ion-sensitive field-effect

transistors (ISFETs) for micro volume analysis [189]. Other groups have bypassed

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CMOS manufacturing and 3D printed mesoscale versions of embedded circuitry

components, such as capacitors, inductors, and high pass filters as well as copper-

based microwave metamaterials [190, 191]. Additional strategies have enabled more

complex integration of conductive materials into 3D printing processes for electronics.

For example, Muth et al. presented an embedded 3D printing approach that involved

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extruding conductive ink inside of a reservoir of liquid photopolymer to form resistive

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sensing elements for flexible strain sensors [192]. Researchers have also

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demonstrated that the extrusion process itself can be adapted, such that multiple

materials are 3D printed simultaneously from a single nozzle [193]. In particular,

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Frutiger et al. fabricated capacitive soft strain sensors through an extrusion-based
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multicore-shell printing strategy (Fig. 8b) [193]. Finally, microchannels filled with liquid

metals at room temperature, such as mercury, gallium, and their alloys, also offer a
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potential route to improve the speed and geometric complexity of liquid metal-integrated
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microfluidic structures [194].

Although extrusion techniques represent the most popular 3D printing strategy

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for manufacturing conductive structures, researchers have explored alternative

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approaches as well. Interest in light driven 3D technologies such as SLA/DLP and DLW

for the creation of conductive structures has increased in recent years due to the
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superior geometric controls, material customization, and scalability [195-201]. For

example, Odent et al. presented elastic and conductive ionic composite hydrogels that

are compatible with SLA processes and demonstrated both elastic deformation and

conductivities up to 2.9 S m−1 (Fig. 8c) [199]. Recently, researchers have adapted

DLP-based 3D printing techniques to achieve multiple material prints – with conductive

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and non-conductive regions – including conductive structures composed of multi-walled

carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) [195]. On a much smaller scale, DLW has been used to

3D print gold microstructures through two photon metal-salt reduction of a polymer-gold

composite material [196]. Researchers have also investigated the utilization of SLS for

carbon nanotube (CNT) wrapped thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) powders, revealing

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conductivity of up to 10 Ωm at just 1 wt% CNTs [202].

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To provide an alternative to DIW of conductive materials, Wu et al. presented an

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approach that entails 3D printing a structure with empty channels, which are

subsequently filled with a conductive liquid metal paste (Fig. 8d) [203]. This strategy

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enabled fabrication of electronic components including resistors, inductors, and
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capacitors, as well as integrated circuits, such as an inductor and capacitor resonant

tank capable of passive wireless sensing functions. Similar to prior works, however, the
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resistivity of the filled liquid metal pasted was measured as 3.6 × 10−6 Ωm due to the
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poor packing density of silver particles inside the channels and inefficient curing

processes [203]. Agarwala et al. adapted this approach to achieve microchannel strain
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sensors showing good conductivity and long term stability [204].

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In many cases, researchers have investigated combinational approaches in

which: (i) the general structure of a system is 3D printed using an established

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technology; (ii) the electronic interconnects are 3D printed via DIW; and (iii) commercial

electronic components are physically placed in specified locations at intermediate

stages during the 3D printing processes. For example, researchers have demonstrated

3D printed antennas and microwave devices by merging FDM with DIW of conductive

inks [205-207]. Similarly, a number of groups have integrated SLA with DIW (while

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embedding commercial electrical components during the printing process) to fabricated

a variety of electronic systems, including motion sensors [208, 209] and timer circuits

(Fig. 8e) [210]. For example, Figure 8f shows a six-sided gaming die consisting of a

microprocessor, an accelerometer, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) [211]. One general

problem of such methods, however, is that the photocurable materials currently used for

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SLA processes may be affected by weathering, aging, dimensional changes, and UV

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exposure doses, and thus, could limit the reliability of SLA-DIW-based 3D printed

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electronics [177].

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3D Printing of Semiconductor and Other Electronic Materials
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In addition to polymers and conductors, 3D printed microelectronics can benefit

from various materials to construct microelectronic devices of different functionalities,

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such as semiconductor, magnetic, and piezoelectric materials; however, there are three
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key issues in producing these materials with high quality via 3D printing processes.

First, most of these materials are made in the form of nanoparticles to be mixed with
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solvents and polymers for desirable printing viscosity and properties with respect to 3D
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printing processes. Annealing protocols are generally required to remove the

polymers/solvents and the residual polymers/solvents can degrade the properties of 3D

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printed structures. Second, it is difficult to construct sizeable pieces of single crystal

structure from the nanoparticles without voids and grain boundaries. Because most

high-performance devices are based on single crystalline structures, the characteristics

of 3D printed devices are expected to degrade as compared to current state-of-the-art

electronic devices. Third, many microelectronic elements, such as transistors, are

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based on the architecture of 2D structures made of thin films instead of true 3D

structures. As such, it may not be beneficial to construct 3D printed microelectronics

comprising large out-of-plane thickness.

Nevertheless, there have been several recent reports describing functional

devices based on 3D printing materials beyond conductive electrodes and

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interconnects. One notable example is a 3D printed quantum dot LED presented by

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Kong et al., which was constructed by interweaving five diff erent materials: (i)

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semiconducting inorganic nanoparticles, (ii) elastomeric matrix, (iii) organic polymers for

charge transport, (iv) metal conductors, and (v) a UV transparent substrate (Fig. 9a)

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[212]. Mannoor et al. demonstrated the ability to create bionic ears by using DIW to 3D
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print a cell-laden hydrogel matrix and an intertwined conducting silver nanoparticle-

based polymer (Fig. 9b) [213]. Sun et al. employed DIW to 3D print Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) and
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LiFePO4 (LFP) in an adjacent architectures to serve as materials for the anode and
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cathode, respectively, for a Li-Ion microbattery (Fig. 9c) [214].

Researchers have also extended DIW approaches to 3D print a variety of

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composite materials for microelectronic applications. Although 3D printing of conductive

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carbon materials was recently reviewed by Fu et al. [215], it is of note that a material of

growing interest in the additive manufacturing field is graphene as well as its oxidized
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and reduced forms graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) [216-219].

Graphene-based polymer composites offer substantial increases in thermal stability,

conductivity, and mechanical strength all while being relatively cheap to create and

even biocompatible [218]. Researchers have also demonstrated the ability to 3D print

structures comprising SiO2 [220], ZnO [221], SiC (Fig. 9d) [222], BaTiO3 [223], ZrO2

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[224], and GO (Fig. 9e) [225]. One important caveat, however, is that the efficacy of 3D

printing a number of these materials relies on high-temperature post-processing

protocols. For example, 3D printed ZnO required sintering temperatures of up to 1,500

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C [221], which render its incorporation with other materials difficult.

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5. Conclusion

Submillimeter-scale additive manufacturing approaches are empowering

researchers to pioneer entirely new classes of microfluidic and microelectronic systems.

Although these efforts have generated considerable interest in academia, industry, and

the general public, in many ways, the overall field remains in its infancy.

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At present, state-of-the-art demonstrations of 3D printing-based microfluidic and

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microelectronic capabilities serve as important first steps toward a longer-term transition

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of emerging technologies from the lab to real-world uses and commercialization. It is

important to note, however, that the utility of additive micro/nanomanufacturing for

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industrial applications is founded on 3D printing-induced benefits that are unequivocally
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superior to conventional manufacturing methods. In the case that additive

manufacturing protocols continue to suffer from relatively slow fabrication speeds and
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low production volumes, the aforementioned benefits will instead need to stem from the
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unparalleled geometric control and/or device customization afforded by distinct 3D

printing processes. Thus, it is critical for researchers to focus less on evaluating how
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3D printing-based devices can replicate structures and/or functionalities that can be

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readily produced using conventional means, and instead, focus more on demonstrating

new, unique capabilities enabled by additive manufacturing that would be difficult or

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unfeasible to achieve via traditional microfabrication protocols.

A key challenge to this goal, however, is that while a myriad of additive

manufacturing strategies offer the potential to serve as promising alternatives to

conventional methods of fabricating solely microfluidic or microelectronic systems, no

singular 3D printing approach has thus far exhibited characteristics that would be ideal

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for the construction of microfluidic devices with fully integrated microelectronics.

Specifically, such a technology would enable: (i) simultaneous 3D printing of electrically-

conductive materials, non-conductive materials, and microchannel structures, (ii)

precise resolution for both external and internal features (e.g., for electrodes and

microchannels, respectively), (iii) minimal labor before, during, and after the printing

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process, (iv) high geometric and architectural versatility, (v) a wide selection of printable

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materials, including materials that are biocompatible and conductive materials that

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exhibit low electrical resistivity, (vi) rapid fabrication times, and (vii) low costs.

Unfortunately, recent works have revealed that current 3D printing techniques that are

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beneficial for microfluidics manufacturing suffer from numerous limitations in the context
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of microelectronics fabrication and vice versa.

Researchers have demonstrated that extrusion-based 3D printing methods

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including FDM and DIW provide significant advantages compared to other additive
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processes for fabricating microelectronic systems [226], yet such approaches are ill-

suited for microfluidics manufacturing [96, 164, 227]. One could employ extrusion-
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based 3D printing methods to first deposit a combination of electrically conductive

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materials, non-conductive materials, and fugitive inks to build an integrated multi-

material structure, and then execute standard casting and fugitive ink removal protocols
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[99, 130-133] to resolve hollow microchannels that intersect with or run adjacent to the

deposited conductive materials. Despite providing a potential means towards

microfluidics and microelectronics integration, such a strategy would suffer from

considerable post-processing as well as the inherent geometric constraints of extrusion-

based 3D printing.

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Conversely, SLA and MJM approaches are superior to extrusion-based methods

for microfluidics manufacturing [95], and current research into custom SLA resin

development and improvements to the 3D printing equipment hardware has begun to

improve fabrication of sub-100 µm microstructures [143, 144, 146]; however, such

approaches have not yet been demonstrated for the direct placement and/or integration

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of electrically conductive materials during the 3D printing process. Instead, such

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methods typically require extensive post-process metallization protocols [228-230] that

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continue to be limited by many of the issues associated with conventional

microfabrication. As a substitutive route, researchers have demonstrated that 3D

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printed microfluidic systems can be designed to incorporate the manual insertion of non-
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3D printed electronic components [139, 231]. Yet, such protocols are inherently limited

by factors such as labor, precision, and repeatability, and thus, are not ideal for long-
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term goals of the field.

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Ultimately, we do not expect additive manufacturing to fully replace conventional

manufacturing protocols with respect to microfluidics and microelectronics fabrication.

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Rather, we anticipate that the selection and use of a specific fabrication strategy will be
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highly dependent on case-by-case factors that directly correlate to the unique

capabilities of distinct manufacturing approaches. Consequently, it is paramount that

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researchers refrain from employing additive manufacturing for cases in which

conventional methods would undoubtedly be superior, and instead, take advantage of

the distinctive potential afforded by 3D printing to create novel microsystems with

beneficial characteristics that would be challenging to achieve through any other

manufacturing process. Although it will likely take considerable time to develop 3D

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printing technologies that are ideally suited for both microfluidics and microelectronics

fabrication, researchers have already made significant strides developing and

leveraging additive manufacturing methodologies to overcome many of the limitations of

traditional clean room-based microfabrication processes. In the remaining interim, it will

be critical for researchers to continue inventing and demonstrating novel strategies to

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accelerate the advancement of new generations of 3D printed microfluidic systems with

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full, autonomous microelectronics integration.

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Author Contributions

R.D.S. wrote the abstract, Section 2, and Section 5, illustrated Figures 1 and 2, and

prepared Figures 3-9. R.D.S., C.C.G., E.S., S.-Y.W., and C.Y. wrote Section 1. R.D.S.,

C.C.G., and E.S. wrote Section 3. S.-Y.W., C.Y., and L.L. wrote Section 4. R.D.S.,

C.C.G., E.S., S.-Y.W., C.Y. and L.L. edited the manuscript. R.D.S., E.S. and M.R.

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edited Sections 3, 4 and 5 upon revision.

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Figures

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Figure 1. Conceptual illustrations of a fabrication process for constructing a single-

layer microfluidic system with integrated electronics. (Left) Soft lithography protocol for
micromolding poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS). (Right) Photolithography-based protocol
for patterning metal electrodes, pads, and interconnects onto a glass substrate.
(Bottom) The micromolded PDMS is bonded to the metal-patterned glass substrate
(e.g., via UV Ozone or O2 plasma treatment) to form enclosed microfluidic channels with
integrated electronics.

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Figure 2. Conceptual illustrations of fundamental additive manufacturing or “three-

dimensional (3D) printing” approaches. (a) Extrusion-based printing, such as fused
deposition modeling (FDM) and direct ink writing (DIW). Materials are extruded through
nozzles and deposited point-by-point, layer-by-layer to fabricate 3D structures. (b)
Stereolithography (SLA). Focused light induces localized photopolymerization (white) of
a liquid-phase photocurable material (blue) point-by-point, layer-by-layer to fabricate 3D
structures comprising cured material. (c) Multijet Modelling (MJM). Multiple inkjets in
parallel deposit microdroplets of photocurable materials (colors) and sacrificial support
material (gray) simultaneously line-by-line, layer-by-layer to fabricate 3D structures.

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Figure 3. Examples of using 3D printing to fabricate 3D molds for PDMS curing.
(a) Concept of using a computer-aided design (CAD) file to 3D print a mold that allows
for PDMS replica molding [112]. (b) Illustrations of using multiple discrete 3D printed
molding components (gray) to mold PDMS (blue), after which the 3D printed molds can
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be removed [117]. (c) Concept and results for using double-sided molding procedures
with 3D printed molds to fabricate male-female alignment structures for assembling
complex multilayer microfluidic systems with five distinct layers [118]. (d) Concept and
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results for creating a single-body PDMS device with an enclosed 3D microchannel via
casting PDMS around a solid SLA-printed microchannel template, followed by manual
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removal of the template [119].

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Figure 4. Approaches for fabricating 3D microfluidic networks via 3D printed sacrificial

material or fugitive inks. (a) Concept of DIW of fugitive ink for casting to resolve a self-
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supporting network of interconnected microfluidic channels [99]. (b) Omnidirectional

DIW of a suspended fugitive ink that can be removed via vacuum to achieve a vascular-
inspired microfluidic network [130]. (c) DIW of a sacrificial carbohydrate glass to
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fabricate a 3D microfluidic mixer [132]. (d) Jetting of a sacrificial wax-based support

material to fabricate 3D microchannels and vias [134].

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Figure 5. SLA-based 3D printed microfluidic systems. (a) Mixing of three fluids in a 3D

microfluidic device [90]. (b) A 3D printed microfluidic gradient generator [138].
(c) Discrete 3D printed microfluidic elements connected to achieve fluidic mixing of two
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distinct fluids followed by droplet generation [139]. (d) A 3D printed microfluidic valve
and a 3D printed multi-fluid perfusion chamber comprising four integrated valves [141].
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Figure 6. MJM-based 3D printed microfluidic systems. (a) A DNA-inspired microfluidic

system architecture comprised of eight embedded microfluidic channels [110].
(b) Schematic illustration and results for 3D printed modular microfluidic components
assembled by means of non-3D printed rubber O-rings and metal pins [157].
(c) Fundamental 3D printed microfluidic circuit components (left), including a
microfluidic capacitor, diode, and two transistor designs, and a single-input-based multi-
flow controller (right) comprised of four distinct microfluidic transistors [110]. (d) Multi-
material 3D printed “Quake Valves” comprised of photoplastic and a flexible
photomaterial for the membrane [162]. (e) Multi-material 3D printed microfluidic
capacitor (left) and transistors (right) comprised of a photoplastic and a flexible
photomaterial for deformable diaphragms and sealing O-rings [163].

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Figure 7. Adaptations of extrusion-based 3D printing for conductive materials.

(a) Omnidirectional DIW concept (left) and demonstration of 3D printing silver
interconnects on a gallium arsenide–based, 4-by-4 LED chip array (right) [129].
(b) Conformal printing of electrically small antennas on convex (left) and concave (right)
surfaces [171]. (c) Omnidirectional DIW of a viscoelastic silver ink to manufacture an
inductor (top left), a solenoid transformer (bottom left), and a wireless transmitter
(integrated with pick-and-placed components) clocked by an oscillator [172]. (d) Laser-
enhanced DIW of freestanding metallic spring structures [173].
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Figure 8. Microelectronic systems via 3D printing. (a) 3D printing of electronic modules

by combining FDM, micromachining, and DIW technologies [177]. (b) Capacitive strain
sensors fabricated by a multicore-shell extrusion-based 3D printing process [193].
(c) Elastic deformation and restoration of an SLA-printed structure comprised of an
elastic, transparent, conductive ionic composite hydrogel [199]. (d) Electronic
components and systems fabricated by the combination of MJM and liquid metal paste
filling approaches [203]. (e, f) Electronic systems fabricated by integrating SLA, DIW,
and “pick-and-place” strategies, including (e) a timer circuit [210], and (f) a six-sided
gaming die comprising a microprocessor, an accelerometer, and light-emitting diodes
[211].

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Figure 9. 3D printed systems comprising semiconductor and additional materials.

(a) 3D printed quantum dot LEDs [212]. (b) A 3D printed bionic ear fabricated by DIW
of cell-seeded biomaterial and a silver nanoparticle-based polymer [213]. (c) A Li-Ion
microbattery fabricated by DIW of LTO and LFP [214]. (d) Cuboidal SiC ceramic
lattices fabricated by robocasting [222]. (e) Graphene oxide composite structures
fabricated by DIW [225].

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[2] C.-C. Lee, G. Sui, A. Elizarov, C. J. Shu, Y.-S. Shin, A. N. Dooley, et al., "Multistep Synthesis of a
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[3] T. Thorsen, S. J. Maerkl, and S. R. Quake, "Microfluidic large-scale integration," Science, vol. 298,
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Highlights

 Additive manufacturing of microfluidics and microelectronics is reviewed.

 Critical barriers for each applications are evaluated.
 3D printing microfluidic devices with integrated microelectronics is discussed.

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