Operational Amplifiers

1
Acknowledgements to Baquer Mazhari, A.R. Harish, Adrish Banerjee, Sundar Iyer
 Today Let Us Look at …
• Operational Amplifiers
• Building useful circuits with op-amps
– Inverting and non-inverting amplifier
– Adder / Subtractor

2
Amplifier Design requires specialized knowledge

+12V
VCC 2K
CE Amplifier
20K
R1 RC
Q2
CB vo
CC
Q3
Q1a Q1b
RL

R2
Vin1 137K
VS CE
RE
0.1mA 10mA

-12V

It is not possible for every user to design his/her own amplifier !

3
Why can’t we have experts design and implement amplifiers and make it available to
everybody else !

Although this is done, it does not satisfy all the users due to diverse requirements

Custom

Semi-Custom
Design

Standard

Semi-custom: partially competed design which is customized by the user

Opamp is a good illustration of the advantages of semi-custom approach 4

 i
v1 v2 0 i i 0
v1
X short
open
X
v2

i can be any value v1 – v2 can be any value

Can something be both a short as well as open circuit ?

5
 Nullator and Norator
i
Nullator +
Current will be zero
Voltage will be zero
v
Input of an Op Amp

i
+
Norator
Current will be any value
Voltage will be any value
v
Output of an Op Amp
-
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 Difference Amplifier
-An amplifier that is sensitive to difference in input voltages and insensitive
to what is common.

vin1
vo
vin2
vid vin1 vin 2
vo Ad vid Acmvic
vin1 vin 2
vic Ad : Differential mode gain
2
Acm : Common mode gain

Ad Acm
Ad
Common Mode Rejection Ratio: CMRR 7
Acm
 Operational Amplifier
v1
vo
v2

A special kind of difference amplifier

1. Very High Differential-mode voltage gain

2. Very High Common mode Rejection ratio
3. Very High Input Resistance
4. Very Low output Resistance
5. …. 8
 Ideal Operational Amplifier

v1
vo
v2

1. Infinite Differential-mode voltage gain

2. Infinite Common mode Rejection ratio
3. Infinite Input Resistance
4. Zero output Resistance
5. …. 9
Example: LM 741

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Inside the opamp, there is a complicated circuit containing several transistors
and resistors.

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Simple equivalent circuit model of an opamp

v1
vo
v2

R0
v1 vo
+
vi +
Ri - AOL vi
- ~10Ω
v2
~105
~106 Ω
This assumes very high CMRR 12
 +VCC R0
v1 vo
v1 +
vo Ri vi +
v2 - AOL vi
-
-VCC v2

vo
VCC vo Aol vi

vi

-VCC
Opamp is said to be saturated

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 R0
v1 v1 vo
vo +
v2 Ri vi +
- AOL vi
-
v2

+ve
vo
+ve

vo
-ve
+ve

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How do we amplify this signal?

+12V
vS v1
vo
v2
-12V
vs 1mV Sin( t )

vS vO

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 R0
v1 vo
+
vi +
vS vO Ri - AOL vi
-
v2

R0
vS vo
+
vi + vo Aol vS 102 Sin( t )
Ri - AOL vi
-

But opamp voltage is limited to 12V

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Simulation Results

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How do we amplify this signal then ?

+12V
v1
vS vo vS vO
v2
-12V

vs 1mV Sin( t )

1. Attenuate the signal to 0.1mV and then amplify ?

2. …….

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A Better Solution
A Better Solution
R2

R1
vo R2
VS VO vS R1

Amplifier has feedback

If the feedback signal helps the input voltage we have positive
feedback, otherwise negative.
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This is the approach to overcome requirement of small signal restrictions!
 Feedback

vIN AV vout

vIN
Σ AV vout

Feedback
network 20
Negative and Positive Feedback
vIN + VIN - Vfb
Σ AV vout
vfb -

Negative feedback
Feedback
network

vIN + VIN + Vfb

Σ AV vout
vfb +

Positive feedback
Feedback 21
network
Negative and Positive Feedback
v
vi A vO
+
-
vfb

v
vi -A vO
+
-
vfb
22
Opamp circuits classification

Negative feedback

Closed loop
Or feedback

Opamp circuits Positive feedback

Open loop

Most Opamp Circuits employ negative feedback

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 Inverting Amplifier
Like ‘Ground’ too
R2
i i

R1 +
Vi=0
-
VS VO

Hence the name Virtual ground

vx
i Input is a nullator
Output is a norator 24
Virtual Ground Property

+12V
v1
v2
vo v1 v2
-12V

In an opamp with negative feedback, the voltage of the inverting

terminal is equal to the voltage of the non-inverting terminal if
the gain of the opamp is sufficiently high

This property does not hold under certain conditions such as

 open loop,
 positive feedback
 or if the opamp is saturated.
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 Two important property for analyzing ideal opamp circuits
under negative feedback

+12V
v1
vo
v2
-12V

1. v1 v2

2. i1 i2 0

At the input side opamp appears to be like a short and an open circuit
simultaneously ! 26
 Inverting Amplifier
Re-analyze inverting amplifier with these properties
R2
is vs / R1
is
R1
0
VS VO

0 vo vs vo R2
is
R2 R1 vS R1
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 Non-Inverting Amplifier
R2
is vs / R1
R1 is 1. v1 v2
VS
VO 2. i1 i2 0
VS

vo vS vs vo R2
is 1
R2 R1 vS R1
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Examples
10K
10K

1K
1K
VO
VO
10mV
10mV

vo R2 vo R2
vo 100mV 1 vo 110mV
vS R1 vS R1

1mA

0 vo
1mA vo 10V 29
10K
 Adder i is 2
Rf s1
is1 vs1 / R1
R1

R2
0
VS1 VO

VS2

is2 vs2 / R2
0 vo vs1 vs 2 Rf Rf
is1 is 2 vo ( vs1 vs 2 )
Rf R1 R2 R1 R2
Rf
For R1 =R 2 =R vo (vs1 vs 2 ) 30
R
 Alternative Analysis
Rf

R1
Rf
VS1 R2 VO

R1

VS1 R2 VO
VS2
Rf

R1

R2 VO
Rf Rf
vo ( )vs1 ( )vs1 VS2
R1 R2

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Design Example
Design a circuit that would generate the following output given three input voltages
vs1, vs2 and vs3.
vo 10vs1 4vs2 5vs3
Rf

R1
Rf Rf
VS1 R2 VO vo vs1 vs 2
VS2 R1 R2

Rf

R1 R2
Rf Rf Rf
VS1 vo vs1 vs 2 vs3
VO R1 R2 R3
VS2
R3
VS3
Choose : R f 10 K R1 1K

R2 2.5K R3 2K 32
Design Example
Design a circuit that would generate the following output given three input voltages
vs1, vs2 and vs3.
vo 10vs1 4vs2

Rf

R4 Rp Rp Rf
vo ( vs1 vs 2 ) (1 )
R1 VO R1 R2 R4

VS1 R2 R3
RP R1 R2 R3
VS2

Homework problem !
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 R

VS1
R VO vo (vs1 vs 2 )
VS2

R
R

R
R
R
VS1 VO1
VS2 VO

vo1 (vs1 vs 2 ) vo vo1 vo (vs1 vs 2 )

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Have we made some assumption here ?
Example

R R
vx vO
vo1

vs R R

vo1 vo
0.5 0.5
vs vx

vo vo
vo1 vx 0.5
vx vo1

vo vo vo1
0.5 0.5 0.25
vs vo1 vs 35
BUT R R
vo
vo
0.2
vs
vs
R R

Where is the error ?

R R
vx vO
vo1

vs R R
vo1 vx

vo1 vo1 vo
0.5 0.5 0.5
vs vs vx

Circuit-1 gets ‘loaded’ by circuit-2 and its output vs. input characteristics 36
get modified.
 Loading Effect
vo
Circuit Circuit Load
vo

vs vs

Vo in general gets altered when we connect a load to it

Under what conditions is change in VO small upon

connection of a load ?
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Example

1K 1M
vx vO
vo1

vs 1K 1M

vo1 vo1
0.5 0.5
vs vs

We can describe this effect in terms of output resistance

1K
Ro 0.5K RL 2M
vo1

vs 1K

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 Loading Effect

Whenever output resistance of a circuit is much smaller than

the load resistance, the loading effect is minimal.

Ro RL

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 R

VS1
R VO vo (vs1 vs 2 )
VS2

R
R

R
R
R
VS1 VO1
VS2 VO

vo1 (vs1 vs 2 ) vo vo1 vo (vs1 vs 2 )

The assumption made here is that there is no loading which is

40
reasonable because opamps have very low resistance
Example
R
2R

R
R
R
2V VO1
VO
1V

vo 2R
R R 1 vo 9V
vo1 { 1 2} 3V vo1 R
R R

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 R3
Subtractor vs1 vs 2
R3 R2 R3
vs 2
R2 R3 R1
vs1 vs 2
R3 Rf
R2 R3
R1
R1

VO
VS1
R2
VS2 R3 R3
vs 2
R2 R3

R3 R3 R3
vs 2 vo vs1 vs 2 Rf Rf
R2 R3 R2 R3 R2
vo vs 2 (1 ) ( )vs1
Rf R1 R3 R1 R1
(1 ) 42
R2
 Rf

R1

VO
VS1
R2
VS2 R3

R3
R2 Rf Rf R3 Rf
vo vs 2 (1 ) ( )vs1 Choose
R3 R1 R1
(1 ) R2 R1
R2

Rf
vo (vs 2 vs1 )
R1 43
Subtractor: Alternative Analysis Rf

R1
Rf
VO
VS1
R1 R2
R3

VO
VS1
R2
VS2
Inverting amplifier
R3

Rf

R1
Use superposition theorem
VO
VS1
R2
Rf R3 Rf VS2 R3
vo ( )vs1 + vs 2 (1 )
R1 ( R3 R2 ) R1
Non-inverting amplifier

Analysis is made simpler by Re-Using results derived

earlier 44
Adder/Subtractor

Rf
R2

VS2 R1

R3 VO
VS1

VS3 R4 R5

VS4

Rf Rf R5 R4 Rf
vo ( )vs1 + ( ) vs 2 + vs 3 (1 )
R1 R2 R5 R4 R3 R1 R2
R5 R3 Rf
+ vs 4 (1 )
R5 R3 R4 R1 R2 45
Adder/Subtractor

Rf
R2

VS2 R1

R3 VO
VS1

VS3 R4 R5
RP R3 R4 R5
VS4

Rf Rf R Rf
vo ( )vs1 + ( ) vs 2 + vs 3 P (1 )
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2

R Rf
+ vs 4 P (1 )
R4 R1 R2 46
Example
Rf
R2

VS2 R1

VS1 R3 VO
vo 10vs1 4vs2 5vs3 2vs4
VS3 R4 R5
VS4
RP R3 R4 R5

Rf Rf Rf
RP Rf RP
vo ( )vs1 ( )vs 2 (1 ) vs3 (1 ) vs 4
R1 R2 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R4

Choose : R f 10 K R1 1K R2 2.5K

RP RP R4
0.33 0.133 2.5
R3 R4 R3

Choose : R3 1K R4 2.5K RP 0.33K R5 0.625

47 K