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Physics 4201 - 5
Physics 4201 - 5
Physics 4201 - 5
4201
–
5
Planck
Distribu/on
Func/on
The
Planck
Distribu9on
describes
the
spectrum
of
electromagne9c
radia9on
in
thermal
equilibrium
with
a
cavity.
It
is
widely
applicable
to
different
systems
such
as
hot
metal
or
the
background
radia9on
in
the
galaxy.
Thermal
electromagne9c
radia9on
is
oGen
called
black
body
radia9on.
The
distribu9on
also
describes
the
thermal
energy
spectrum
of
laHce
vibra9ons
of
an
elas9c
solid.
Mode
–
the
par9cular
oscilla9on
paJern
of
radia9on
in
the
cavity
of
the
solid.
Modes
are
excited
in
units
of
the
quantum
of
energy.
For
the
quan9zed
electromagne9c
field
s
refers
to
the
number
of
photons
in
the
mode,
and
for
the
elas9c
solid
it
is
the
number
of
phonons.
There
are
formal
procedures
for
quan9zing
the
radia9on
field
and
the
elas9c
vibra9ons
in
solids.
The
Thermal
Average
of
Number
of
Photons
in
a
Mode
∞
Z = ∑ exp(−sω / τ ) With
x
<
1,
this
is
of
the
form-‐-‐
s= 0
∞
1 As
a
consequence,
∑ x = 1− x
s
s= 0
1 Then
exp(−sω / τ )
Z= P ( s) =
1− exp(−ω / τ ) Z
The
thermal
average
of
s,
or
<s>
is
then
-‐-‐-‐
∞
s = ∑ sP ( s) = Z −1 ∑ sexp(−sω / τ )
s= 0
With
y = ω / τ
€
d
∑ sexp(−sy) = − dy ∑ exp(−sy )
€
d d ⎛ 1 ⎞
− ∑ exp(−sy ) = − ⎜ ⎟
€ dy dy ⎝ 1− exp(−y ) ⎠
d ⎛ 1 ⎞ exp(−y )
− ⎜ ⎟ =
dy ⎝1− exp(−y ) ⎠ [1− exp(−y )] 2
Hence
-‐-‐-‐
€
exp(−y ) 1
s = =
1− exp(−y ) exp(ω / τ ) −1
This
is
the
Planck
Distribu9on
Func9on
for
the
thermal
average
€
number
of
photons
in
a
single
mode
of
frequency
ω.
It
also
applies
to
the
number
of
phonons
in
an
elas9c
mode
or
for
that
maJer
to
any
similar
wave
field.
Planck
and
Stefan-‐Boltzmann
Laws
€ c π (n + n + n ) = ω L
2 2 2
x
2
y
2
z
2 2
ω n
U =∑ εn = ∑
n n exp(ω n / τ ) −1
The
sum
is
over
all
posi9ve
integers
to
cover
all
independent
modes.
Replace
the
discrete
sum
by
an
integral
over
the
volume
€
element
dnxdnydnx
in
the
space
of
indices.
1∞
∑ (......) ⇒ 8 ∫ (.........)4πn dn
2
n 0
We
mul9ply
the
sum
or
integral
by
a
factor
of
2,
to
account
for
the
two
independent
modes
for
each
value
of
n.
€
∞
ω n 2
U = π ∫ dnn with
ω n = nπc /L
0 exp(ω n / τ ) −1
∞
1
U = (π c /L) ∫ dnn
2
€
3
0 exp(cnπ /L) −1
Subs9tute
for
∞
ω n 2
U = π ∫ dnn
n
in
U
using
exp(ω n / τ ) −1
0
n = ( L / πc )ω
∞ ∞
ω3
U /V = ∫ dωus = 2 3 ∫ dω exp(ω / τ ) −1
€0 π c 0
€
The
entropy
of
a
volume
V
of
photons
–-‐
dσ = dU/τ
π 2V 4
U= 3 3
τ
15 c
4 π 2V 2
Hence
dσ = 3 3
τ dτ
and
15 c
2 3
€ 4 π V ⎛ τ ⎞
σ= ⎜ ⎟
45 ⎝ c ⎠
€
A
process
carried
out
a
fixed
photon
entropy
will
have
Vτ3 a
constant.
€
Use
of
Radia9on
to
Measure
Temperature-‐-‐-‐Black
Body
Radia9on
Have
small
hole
in
the
wall
of
a
cavity
maintained
at
some
temperature.
Hole
will
radiate
as
a
black
body,
meaning
its
radia9ve
emission
is
that
of
an
equilibrium
distribu9on.
Flux
density
JU
is
the
rate
of
energy
emission/unit
area.
–
This
is
the
energy
in
a
column
of
unit
area
and
length
given
by
the
velocity
of
light
9mes
the
unit
of
9me.
cU (τ ) π 2τ 4
JU = [cU (τ ) /V ] x ( geometricalfactor) = =
4V 60 3c 2
Geometrical
Factor
0 < ϑ < π /2
0 < φ < 2π
Photons
that
escape
are
pointed
towards
the
hole
come
from
a
shell
cdt
thick.
Must
integrate
volume
with
element
of
the
shaded
sec9on.
Probability
of
a
photon
€being
pointed
in
the
right
direc9on
is
equal
to
the
apparent
area
of
the
hole
as
viewed
from
the
volume,
divided
by
the
total
area
of
an
imaginary
sphere
of
radius
R
€
center
on
the
volume.
Probability
of
escape
-‐-‐
Acosϑ
4 πR 2
Energy
escaping
from
the
volume
-‐-‐
Acosϑ U cdt sin ϑdϑdφ
4π V
€
2π π /2
Acos ϑ U
Total
energy
escaping
-‐-‐
∫ dφ ∫ dϑ cdt sin ϑ
0 0 4π V
π /2
A U AU
= 2π cdt ∫ cosϑ sin ϑdϑ = cdt
4π V €0 4V
cU π 2τ 4
Power
per
unit
area
-‐-‐-‐
=
=
€ 4 V 60 3c 2
€
This
is
wriJen
as
4
JU = σ B T
where
σ B ≡ π 2 kB4 /60 3c 2 = 5.670x10−8 Wm−2K −4
A
body
that
radiates
at
this
rate
is
called
a
Black
Body.
€
€ Law
-‐-‐-‐
The
radiant
energy
flux
density
from
a
black
Kirchoff
surface
at
a
temperature
τ
is
equal
to
the
radiant
energy
flux
density
emiJed
from
a
small
hole
in
a
cavity
at
the
same
tem-‐
perature.
The
absorp9vity
a
and
emissivity
e
of
a
nonblack
object
must
be
the
same
if
equilibrium
is
to
be
maintained.
This
must
be
true
at
any
frequency
ω.
a(ω ) = e(ω )
Surface
Temperature
of
a
Hot
Body
–
From
the
maximum
of
the
spectral
density
func9on.
ω3
us = 2 3
π c exp(ω / τ ) −1
Let
x = ω / τ
d ⎛ x 3 ⎞
Then
⎜ ⎟ = 0 Solving
dx ⎝ exp x −1⎠
€
€
3 − 3exp(−x) = x The
numerical
solu9on
is
-‐-‐
€
x max ≈ 2.82 = ω max /k B T
€
Applica9ons
-‐-‐-‐
pyrometers
for
measuring
temperature
without
physical
contact.
Astrophysical
studies
of
cosmic
microwave
background
radia9on
–
so
called
3K
black
body
radia9on.
Johnson
Noise-‐-‐-‐an
applica9on
of
the
thermal
equilibrium
of
electromagne9c
modes.
Consider
an
ideal
transmission
line,
such
as
a
piece
of
lossless
coaxial
cable.
Its
length
is
L
and
it
is
shorted
at
each
end.
Any
wave
traveling
along
the
line
will
be
reflected
at
each
end
and
to
have
significant
amplitude
is
must
contain
an
integral
number
of
half
wavelengths.
The
modes
are
represented
by
the
poten9al
difference
between
the
inner
and
outer
conductors.
ω
< ε >= ω /τ Consider
the
low
frequency
limit
so
e −1
that
the
energy
of
each
mode
is
τ
The
number
of
modes
per
integer
is
one.
Thus
the
number
of
modes
per
unit
frequency
is
-‐-‐
€ L
n(ω )dω = dω The
energy
per
unit
length
per
unit
πc
frequency
is-‐
τ
uω = Match
the
impedance
of
the
line
R
to
the
πc
€
resistance
R
termina9ng
the
line
Waves
traveling
towards
the
resistor
will
be
absorbed
by
it,
and
it
will
emit
waves
with
equal
power
so
that
there
is
no
net
energy
transfer.
Each
mode
is
a
standing
wave
composed
equally
of
traveling
waves
headed
in
both
directs.
Waves
traveling
towards
the
resistor
will
be
completely
absorbed
by
it,
and
the
resistor
will
emit
waves
with
equal
power.
The
energy
in
frequency
band
dω per
unit
length,
headed
towards
the
resistor
is
-‐-‐
τdω /2πc
This
is
traveling
at
a
velocity
c
so
that
the
power
incident
on
the
resistor
is
also
that
emiJed
by
it-‐-‐
τdω /2π
€
The
line
feeds
power
into
the
resistor
and
vice-‐versa.
Hence-‐-‐-‐
V 2 = 4Rτdν
This
is
the
so-‐called
Johnson
noise.
€
Phonons
in
Solids
-‐-‐
The
Debye
Theory
The
energy
of
elas9c
waves
in
a
solid
is
quan9zed
with
the
quantum
of
energy
called
the
phonon.
1
s(ω ) = Is
the
thermal
average
number
of
exp(ω / τ ) −1
phonons.
Goals
-‐-‐
calculate
the
heat
capacity
of
an
elas9c
solid
at
low
ad
high
temperatures.
Number
of
Phonon
Modes
-‐-‐
The
number
of
phonon
modes
in
a
discrete
laHce
of
N
atoms
with
three
degrees
of
freedom
is
3N.
There
is
no
similar
constraint
in
the
case
of
electromagne9c
modes
of
a
cavity.
An
elas9c
wave
has
three
polariza9on,
two
transverse
and
one
longitudinal.
Find
nmax
such
that
the
total
number
of
modes
is
3N.
n max
3 2
8
∫ 4 πn dn = 3N
0
1 3
πn D = 3N
2
1/ 3
n D = (6N / π )
nD
3π ω n
2
U=
2
∫ dnn exp(ω / τ ) −1
0 n
€
ω n = nπv /L
x = πvn /Lτ
⎛ 3π 2v ⎞⎛ τL ⎞ 4 x D x3
U = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ∫ dx
⎝ 2L ⎠⎝ πv ⎠ 0 exp x −1
€
The
upper
limit
of
the
integra9on
-‐-‐
1/ 3
x D = πvn D /Lτ = v (6π N /V ) 2
/ τ = ϑ /T = k Bϑ / τ
where
1/ 3
ϑ = (v /k B )(6π N /V ) 2
Behavior
in
the
low
and
high
temperature
limits
-‐-‐
In
the
low
temperature
limit
T<< θ and
the
upper
limit
can
be
taken
to
infinity.
The
integral
becomes
-‐-‐
∞ 3 4
x π
∫ dx exp x −1 = 15
0
⎛ 3π 2v ⎞⎛ τL ⎞ 4 π 4 3π 4 Nτ 4 3π 4 Nk B T 4
U = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 3 =
⎝ 2L ⎠ πv 15 5( k Bϑ )
3
⎝ ⎠ 5ϑ
3 3
⎛
⎛ ∂U ⎞ 12π N τ ⎞ 4 4
⎛
12π N T ⎞
CV = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂τ ⎠V 5 ⎝ k Bϑ ⎠ 5 ⎝ ϑ ⎠
High
Temperature
Limit
⎛ 3π 2v ⎞⎛ τL ⎞ 4 x D x 3
9NkBϑ
xD
x3
U = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ∫ dx = ∫ dx exp x −1
⎝ 2L ⎠ πv 0
4
⎝ ⎠ exp x −1 xD 0
e −1 1+ y
xD 0 exp x −1 x D
= T /3ϑ −1/8 + ϑ /60T