Solar eclipse

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"Eclipse of the Sun" redirects here. For the film, see Eclipse of the Sun (film). For the novel, see Eclipse of the
Sun (novel).

A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon completely

covers the Sun's disk, as seen in this 1999 solar
eclipse. Solar prominences can be seen along the limb
(in red) as well as extensive coronal filaments.
 An annular solar eclipse (left) occurs when the Moon is
too far away to completely cover the Sun's disk (May
20, 2012). During a partial solar eclipse (right), the
Moon blocks only part of the Sun's disk (October 23,
2014).

A solar eclipse occurs when an observer (on Earth) passes through the shadow cast by the Moon which fully
or partially blocks ("occults") the Sun. This can only happen when the Sun, Moon and Earth are nearly aligned
on a straight line in three dimensions (syzygy) during a new moon when the Moon is close to the ecliptic
[1]
plane. In a total eclipse, the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon. In partial and annular eclipses,

only part of the Sun is obscured.

If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit, a little closer to the Earth, and in the same orbital plane, there
would be total solar eclipses every new moon. However, since the Moon's orbit is tilted at more than 5 degrees
to the Earth's orbit around the Sun, its shadow usually misses Earth. A solar eclipse can only occur when the
moon is close enough to the ecliptic plane during a new moon. Special conditions must occur for the two
events to coincide because the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic at its orbital nodes twice every draconic month
(27.212220 days) while a new moon occurs one every synodic month (29.530587981 days). Solar (and lunar)
eclipses therefore happen only during eclipse seasons resulting in at least two, and up to five, solar eclipses
[2][3]
each year; no more than two of which can be total eclipses.

Total eclipses are rare because the timing of the new moon within the eclipse season needs to be more exact
for an alignment between the observer (on Earth) and the centers of the Sun and Moon. In addition, the
elliptical orbit of the Moon often takes it far enough away from Earth that its apparent size is not large enough
to block the Sun entirely. Total solar eclipses are rare at any particular location because totality exists only
along a narrow path on the Earth's surface traced by the Moon's full shadow or umbra.

An eclipse is a natural phenomenon. However, in some ancient and modern cultures, solar eclipses were
attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens. A total solar eclipse can be frightening to people
who are unaware of its astronomical explanation, as the Sun seems to disappear during the day and the sky
darkens in a matter of minutes.

Since looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent eye damage or blindness, special eye protection or
indirect viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar eclipse. It is technically safe to view only the total
phase of a total solar eclipse with the unaided eye and without protection; however, this is a dangerous
practice, as most people are not trained to recognize the phases of an eclipse, which can span over two hours
while the total phase can only last a maximum of 7.5 minutes for any one location. People referred to as eclipse
chasers or umbraphiles will travel to remote locations to observe or witness predicted central solar
[4][5]
eclipses.

Contents
1Types
1.1Terminology for central eclipse
2Predictions
2.1Geometry
2.2Path
2.3Duration
3Occurrence and cycles
3.1Frequency per year
3.2Final totality
4Historical eclipses
5Viewing
5.1Partial and annular eclipses
5.2Totality
5.3Photography
5.4Eclipse chasing
6Other observations
6.11919 observations
6.2Gravity anomalies
6.3Eclipses and transits
6.4Earthshine
 6.5Artificial satellites
6.6Impact
7Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses
8See also
9Notes
10References
11External links

Types

Partial and annular phases of solar eclipse on May 20, 2012

 Comparison of minimum and maximum apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon (and planets). An annular
eclipse can occur when the Sun has a larger apparent size than the Moon, whereas a total eclipse can
occur when the Moon has a larger apparent size.

Partial solar eclipse during annular solar eclipse of May 20, 2012

There are four types of solar eclipses:

● A total eclipse occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the intensely
bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible. During any one eclipse,
[6]
totality occurs at best only in a narrow track on the surface of Earth. This narrow track is called
[7]
the path of totality.
● An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line with the Earth, but the
apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a very bright
[8]
ring, or annulus, surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.
● A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At
certain points on the surface of Earth, it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it
[8]
appears as annular. Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare.
● A partial eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line with the Earth and the
Moon only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of
the Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse. However, some eclipses can only be
seen as a partial eclipse, because the umbra passes above the Earth's polar regions and never
[8]
intersects the Earth's surface. Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable in terms of the sun's
brightness, as it takes well over 90% coverage to notice any darkening at all. Even at 99%, it would
[9]
be no darker than civil twilight. Of course, partial eclipses (and partial stages of other eclipses)
can be observed if one is viewing the sun through a darkening filter (which should always be used
for safety).
The Sun's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon's distance, and the Sun's diameter is about 400
times the Moon's diameter. Because these ratios are approximately the same, the Sun and the Moon as seen
[8]
from Earth appear to be approximately the same size: about 0.5 degree of arc in angular measure.

A separate category of solar eclipses is that of the Sun being occluded by a body other than the Earth's moon,
as can be observed at points in space away from the Earth's surface. Two examples are when the crew of
Apollo 12 observed the Earth eclipse the Sun in 1969 and when the Cassini probe observed Saturn eclipsing
the Sun in 2006.

The Moon's orbit around the Earth is slightly elliptical, as is the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The apparent
[10]
sizes of the Sun and Moon therefore vary. The magnitude of an eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of

the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse. An eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its
closest distance to Earth (i.e., near its perigee) can be a total eclipse because the Moon will appear to be large
enough to completely cover the Sun's bright disk or photosphere; a total eclipse has a magnitude greater than
or equal to 1.000. Conversely, an eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its farthest distance from Earth
(i.e., near its apogee) can only be an annular eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly smaller than
the Sun; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1. Slightly more solar eclipses are annular than total
because, on average, the Moon lies too far from Earth to cover the Sun completely.

A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the event from less to greater than
one, so the eclipse appears to be total at locations nearer the midpoint, and annular at other locations nearer
the beginning and end, since the sides of the Earth are slightly further away from the Moon. These eclipses are
extremely narrow in their path width and extremely short in their duration at any point, at most just a few
seconds at any location within just a few kilometres of the centerline of the path. Like a focal point, the width
[11]
and duration of totality and annularity are near zero at the points where the changes between the two occur.

Because the Earth's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, the Earth's distance from the Sun similarly varies
throughout the year. This affects the apparent size of the Sun in the same way, but not as much as does the
[8]
Moon's varying distance from Earth. When Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun in early July,

a total eclipse is somewhat more likely, whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches
[12]
its closest distance to the Sun in early January.

Terminology for central eclipse

 Each icon shows the view from the centre of its black spot, representing the moon (not to scale)

[13]
Central eclipse is often used as a generic term for a total, annular, or hybrid eclipse. This is, however, not

completely correct: the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra
touches the Earth's surface. It is possible, though extremely rare, that part of the umbra intersects with the
Earth (thus creating an annular or total eclipse), but not its central line. This is then called a non-central total or
[13]
annular eclipse. The last (umbral yet) non-central solar eclipse was on April 29, 2014. This was an annular

[14]
eclipse. The next non-central total solar eclipse will be on April 9, 2043.
 Diamond Ring effect at third contact, marking the end of totality. Some prominences can also be seen.

[15]
The phases observed during a total eclipse are called:

● First contact—when the Moon's limb (edge) is exactly tangential to the Sun's limb.
● Second contact—starting with Baily's Beads (caused by light shining through valleys on the Moon's
surface) and the diamond ring effect. Almost the entire disk is covered.
● Totality—the Moon obscures the entire disk of the Sun and only the solar corona is visible.
● Third contact—when the first bright light becomes visible and the Moon's shadow is moving away
from the observer. Again a diamond ring may be observed.
● Fourth contact—when the trailing edge of the Moon ceases to overlap with the solar disk and the
eclipse ends.

Predictions

Geometry
 Geometry of a total solar eclipse (not to scale)

The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun, Moon, and Earth during a solar eclipse. The dark gray
region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra, where the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon. The
small area where the umbra touches Earth's surface is where a total eclipse can be seen. The larger light gray
area is the penumbra, in which a partial eclipse can be seen. An observer in the antumbra, the area of shadow
[16]
beyond the umbra, will see an annular eclipse.

The Moon's orbit around the Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of the Earth's orbit
around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to the
north or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when new moon occurs close to one of the points
[17]
(known as nodes) where the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic.

As noted above, the Moon's orbit is also elliptical. The Moon's distance from the Earth can vary by about 6%
from its average value. Therefore, the Moon's apparent size varies with its distance from the Earth, and it is this
effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses. The distance of the Earth from the Sun
also varies during the year, but this is a smaller effect. On average, the Moon appears to be slightly smaller
than the Sun as seen from the Earth, so the majority (about 60%) of central eclipses are annular. It is only
[18][19]
when the Moon is closer to the Earth than average (near its perigee) that a total eclipse occurs.

Moon Sun

At perigee At apogee At perihelion At aphelion

(nearest) (farthest) (nearest) (farthest)
 Mean radius 1,737.10 km 696,000 km
(1,079.38 mi) (432,000 mi)
Distance 363,104 km 405,696 km 147,098,070 km 152,097,700 km
(225,622 mi) (252,088 mi) (91,402,500 mi) (94,509,100 mi)
Angular 33' 30" 29' 26" 32' 42" 31' 36"
[20] (0.5583°) (0.4905°) (0.5450°) (0.5267°)
diameter
Apparent size
to scale

Order by 1st 4th 2nd 3rd

decreasing
apparent size

The Moon orbits the Earth in approximately 27.3 days, relative to a fixed frame of reference. This is known as
the sidereal month. However, during one sidereal month, Earth has revolved part way around the Sun, making
the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month: it is approximately 29.5
[17]
days. This is known as the synodic month and corresponds to what is commonly called the lunar month.

The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node, and vice versa at its descending
[17]
node. However, the nodes of the Moon's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion, due to the

action of the Sun's gravity on the Moon's motion, and they make a complete circuit every 18.6 years. This
regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly
[21]
shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or draconic month.

Finally, the Moon's perigee is moving forwards or precessing in its orbit and makes a complete circuit in 8.85
years. The time between one perigee and the next is slightly longer than the sidereal month and known as the
[22]
anomalistic month.

The Moon's orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the new
moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months (173.3 days) apart, known
as eclipse seasons, and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods. Sometimes the
new moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months to eclipse the Sun on both occasions
in two partial eclipses. This means that, in any given year, there will always be at least two solar eclipses, and
[23]
there can be as many as five.

Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 to 18 degrees of a node, (10 to 12 degrees for central
eclipses). This is referred to as an eclipse limit. In the time it takes for the Moon to return to a node (draconic
[2]
month), the apparent position of the Sun has moved about 29 degrees, relative to the nodes. Since the
eclipse limit creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees (24 degrees for central eclipses), it is possible
[24][25]
for partial eclipses (or rarely a partial and a central eclipse) to occur in consecutive months.

Fraction of the Sun's disc covered, f, when the same-sized discs are offset a fraction t of their diameter.[26]

Path
During a central eclipse, the Moon's umbra (or antumbra, in the case of an annular eclipse) moves rapidly from
west to east across the Earth. The Earth is also rotating from west to east, at about 28 km/min at the Equator,
but as the Moon is moving in the same direction as the Earth's spin at about 61 km/min, the umbra almost
always appears to move in a roughly west-east direction across a map of the Earth at the speed of the Moon's
[27]
orbital velocity minus the Earth's rotational velocity.

The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and
Moon. In the most favourable circumstances, when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee, the track can
[28]
be up to 267 km (166 mi) wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes. Outside of the central

track, a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of the Earth. Typically, the umbra is 100–160 km wide,
[29]
while the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km.

Duration
[30][31]
The following factors determine the duration of a total solar eclipse (in order of decreasing importance):

1. The moon being almost exactly at perigee (making its angular diameter as large as possible).
 2. The earth being very near aphelion (furthest away from the sun in its elliptical orbit, making its
angular diameter nearly as small as possible).
3. The midpoint of the eclipse being very close to the earth's equator, where the rotational velocity
is greatest.
4. The vector of the eclipse path at the midpoint of the eclipse aligning with the vector of the
earth's rotation (i.e. not diagonal but due east).
5. The midpoint of the eclipse being near the subsolar point (the part of the earth closest to the
sun).
The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the eclipse of July 16, 2186 (with a maximum duration
of 7 minutes 4 seconds over northern Guyana).

Occurrence and cycles

Main article: Eclipse cycle

Total solar eclipse paths: 1001–2000, showing that total solar eclipses occur almost everywhere on Earth.
This image was merged from 50 separate images from NASA.[32]

Total solar eclipses are rare events. Although they occur somewhere on Earth every 18 months on
[33]
average, it is estimated that they recur at any given place only once every 360 to 410 years, on

[34]
average. The total eclipse lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at any location, because the Moon's

[35]
umbra moves eastward at over 1700 km/h. Totality currently can never last more than 7 min 32 s. This value

changes over the millennia and is currently decreasing. By the 8th millennium, the longest theoretically possible
 [30]
total eclipse will be less than 7 min 2 s. The last time an eclipse longer than 7 minutes occurred was June

30, 1973 (7 min 3 sec). Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this
[36]
eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon's umbra. The next total eclipse exceeding

seven minutes in duration will not occur until June 25, 2150. The longest total solar eclipse during the 11,000
year period from 3000 BC to at least 8000 AD will occur on July 16, 2186, when totality will last 7 min 29
[30][37]
s. For comparison, the longest total eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June 20, 1955,

[38]
and there are no total solar eclipses over 7 min in duration in the 21st century.

If the date and time of any solar eclipse are known, it is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles.
The saros is probably the best known and one of the most accurate. A saros lasts 6,585.3 days (a little over 18
years), which means that, after this period, a practically identical eclipse will occur. The most notable difference
will be a westward shift of about 120° in longitude (due to the 0.3 days) and a little in latitude (north-south for
odd-numbered cycles, the reverse for even-numbered ones). A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse
near one of Earth's polar regions, then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses, and
ends with a partial eclipse at the opposite polar region. A saros series lasts 1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87
[39]
eclipses, with about 40 to 60 of them being central.

Frequency per year

Between two and five solar eclipses occur every year, with at least one per eclipse season. Since the
Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582, years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693, 1758, 1805,
[40]
1823, 1870, and 1935. The next occurrence will be 2206. On average, there are about 240 solar eclipses

[41]
each century.

January 5 February 3 June 30 July 30 December 25

Partial Partial Partial Partial Annular

(south) (north) (north) (south) (south)

 Saros 111 Saros 149 Saros 116 Saros 154 Saros 121

Final totality
Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortuitous combination of circumstances. Even on Earth,
the diversity of eclipses familiar to people today is a temporary (on a geological time scale) phenomenon.
Hundreds of millions of years in the past, the Moon was closer to the Earth and therefore apparently larger, so
every solar eclipse was total or partial, and there were no annular eclipses. Due to tidal acceleration, the orbit
of the Moon around the Earth becomes approximately 3.8 cm more distant each year. Millions of years in the
future, the Moon will be too far away to fully occlude the Sun, and no total eclipses will occur. In the same
[42]
timeframe, the Sun may become brighter, making it appear larger in size. Estimates of the when the moon

[42]
will be unable to occlude the entire sun when viewed from the Earth range between 1.4 billion and 650

[43]
million years in the future.

Historical eclipses
 Astronomers Studying an Eclipse painted by Antoine Caron in 1571

Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for historians, in that they allow a few historical events to be
[44]
dated precisely, from which other dates and ancient calendars may be deduced. A solar eclipse of June 15,

[45]
763 BC mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for the chronology of the ancient Near East. There have

been other claims to date earlier eclipses. The Book of Joshua 10:13 describes an annular solar eclipse that
[46][47]
occurred on 30 October 1207 BC. The King Zhong Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers, Hsi

[48]
and Ho, who failed to predict an eclipse 4,000 years ago. Perhaps the earliest still-unproven claim is that of

archaeologist Bruce Masse, who putatively links an eclipse that occurred on May 10, 2807 BC with a possible
meteor impact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient flood myths that mention a total solar
[49]
eclipse.

[50]
Eclipses have been interpreted as omens, or portents. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that

Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a battle between the Medes and the Lydians. Both
[51]
sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse. The exact eclipse involved

remains uncertain, although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities. One
[52]
likely candidate took place on May 28, 585 BC, probably near the Halys river in Asia Minor. An eclipse

[53]
recorded by Herodotus before Xerxesdeparted for his expedition against Greece, which is traditionally

dated to 480 BC, was matched by John Russell Hind to an annular eclipse of the Sun at Sardis on February 17,
[54] [55]
478 BC. Alternatively, a partial eclipse was visible from Persia on October 2, 480 BC. Herodotus also
 [56]
reports a solar eclipse at Sparta during the Second Persian invasion of Greece. The date of the eclipse

[57]
(August 1, 477 BC) does not match exactly the conventional dates for the invasion accepted by historians.

[58]
Chinese records of eclipses begin at around 720 BC. The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen described

[59]
the prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the Moon and Sun. The "radiating influence"

theory (i.e., the Moon's light was reflection from the Sun) was existent in Chinese thought from about the sixth
[60]
century BC (in the Zhi Ran of Zhi Ni Zi), though it was opposed by the 1st century AD philosopher Wang

[59]
Chong, who made clear in his writing that this theory was nothing new. Ancient Greeks, such as

[60]
Parmenides and Aristotle, also supported the theory of the Moon shining because of reflected light.

Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of Good Friday by assuming that the darkness described
[61][62]
at Jesus's crucifixion was a solar eclipse. This research has not yielded conclusive results, and Good

Friday is recorded as being at Passover, which is held at the time of a full moon. Further, the darkness lasted
from the sixth hour to the ninth, or three hours, which is much, much longer than the eight-minute upper limit for
any solar eclipse's totality. In the Western hemisphere, there are few reliable records of eclipses before 800
[58]
AD, until the advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early medieval period. The first recorded

[55][58]
observation of the corona was made in Constantinople in 968 AD.

[58]
The first known telescopic observation of a total solar eclipse was made in France in 1706. Nine years later,

[55][58]
English astronomer Edmund Halley accurately predicted and observed the solar eclipse of May 3, 1715.

By the mid-19th century, scientific understanding of the Sun was improving through observations of the Sun's
corona during solar eclipses. The corona was identified as part of the Sun's atmosphere in 1842, and the first
[55]
photograph (or daguerreotype) of a total eclipse was taken of the solar eclipse of July 28, 1851.

Spectroscope observations were made of the solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, which helped to determine the
[55]
chemical composition of the Sun.
 Illustration from De magna eclipsi solari, quae continget anno 1764published in Acta Eruditorum, 1762

John Fiske summed up myths about the solar eclipse like this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth-Makers,

the myth of Hercules and Cacus, the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar god over the robber who steals
the light. Now whether the robber carries off the light in the evening when Indra has gone to sleep, or boldly
rears his black form against the sky during the daytime, causing darkness to spread over the earth, would
make little difference to the framers of the myth. To a chicken a solar eclipse is the same thing as nightfall, and
he goes to roost accordingly. Why, then, should the primitive thinker have made a distinction between the
darkening of the sky caused by black clouds and that caused by the rotation of the earth? He had no more
conception of the scientific explanation of these phenomena than the chicken has of the scientific explanation
of an eclipse. For him it was enough to know that the solar radiance was stolen, in the one case as in the other,
[63]
and to suspect that the same demon was to blame for both robberies.

Viewing
Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun (the bright disk of the Sun itself), even for just a few seconds,
can cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye, because of the intense visible and invisible radiation that
the photosphere emits. This damage can result in impairment of vision, up to and including blindness. The
retina has no sensitivity to pain, and the effects of retinal damage may not appear for hours, so there is no
[64][65]
warning that injury is occurring.

Under normal conditions, the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly. However, during an eclipse,
with so much of the Sun covered, it is easier and more tempting to stare at it. Looking at the Sun during an
eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse, except during the brief period of totality, when the
Sun's disk is completely covered (totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only very briefly; it does not
occur during a partial or annular eclipse). Viewing the Sun's disk through any kind of optical aid (binoculars, a
telescope, or even an optical camera viewfinder) is extremely hazardous and can cause irreversible eye
[66][67]
damage within a fraction of a second.

Partial and annular eclipses

Eclipse glasses

Pinhole projection method of observing partial solar eclipse. Insert (upper left): partially eclipsed Sun
photographed with a white solar filter. Main image: projections of the partially eclipsed Sun (bottom right)

Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses (and during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality)
requires special eye protection, or indirect viewing methods if eye damage is to be avoided. The Sun's disk can
be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun's radiation. Sunglasses do not make
viewing the Sun safe. Only properly designed and certified solar filters should be used for direct viewing of the
[68]
Sun's disk. Especially, self-made filters using common objects such as a floppy disk removed from its case,

[69][70]
a Compact Disc, a black colour slide film, smoked glass, etc. must be avoided.
 [71]
The safest way to view the Sun's disk is by indirect projection. This can be done by projecting an image of

the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars (with one of the lenses covered), a
telescope, or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it (about 1 mm diameter), often called a pinhole
camera. The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed; this technique can be used to observe
sunspots, as well as eclipses. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that no one looks through the projector
[72]
(telescope, pinhole, etc.) directly. Viewing the Sun's disk on a video display screen (provided by a video

camera or digital camera) is safe, although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun.
The optical viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe. Securely mounting #14
welder's glass in front of the lens and viewfinder protects the equipment and makes viewing
[70]
possible. Professional workmanship is essential because of the dire consequences any gaps or detaching

mountings will have. In the partial eclipse path, one will not be able to see the corona or nearly complete
darkening of the sky. However, depending on how much of the Sun's disk is obscured, some darkening may be
noticeable. If three-quarters or more of the sun is obscured, then an effect can be observed by which the
[73]
daylight appears to be dim, as if the sky were overcast, yet objects still cast sharp shadows.

Totality

Baily's beads

When the shrinking visible part of the photosphere becomes very small, Baily's beads will occur. These are
caused by the sunlight still being able to reach the Earth through lunar valleys. Totality then begins with the
[74]
diamond ring effect, the last bright flash of sunlight.

It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly only when the Sun's photosphere is completely
[71]
covered by the Moon, and not before or after totality. During this period, the Sun is too dim to be seen
through filters. The Sun's faint corona will be visible, and the chromosphere, solar prominences, and possibly
even a solar flare may be seen. At the end of totality, the same effects will occur in reverse order, and on the
[74]
opposite side of the Moon.

Photography

The progression of a solar eclipse on August 1, 2008 in Novosibirsk, Russia. All times UTC (local time was
UTC+7). The time span between shots is three minutes.

Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the
Sun/Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35
mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing
the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina, so
[75]
care is recommended. Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not

used. Using a camera's live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is safe for the human eye, but the Sun's
rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors unless the lens is covered by a properly
[76]
designed solar filter.

Eclipse chasing

Main article: Eclipse chasing

A dedicated group of eclipse chasers have pursued the observation of solar eclipses when they occur around
[77] [78]
the Earth. A person who chases eclipses is known as an umbraphile, meaning shadow lover.

Umbraphiles travel for eclipses and use various tools to help view the sun including solar viewing glasses, also
[79][80]
known as eclipse glasses, as well as telescopes.
Other observations
A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to observe the corona (the outer layer of the Sun's
atmosphere). Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is much brighter than the corona. According
to the point reached in the solar cycle, the corona may appear small and symmetric, or large and fuzzy. It is
[81]
very hard to predict this in advance.

As the light filters through leaves of trees during a partial eclipse, the overlapping leaves create natural
[82]
pinholes, displaying mini eclipses on the ground.

Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow bands (also known as flying shadows), which are similar
to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool. They only occur just prior to and after totality, when a narrow
[83]
solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source.

1919 observations

See also: Tests of general relativity § Deflection of light by the Sun

Eddington's original photograph of the 1919 eclipse, which provided evidence for Einstein's theory of
general relativity.

The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, helped to confirm Einstein's theory of general
relativity. By comparing the apparent distance between stars in the constellation Taurus, with and without the
Sun between them, Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical predictions about gravitational lenses were
[84]
confirmed. The observation with the Sun between the stars was only possible during totality since the stars
are then visible. Though Eddington's observations were near the experimental limits of accuracy at the time,
[85][86]
work in the later half of the 20th century confirmed his results.

Gravity anomalies
There is a long history of observations of gravity-related phenomena during solar eclipses, especially during the
period of totality. In 1954, and again in 1959, Maurice Allais reported observations of strange and unexplained
[87]
movement during solar eclipses. The reality of this phenomenon, named the Allais effect, has remained

controversial. Similarly, in 1970, Saxl and Allen observed the sudden change in motion of a torsion pendulum;
[88]
this phenomenon is called the Saxl effect.

A recent published observation during the 1997 solar eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational
[89]
shielding effect, which generated debate. Later in 2002, Yang and Wang published detailed data analysis,

[90]
which suggested that the phenomenon still remains unexplained.

Eclipses and transits

In principle, the simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible. But these
events are extremely rare because of their short durations. The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a
Solar eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5, 6757, and a Solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is
[91]
expected on April 5, 15232.

More common, but still infrequent, is a conjunction of a planet (especially, but not only, Mercury or Venus) at
the time of a total solar eclipse, in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun, when
without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun's glare. At one time, some scientists hypothesized that
there may be a planet (often given the name Vulcan) even closer to the Sun than Mercury; the only way to
confirm its existence would have been to observe it in transit or during a total solar eclipse. No such planet was
ever found, and general relativity has since explained the observations that led astronomers to suggest that
[92]
Vulcan might exist.

Earthshine
During a total solar eclipse, the Moon's shadow covers only a small fraction of the Earth. The Earth continues
to receive at least 92 percent of the amount of sunlight it receives without an eclipse – more if the penumbra of
the Moon's shadow partly misses the Earth. Seen from the Moon, the Earth during a total solar eclipse is
mostly brilliantly illuminated, with only a small dark patch showing the Moon's shadow. The brilliantly-lit Earth
reflects a lot of light to the Moon. If the corona of the eclipsed Sun were not present, the Moon, illuminated by
earthlight, would be easily visible from Earth. This would be essentially the same as the earthshine which can
frequently be seen when the Moon's phase is a narrow crescent. In reality, the corona, though much less
brilliant than the Sun's photosphere, is much brighter than the Moon illuminated by earthlight. Therefore, by
contrast, the Moon during a total solar eclipse appears to be black, with the corona surrounding it.

Artificial satellites

From space, the Moon's shadow during a solar eclipse appears as a dark spot moving across the Earth.

The Moon's shadow over Turkeyand Cyprus, seen from the ISS during a 2006 total solar eclipse.

Artificial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as seen from the Earth, but none is large enough to cause
an eclipse. At the altitude of the International Space Station, for example, an object would need to be about
3.35 km (2.08 mi) across to blot the Sun out entirely. These transits are difficult to watch because the zone of
visibility is very small. The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second, typically. As with a
[93]
transit of a planet, it will not get dark. The International Space Station transit across the Sun from any

location can last from around 1 up to 8 seconds only taking into account, that the spacecraft is moving centrally
alongside the diameter of the Sun. The longest International Space Station transits may occur just after the
sunrise or just before the sunset when the way from observer to the object is the longest (see the Parallax
[94]
phenomenon).

Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above the Earth's atmosphere are not
[95]
subject to weather conditions. The crew of Gemini 12 observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966.

[96]
The partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from Mir.

During the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project conducted in July 1975, the Apollo spacecraft was positioned to create
an artificial solar eclipse giving the Soyuz crew an opportunity to photograph the solar corona.

Impact
The solar eclipse of March 20, 2015, was the first occurrence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have a
significant impact on the power system, with the electricity sector taking measures to mitigate any impact. The
continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas were estimated to have about 90 gigawatts of solar
power and it was estimated that production would temporarily decrease by up to 34 GW compared to a clear
[97][98]
sky day. The temperature may decrease by 3 °C, and wind power potentially decreases as winds are

[99]
reduced by 0.7 m/s.

In addition to the drop in light level and air temperature, animals change their behavior during totality. For
[100]
example, birds and squirrels return to their nests and crickets chirp.

Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses

Main article: List of solar eclipses in the 21st century

Further information: Lists of solar eclipses

 Eclipse path for total and hybrid eclipses from 2001 to 2020.

Eclipses only occur in the eclipse season, when the Sun is close to either the ascending or descending node of
the Moon. Each eclipse is separated by one, five or six lunations (synodic months), and the midpoint of each
season is separated by 173.3 days, which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next. The
period is a little less than half a calendar year because the lunar nodes slowly regress. Because 223 synodic
months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and 242 draconic months, eclipses with similar geometry
recur 223 synodic months (about 6,585.3 days) apart. This period (18 years 11.3 days) is a saros. Because
223 synodic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic months or 242 draconic months, saros cycles do not
endlessly repeat. Each cycle begins with the Moon's shadow crossing the earth near the north or south pole,
and subsequent events progress toward the other pole until the Moon's shadow misses the earth and the
[24]
series ends. Saros cycles are numbered; currently, cycles 117 to 156 are active. The next solar eclipse will

occur on August 11, 2018. It will be a partial solar eclipse visible from Northern Europe and Northeastern
[101]
Asia.

Solar eclipses

1997– 2000– 2004– 2008– 2011– 2015– 2018– 2022– 2026–

2000 2003 2007 2011 2014 2018 2021 2025 2029
What Is a Partial Solar Eclipse?

Next Partial Solar Eclipse: Sat, 5 Jan – Sun, 6 Jan 2019 … See animation

Partial solar eclipses happen when the Moon comes between the Sun and Earth, but
the Moon only partially covers the Sun's disk.

A partial solar eclipse, Novosibirsk, Russia.

©bigstockphoto.com/underworld1

During a partial solar eclipse, the Moon, the Sun and Earth don't align in a perfectly straight line, and
the Moon casts only the outer part of its shadow, the penumbra, on Earth. From our perspective, this
looks like the Moon has taken a bite out of the Sun.
Sometimes, the Moon covers only a tiny part of the Sun's disk. Other times a partial eclipse looks
almost like a total eclipse. The size of the eclipsed area is referred to as eclipse magnitude.

Types of eclipses

Total or Partial?
Solar eclipses occur 2—5 times a year and they are usually named for their darkest, or maximum,
point. Both total and annular solar eclipses are seen as partial eclipses from the areas on Earth that
are outside the Moon's inner shadows, the umbra or antumbra, but inside the penumbra (outer
shadow).

What is a hybrid solar eclipse?

Only at New Moon

Solar eclipses can only happen at New Moon because the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth
during that Moon phase.

However, not every New Moon results in a solar eclipse. This is because the plane of the Moon's
orbital path around our planet is inclined at an angle of approximately 5° to Earth's orbital plane
around the Sun, the ecliptic. The points where the 2 orbital planes meet are called lunar nodes.
Solar eclipses occur only when a New Moon takes place near a lunar node.

3 Phases
There are 3 distinct stages of a partial solar eclipse:

● Partial solar eclipse begins: The Moon starts moving over the Sun's disk.
● Maximum eclipse: The eclipse reaches its maximum magnitude. The Moon now covers
more of the Sun's disk than at any other moment during the eclipse.
● Partial solar eclipse ends: The Moon stops covering the Sun.

More Common Near the Poles

About 35% of all solar eclipses are partial solar eclipses, meaning that they occur more often than
total or annular solar eclipses. The larger size of the Moon's penumbra compared to its umbra, the
shadow's dark center producing total solar eclipses, also means that more places on Earth get to
experience a partial solar eclipse.

During a partial solar eclipse, the Moon's umbra or antumbra, the shadow's center portion, is cast
into space just above the polar regions, missing Earth by a narrow margin. This means that partial
solar eclipses, while potentially being visible at all latitudes, usually center around a place close to
one of the poles.

When is the next eclipse in your city?

Protect Your Eyes!

Never look directly at the Sun, eclipsed or otherwise, without any protective eyewear. The Sun’s UV
radiation can burn the retinas in your eyes leading to permanent damage or even blindness.

The best way to safely watch a total solar eclipse is to wear protective eclipse glasses or to project
an image of the eclipsed Sun using a pinhole projector.

Upcoming 5 Partial Solar Eclipses

5–6 Jan 2019

Solar Eclipse(Partial)East in Asia, Pacific

30 Apr 2022
Solar Eclipse(Partial)South/West South America, Pacific, Atlantic, Antarctica

25 Oct 2022
Solar Eclipse(Partial)Europe, South/West Asia, North/East Africa, Atlantic

29 Mar 2025
Solar Eclipse(Partial)Much of Europe, North in Asia, North/West Africa, Much of North America, Atlantic, Arctic

21 Sep 2025

Solar Eclipse(Partial)South in Australia, Pacific, Atlantic, Antarctica

What Is an Annular Solar Eclipse?

Next Annular Solar Eclipse: Thu, 26 Dec 2019 … See animation

Next Eclipse: Partial Solar Eclipse – Sat, 5 Jan – Sun, 6 Jan 2019 … See animation

An annular solar eclipse happens when the Moon covers the Sun's center, leaving the
Sun's visible outer edges to form a “ring of fire” or annulus around the Moon.
 The characteristic ring of fire.

©iStockphoto.com/peisen zhao

Solar eclipses happen when the Moon casts a shadow on Earth.

User images: Annular solar eclipse

The Moon's shadow is not big enough to engulf the entire planet, so the shadow is always limited to
a certain area (see map illustrations below). This area changes during the eclipse because the Moon
and Earth are in constant motion: Earth continuously rotates around its axis while it orbits the Sun,
and the Moon orbits Earth.

Solar eclipses are only visible from within the area where the shadow falls, and the closer you are to
the center of the shadow's path, the bigger the eclipse looks.

Recorded stream of annular eclipse Feb, 2017

Annular Means Ring-Shaped

The name “annular” comes from the Latin word for ring, “annulus.” These eclipses are named for
their darkest, or maximum, point even if it only lasts less than a second. If the characteristic ring of
fire is visible from even just one location, the whole eclipse is called an annular solar eclipse.

However, in most places and for most of the duration, an annular eclipse looks like a partial solar
eclipse. This is also the case for total solar eclipses and for the rare hybrid solar eclipses which have
an annular maximum point in some locations and a total maximum point in other locations.

Astronomical terms & definitions

When Do They Happen?

Annular solar eclipses can only take place:

1. Around New Moon, when the Sun and Earth are aligned on opposite sides of the Moon.
2. When the Moon and the Sun are near a lunar node and form a perfect or almost perfect
line between the Sun, the Moon, and Earth.
3. When the Moon is near its farthest point from Earth, called apogee, so the outer edge of
the Sun remains visible as a ring of sunlight.

1. Why Not Every New Moon?

Solar eclipses are relatively rare. For any solar eclipse to take place, it has to be around New Moon,
when the Sun and Earth are aligned on opposite sides of the Moon. Normally, the New Moon is
invisible from Earth. The only time we can see it is during solar eclipses, silhouetted against the Sun.

Moon Phases In Your City

2. Close to Lunar Nodes

So why isn't there an eclipse every night there is a New Moon? This is because the New Moon also
has to be close to a lunar node.

The plane of the Moon's orbital path around Earth is inclined at an angle of approximately 5° in
relation to Earth's orbital plane around the Sun—the ecliptic. The points where the 2 orbital planes
meet are called lunar nodes. When the Sun and the Moon are close enough to a lunar node to form
a perfect or almost perfect line with Earth, we are in the eclipse season, which lasts around 34.5
days. In every eclipse season, there are 2 to 3 eclipses, and at least 1 of these is always a solar
eclipse; at the most 2.
3. Moon Is Far from Earth
Throughout every lunar month, the distance between our planet and the Moon varies because the
shape of the Moon's orbit around Earth is elliptical, rather than circular.

The reason we can see the glowing outer edge of the Sun at the maximum point of an annular
eclipse is that it happens while the Moon is near its farthest point from Earth, called apogee, when
the Moon is smaller than the Sun when viewed from Earth.

What if the Moon is near perigee?

The Moon's Antumbra

The Moon's antumbra.

Solar eclipses are caused by the Moon casting shadows on Earth. There are 3 different types of
shadow that the New Moon can cast on Earth: the umbra, the penumbra, and the antumbra.

To see annularity, you must be in a location where the Moon casts the antumbra. At the maximum
point, the width of the annular path is typically around 150 km (93 mi) although this can vary
considerably. If you're at the center of this zone, you will see the annularity's maximum point as a
perfect ring of fire. In other areas of annularity, where the Moon is not perfectly centered on the Sun,
the ring has varying width.

If you're at the edge of the annularity path, you may see a broken ring of fire and–for a brief
moment–a phenomenon called Baily's beads, which are little bead-like blobs of light at the edge of
the Moon. These happen because gaps in the mountains and valleys on the Moon's surface allow
sunlight to pass through in some places, but not in others.

Why are there 3 shadows?

Stages of an Annular Solar Eclipse

There are 5 distinct stages of an annular solar eclipse:

● 1st contact—partial eclipse begins: The Moon's silhouette starts becoming visible in
front of the Sun's disk. The Sun looks as if a bite has been taken from it.
● 2nd contact—full eclipse, or annularity, starts: The ring of fire appears. For a few
seconds just as the annularity begins, Baily's beads, which look like beads of light, can
sometimes be seen at the edge of the Moon's silhouette.
● Maximum eclipse: The Moon covers the center of the Sun's disk.
● 3rd contact—annularity ends: The Moon starts moving away from the disk of the Sun.
Once again, Baily's beads may be visible along the Moon's leading edge.
● 4th contact—partial eclipse ends: The Moon stops overlapping the Sun's disk. The
eclipse ends at this stage.

How Long Does it Last?

Annular eclipses can last over 3 hours in locations where annularity is visible. From start to finish,
the total duration of annular eclipses can be over 6 hours but not in a single location. The annularity,
when only a ring of fire is visible in the sky, can range from less than a second to over 12 minutes.

Eclipses in my city

Protect Your Eyes!

Never look at the Sun, eclipsed or otherwise, without proper eye protection, like eclipse glasses. The
Sun’s rays can burn the retinas in the eyes leading to permanent damage or even blindness.
A safe way to watch a solar eclipse is to wear protective eclipse glasses or to project an image of the
eclipsed Sun using a pinhole projector.

Earth's Distance to Sun

Earth's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, which means that there is 1 point of the path when
Earth is at its closest point to the Sun (perihelion) and 1 point when it is furthest away (aphelion).
Earth's distance to the Sun also sometimes affects the type of eclipse, the duration of the eclipse,
exactly how much of the Sun's disk will be eclipsed, and the size of the area on Earth where the
eclipse is visible.

Upcoming 5 Annular Solar Eclipses

26 Dec 2019
Solar Eclipse(Annular)East in Europe, Much of Asia, North/West Australia, East in Africa, Pacific, Indian

Ocean

21 Jun 2020
Solar Eclipse(Annular)South/East Europe, Much of Asia, North in Australia, Much of Africa, Pacific, Indian

Ocean

10 Jun 2021
Solar Eclipse(Annular)Much of Europe, Much of Asia, North/West Africa, Much of North America, Atlantic,

Arctic

14 Oct 2023
Solar Eclipse(Annular)West in Africa, North America, South America, Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic

2 Oct 2024
Solar Eclipse(Annular)Much of South America, Pacific, Atlantic, Antarctica