Programmed instruction

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

Created by USU Students

What is Programmed Instruction?

Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new subject matter to students

in carefully designed steps through a sequence of instructional "frames" (Miller,
2006). Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their
own speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering
questions. They are then immediately shown the correct answer or given
additional information. Computers and other types of teaching machines are often
used to present material, although textbooks have also been developed in
programmed format (Columbia Electronic Library, 2007).

B. F. Skinner was inspired to develop a mechanical device after attending his

daughter's fourth grade math class, where he analyzed the deficiencies of the
group-based traditional instruction, and felt that the teacher was "violating almost
everything we knew about the learning process" (Molenda, 2008). The
instructional format used in his machines became known as programmed
instruction. This teaching method allowed the students the opportunity to work at
their own pace and made it virtually impossible for students to make errors (Casas,
2002).

The components of Skinner's programmed instruction include:

 Behavioral objectives
 Small frames of instruction
 Self-pacing
 Active learner response to inserted question
 Immediate feedback (Skinner, 1958)
The founders of programmed instruction were aware of pressure on the
educational system to provide high-quality education to all people and felt the need
to teach more in less time. Military institutions and industry also had a need to
train large numbers of people in a short period of time. Programmed instruction
was an attempt to remedy these problems. Programmers goal was to create
instructional materials that would produce consistent results (McDonald,
2005). Every input and output were defined precisely, and careful sequencing of
information gradually led students toward the desired goals.

Here is an example of Skinnerian programmed instruction:

1. Manufacture means to make or build. Chair factories manufacture
chairs. Copy the word here:
____________
2. Part of the word is like part of the word factory. Both parts come from an old
word meaning make or build.
manu ____ure
3. Part of the word is like part of the word manual. Both come from an old word for
hand. Many things used to be made by hand.
____facture
4. The same letter goes in both spaces:
m_nuf_cture
5. The same letter goes in both spaces:
man_fact_re
5. Chair factories ___________ chairs. (Casas, 2000)

Two types of programmed learning developed. Linear programming involves a

simple procedure, allowing advancement in only one order. Branching is more
complex. Students are given additional information at the appropriate level
depending on whether a correct answer is given (Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, 2007).

Where was Programmed Instruction situated in the development of the field

of Instructional Technology/Learning Sciences?

Programmed instruction became a popular subject of educational research and

development by the late 1950's.
Sydney L. Pressey has been credited at the first formal attempt at the first
teaching machine, but ended his research in 1932, "because of a lack of
acceptance by educators and others, as well as the economic effects of the Great
Depression" (McDonald, 2005). Programmed instruction was reintroduced in 1954
by B. F. Skinner, and much of the system is based on his theory of the nature of
learning. (Columbia Electronic Library, 2007)

Skinner's work was funded in part by the federal government and various grants
and foundations. Teaching machines became an industry in itself with dozens of
companies across the United States involved in manufacturing and programming
the machines. However, educational institutions took a cautious approach and
most were using the technology only on an experimental basis. (Casas, 2000)

Programmed instruction is based on behaviorism's operant conditioning principles;

the theory that learning occurs when a reinforcing stimulus is presented to reward
a correct response (Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2001). Skinner believed that
humans are naturally curious and that correct responses serve as the
reinforcement.

What was said to be the benefits of the technology when it was first
introduced?

Programmed Instruction, as discussed previously, was designed to

enable students to work independently at their own pace with minimal repetition of
errors while advancing through material only as they prove competency. Upon first
introducing programmed instruction, proponents stated its benefits to be:

1. Instruction that was less labor-instensive, and therefore, less expensive. The
technology of programmed instructive allowed more students to engage in the
material without the need for hiring additional human instructors.

2. Programmed instruction enabled students to learn more extensively in a

limited amount of time.

3. Programmed instruction utilized 'branching' which tailored instruction and

feedback according to the needs and responses of each individual learner.

4. Programmed instruction adhered to Thorndike and Pressey's laws of recency,

effect, and exercise by reinforcing the positive/correct responses of students and
limiting the repetition of mistakes. In this manner, immediate feedback was given
to address and correct student responses in order to support optimal, true learning.
(Molenda, 2008)

Other benefits of benefits of programmed instruction included the idea that PI

materials could meet fixative, manipulative, and distributive measures (Uhumuavbi,
2009). For example:

5. Programmed instruction materials could be recorded and used at a later date

according to the flexibility needs of each student's schedule (fixative).

6. The focus of instruction and materials could be edited and arranged so that
events/subject matter that might have been missed in live instruction could be
made more observable and noticeable (manipulative).

7. Programmed instruction materials can be reproduced and displayed to a large

group or to mutliple individual as often and in as many various locations as are
needed (distribution).

8. The technology of programmed instruction does not treat students any

differently based on assumptions of gender or race. According the Uhumuavbi's
article on student achievement and programmed instruction "research findings
have shown that male and female students have different classroom experiences
with regard to science, technology, and math courses because human teachers
tend to treat them differently. Expectations for females in some subjects are
usually lower as they are declared to be for certain sex, racial ethnic groups
(Uhumuavbi, 2009)".

The benefits of programmed instruction additionally include:

9. Because programmed instruction steps outside of the traditional classroom, it

tends to appeal to students and leads to an improved attitude toward studying.

10. Additionally programmed instruction increases student independence and

student achievement.

11. When class size increases in a traditional classroom achievement tends to

decrease, but with programmed instruction this is not an issue. Student
achievement is not affected by an increase in class size. (Boden, 2000)

Based on the multitude of positive effects shared above, one cannot deny that
programmed instruction can indeed be very benefial to education for both students
and teachers. Although it may not be the end-all answer to educational issues, it
can be used as an effective tool for learning in several circumstances.

What level/type of students was it targeted to?

Upon its first introduction, programmed instruction was initially targeted toward
upper grade level students, ranging from middle school up through post-secondary
and graduate school. With the first 'teaching machine,' Sidney Pressey focused his
studies of programmed instruction on college-level students as a means
of helping them to advance more quickly through course material. As the United
States endured multiple wars and transitioned into the 1960s, the need for the
country to hold a globally competitive edge in the fields of science, math, and
engineering became increasingly evident. As a result programmed instruction
worked to fulfill this needs by targeted its instruction toward secondary, university,
and military students in the subjects of science, math and engineering. (Molenda,
2008)

Because programmed instruction additionally capitalizes on the use of technology,

students of technology in secondary and university levels are additionally targeted
(Uhumuavbi, 2009)

Although programmed instruction initially targeted students of the upper grade

levels, research has shown that students of all ages and grade levels tend to
benefit from the inclusion of programmed instruction into their curriculum because
of the additional focus on self-instruction and competency-based assessment
(Boden, 2000). Today, through the increased use of virtual education and
technology, we see more and more use of programmed instruction (See below for
more information).

Who were the major proponents of the technology? And did their benefits
ever materialize?

In dealing with programmed instruction, there have been a few major

promoters. The earliest being a man named Sidney Pressey. He really pushed for
more teaching that broke out of the mold of traditional instruction and shied away
from the same old routine. He attempted to do this by such means as creating a
device to administer and score tests. He thought by eliminating some of the
monotonous tasks, he could influence instruction for the better. His work was
resisted immensely by those in the teaching profession. His research really came
to an end after the culmination of such extensive scrutiny and a decrease in
financial backing. Finally, the Great Depression killed it off completely. Many
others tried to revive his work in the following years but none of them were very
successful until B.F. Skinner.

B.F. Skinner’s background of operant conditioning really influenced how he went

about his research. Skinner was convinced that his research in dealing with
animals and operant conditioning could really help people as well. But he ran into
some problems after observing teachers and how they presented material. He
found that they were presenting so much information at one time, it made it very
hard to change behavior or have one set goal. His conclusion was to build
something called The Teaching Machine. He thought a mechanical device could
impose the concept of operant conditioning. This method is really what the
scientific idea of programmed instruction is all about. (Mcdonald, 85.)

There was much early success to Skinner’s machine and many benefits were
brought about. Over time, the whole movement of programmed instruction
declined in America but the important thing was that it provided a crucial building
foundation for contemporary instructional technology.

Do you see this technology coming back in another form?

Programmed technology consists of self-teaching using the aid of technology.

Programmed instruction may be presented by a teacher and can improve lessons
and lectures. This allows students to progress at their own rate and only after they
have mastered the previous concepts. As far as the technology, we do see this
coming back in one form or another. Technology is always improving and
changing. Already, we are seeing new technology that will allow programmed
technology to come back and be readily available to the public.

There are online programs available that will allow students to master their
concepts before they proceed to the next concept. Currently, there are a multitude
of "Virtual Academies" that employ this exact same concept. In the state of
Utah, there several K-12 online schools that utilize learning management systems
that adhere to this idea of programmed instruction. One such school, Utah
Connections Academy (UCA), use the learning management system Connexus
which allows students to learn at their own pace in any and all of their K-12
coursework. From the comfort of their own homes, UCA students learn their
lessons and take online assessments in which they receive immediate
feedback. They are not allowed to move forward in their lessons until they have
completed and proved mastery of each lesson and concept. Students additionally
receive continuous and immediate feedback from their teachers within the
Connexus learning management system.

Virtual academies and learning management systems are not the only sources in
which programmed instruction is making a come-back. There are additionally a
multitude of educational software products that fulfill the elements of programmed
instruction. One such software product is that of "Grockit." Grockit is a program
currently being used by students preparing to take such exams as the SAT, ACT,
and AP exams. Grockit enables students to work through problems and test
questions in a collaborative manner. Students are not allowed to move to the next
question until they have gained an understanding of the material addressed in
each question. While working on the question, there is a chat pod that runs off to
the side in which students can work collaboratively, discuss and assist one another
as they work on the questions. The students work in real time collaboratively
but can work from any location across the world. Additionally, in Grockit, students
can ask questions of a teacher and receive immediate feedback and
assistance. As an added feature, Grockit archives all of the material and
discussions so that students can return and look up any information and assistance
they need. Just as in previous ideas of programmed instructions, Grockit students
can learn through self-directed and self-paced modes while receiving feedback that
allows them to gain deeper understandings of the material before being allowed to
move forward to more difficult concepts.

With many subjects, it is important to fully understand one concept before learning
the next one because newer concepts require the knowledge of previous concepts.
As educators, it is important to use this when teaching students so that we are
aware where they struggle and where misconceptions lie. Since technology is
growing, we are already seeing different forms of programmed instruction where
teachers can assess their student’s knowledge of different concepts before moving
onto the next concept. They can also see where their misconceptions lie and fix
those misconceptions before moving onto the next lesson. As technology grows
and schools realize the importance of integrating technology into the classroom,
the more the teachers will have available to them.
References

Boden, A., Archwamety, T., & McFarland, M. (2000). Programmed Instruction in

Secondary Education: A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Class Size on Its
Effectiveness.

Casas, M. (2002). The Use of Skinnerian Teaching Machines and Programmed

Instruction in the United States, 1960-1970.

McDonald, J.T. (2005). Learning from Programmed Instruction: Examining

Implications for Modern Instructional Technology,Educational Technology
Research & Development, 53(2), 84-98.

Miller, M.L. , Malott, R.W. (2006) Programmed Instruction: Construction

Responding, Discrimination Responding, and Highlighted Keywords. Journal of
Behavioral Education. 15,2,109-117.

Molenda, M. (2008). The Programmed Instruction Era: When Effectiveness

Mattered. Techtrends: Linking Research and Practice To Improve Learning, 52(2),
52-58.

Moore, C. S., & Griffin, B. L. (1977). Analysis of Teaching Techniques:

Individualized Instruction-Programmed Instruction vs. Programmed Instruction
Supplemented by Video Tape Presentations.

"Programmed Learning." Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology. 2001. Retrieved

November 02, 2011 from
Encyclopedia.com:http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3406000512.html (Links
to an external site.)Links to an external site.

Skinner, B.F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science 128 (967-77), 137-58.

Uhumuavbi, P. O., & Mamudu, J. A. (2009). Relative Effects of Programmed

Instruction and Demonstration Methods on Students' Academic Performance in
Science. College Student Journal, 43(2), 658-668.