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FEATURES
Balancing Act
CONTENTS February 2011
STRUCTURE
IN EVERY ISSUE
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STRUCTURE® (Volume 18, Number 2). ISSN 1536-4283.
Seismic Design Parameters for Publications Agreement No. 40675118. Owned by the
National Council of Structural Engineers Associations and
Haiti and Other Countries published in cooperation with CASE and SEI monthly by C3
Ink. The publication is distributed free of charge to members
of NCSEA, CASE and SEI; the non-member subscription
Following.the.Haiti.earthquake.in.January.2010,.many.structural.engineers.contributing.to. rate is $65/yr domestic; $35/yr student; $90/yr Canada;
the.rebuilding.efforts.struggled.to.find.the.ground.motion.hazard.data.necessary.to.perform. $125/yr foreign. For change of address or duplicate copies,
seismic.design.calculations..Noting.the.shortcomings.of.previously.available.hazard.information. contact your member organization(s). Any opinions expressed
in STRUCTURE magazine are those of the author(s) and do not
for.Haiti,.the.U.S..Geological.Survey.(USGS).constructed.new.seismic.hazard.maps.for.that. necessarily reflect the views of NCSEA, CASE, SEI, C3 Ink, or the
country.(http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1067/)..USGS.has.subsequently.developed.Maximum. STRUCTURE Editorial Board.
Considered.Earthquake.(MCE).ground.motions.compatible.with.current.editions.of.the. STRUCTURE® is a registered trademark of National Council of
International Building Code (IBC)..These.data.have.been.incorporated.into.the.USGS.Worldwide Structural Engineers Associations (NCSEA). Articles may not be
Seismic DesignMaps Web Application (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/designmaps/ww/),. reproduced in whole or in part without the written permission
of the publisher.
which.provides.IBC-compatible.spectral.response.acceleration.parameters.(Ss.and.S1).for.
many.locations.around.the.world..Other.data.sources.currently.reflected.in.the.Worldwide
DesignMaps.application.include.the.Department.of.Defense.Unified.Facilities.Criteria,.the. National Council of Structural
Global.Seismic.Hazard.Assessment.Program,.and.the.USGS.preliminary.earthquake.hazard. Engineers Associations
maps.for.Afghanistan.(http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1137/);.more.datasets.will.be.added. www.ncsea.com
as.time.allows..As.it.already.has.for.Haiti,.USGS.hopes.that.Worldwide DesignMaps will.serve.
as.a.valuable.tool.for.engineers.designing.structures.for.sites.in.other.seismically.active.areas.
around.the.world. C3 Ink, Publishers
A Division of Copper Creek Companies, Inc.
For.more.information,.please.contact.Nicolas.Luco,.Eric.Martinez,.Sean.McGowan,.or.Greg. 148 Vine St., Reedsburg WI 53959
Smoczyk.at.wwdesignmaps@usgs.gov. P-608-524-1397 F-608-524-4432
publisher@STRUCTUREmag.org
I
n last month’s Editorial, John Mercer touched on the impor- will also help you to fulfill continuing education requirements. Mr.
tance of continuing education and the chance to fulfill some Mercer’s comments about continuing education requirements piqued
of those requirements by attending the CASE Winter Meeting my interest in their status nationwide. Although continuing education
and the NCSEA Winter Institute in Jacksonville, Florida in has been required in my home state since 1997, requirements vary in
late February. CASE and NCSEA have joined together this year to many of the other states I´m registered in. Having been chosen several
have their winter meetings in the same location and during the same times for random audits, I appreciate the importance of maintaining
week, which allows attendees the opportunity to attend both events. accurate records of those activities and making sure one complies with
NCSEA’s Winter Institute is purposely held in a location to allow the requirements of each jurisdiction.
those in colder climes to escape winter for a few days. This year it will The NCEES (National Council of Examiners for Engineering and
be held on February 25 and 26 and is entitled Deferred Submittals: Surveying) is a non-profit organization that represents the licensing
What the EOR Needs to Know and Why, From Design to Construction. boards from all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto
In addition to presentations and discussions on a broad range of topics Rico and the Virgin Islands. NCEES has advocated for uniform
regarding deferred submittals, tours of a steel joist facility and precast licensing requirements for many years, as well as continuing educa-
concrete plant are included. The topic of deferred submittals is one tion requirements. According to Wikipedia, the first state to require
that affects practicing structural engineers on a regular basis and has continuing education was Iowa in 1979. As of this date, not all states
important implications for acceptable performance of projects. If a require continuing education; but according to the NCEES website,
serious problem occurs as a result of the performance of a deferred 36 states plus Puerto Rico now require “continuing professional
submittal item, the EOR will surely be involved in the resolution. competency” (CPC), as they term it.
Delegating design responsibility for certain project elements is a The NCEES website includes a manual entitled Continuing
necessity. Many elements of structures are proprietary in nature and Professional Competency Guidelines, dated October 2010. This manual
can vary substantially depending on the supplier. The EOR cannot be provides guidelines for jurisdictions that have, or are planning to
caught up with the minutia of specialty cladding elements or pieces have, CPC requirements for licensure renewal. The official position of
of equipment that may be used. Some elements, such as steel stairs, NCEES with regard to CPC is summarized in the manual as follows:
can offer substantial savings to projects if design is left to suppliers
NCEES endorses the establishment of uniform continuing profes-
who can utilize their standard components. While at times delegating
sional competency (CPC) requirements for licensed professional
design to others may seem to be an expedient way to shift the work to
engineers and surveyors to promote the health, safety, and welfare
others, it includes an obligation for the EOR to follow through with
of the public by requiring licensees to remain competent within
review of the subsequent submittal with regard to its completeness
their profession and to facilitate renewal.
and its impact on the remaining structure. There is also an obligation
by the engineer designing the deferred submittal to keep in mind the The manual includes a model law and model rules for jurisdictions
parameters of the supporting structure. The interface between the to follow. The manual also includes a recommended form to use
supporting structure and the deferred submittal item is a particularly for record keeping that can be useful if your state doesn’t provide
troublesome area. one. The model rules require 15 PDHs per year. Most of the states
Our firm recently received a deferred submittal for an exhaust with continuing education requirements follow the recommended
stack of a large piece of mechanical equipment. The engineering number of hours, with the remaining states and Puerto Rico requir-
firm designing the stack utilized a very conservative design, which ing somewhat fewer hours. NCEES should be commended for their
included much higher wind loads than required by code and wind work, as it seems that substantial progress has been made in achieving
load on the portion of the stack interior to the building. While a uniformity as a result of their efforts.
conservative design of the stack components made sense, the resul- We hope to see you in Jacksonville later this month to attend the
tant forces on the existing structure NCSEA Winter Institute. The potential benefits of attending will
were much higher than we originally go far beyond satisfying continuing education requirements. The
®
assumed and could not be resisted information presented will broaden your understanding of the vital
structure
without substantial building modifi- issues regarding deferred submittals. A side benefit of attending will
cation. After a number of conference be the contacts you will develop with your structural engineering
a member benefit
calls and resubmissions of the calcu- colleagues and suppliers of structural elements.▪
lations, as well as our own analysis,
we were able to arrive at a reasonable
Brad Moyes, P.E., S.E. joined KPFF in 1974 and was named
result; however, it was a very time
a Principal of the firm in 1991. He is a registered professional
consuming and frustrating process.
engineer in twenty-three states and a LEED Accredited Professional.
Attending the Winter Institute will
Brad is past president of the Structural Engineers Association of
STRUCTURAL help you understand the many pit-
ENGINEERING
Oregon and the American Concrete Institute Oregon Chapter.
INSTITUTE
falls associated with deferred submittals
and how to avoid them. Attendance
T
he American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) recently issued
Cold-Formed Steel Special a brand new standard S110, Standard for Seismic Design
of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Systems–Special Bolted
Bolted Moment Frames Moment Frames, which covers cold-formed steel seismic
force-resisting systems. While there are plans to include additional
cold-formed steel seismic force-resisting systems in the future, the
first system introduced in this standard is called the Cold-Formed Steel Special Bolted
Now a Code-Recognized System Moment Frame (CFS-SBMF). This type of one-story framing system is commonly used for
free standing mezzanines (industrial platform), elevated office support platforms, equipment
By Chia-Ming Uang, Ph.D.
support platforms, and small buildings in all seismic areas (Figure 1). The frame is typically
and Atsushi Sato, Ph.D.
composed of cold-formed Hollow Structural Section (HSS) columns and C-section beams.
Beams are connected to the column by using snug-tight high-strength bolts (Figure 2). If
needed, bearing plates are welded to the web of the beams in the connection region to increase
the bearing strength at bolt holes.
The strong column-weak beam seismic design philosophy adopted in AISC 341, Seismic
Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings, for Special Moment Frame is not applicable for a
CFS-SBMF because cold-formed steel C-section beams usually do not satisfy the stringent
C-section Beam h
Channel Beam
HSS Column HSS Column
CL B CL
ELEVATION VIEW B-B
8 February 2011
Table 1: Member Sizes and Bolted Connection Configuration.
Specimen Beam Column B e a r i n g Bolted Connection
No. Plate, in. a (in) b (in) c (in)
1, 2 12CS3½×105 HSS8×8×¼ 0.135 2.5 3 4.25 Analytical Modeling of
3 16CS3½×105 HSS8×8×¼ N/A 3 6 4.25 Moment Connection
4 16CS3½×105 HSS8×8×¼ 0.135 3 6 4.25 Figure 5(b) (page 10) shows the free-body
5, 6, 7 16CS3½×135 HSS8×8×¼ N/A 3 6 4.25 diagram of a column with a beam framing
into it. With the pin-based column resisting a
8, 9 20CS3½×135 HSS10×10×¼ N/A 3 10 6.25 shear force, the bolt group in the connection
region is subjected to a load, VC, with a large
eccentricity, h, which is the story height. The
seismic compactness requirement. Instead, the a portion of an 8-foot, 3-inch high CFS-
concept of instantaneous center (IC) of rota-
ductility capacity is provided through bolt slip-SBMF with a bay width of 11 feet. Figure
tion can be used to compute the response of
page and bearing in bolted beam-to-column 3 shows the test setup; the column was ori-
a bolted connection. The slip resistance, Rs,
moment connections, and beams and columns ented horizontally to facilitate testing. Having
and bearing resistance, RB, of a single bolt are:
are designed to remain elastic at the design assumed that the beam inflection point was at
story drift to resist the maximum force that can the mid-span, the beam length on each side RS = kT Equation 1
be developed in the moment connections. A of the column was half the bay width. The
RB = Rult[1–e–µδbr]λ Equation 2
cyclic testing program that verifies this conceptbeam was connected to the column by eight
was conducted. To calculate the maximum 1-inch diameter, bearing type high-strength where k (slip coefficient) = 0.19 for a galva-
seismic effect in the beams and columns, an bolts. ASTM A607 Class 1, Gr. 50 steel was nized surface condition, T = bolt tension force,
analytical model for the yielding element was specified for the beams and ASTM A500 Gr. Rult (ultimate bearing strength) = 2.1dtFu, δbr =
then developed based on the concept of instan- B steel was specified for the columns. The bearing deformation (in.), e = 2.718, and µ,
taneous center of rotation of a bolt group. To beams were galvanized with zinc, while the λ = regression coefficients. With the values of
facilitate design, this analytical model was usedcolumns were coated with a zinc-rich paint. T = 17.5 kips, µ = 5, and λ = 0.55, response
to develop equations and tables for inclusion in The testing showed all specimens behaved predicted by the instantaneous center of rota-
AISI S110. A study based on the FEMA P695 in a very ductile manner, and the inter-story tion method envelopes very well the cyclic
methodology was also conducted to verify that drift capacity was significantly higher than the response of the test specimens with varying
the proposed seismic performance factors (R 0.04 radian inter-story drift angle required by member sizes and bolt configurations (Figure
and Cd factors) can provide a sufficient margin AISC 341 for Special Moment Frames (Figure 6, page 10). The analysis procedure was also
against collapse for the Maximum Considered 4). The cyclic behavior of all test specimens generalized to model the cyclic response for
Earthquake. AISI S110 has been adopted by was dominated by the slip-bearing action in subsequent nonlinear time-history analysis.
ASCE 7-10, and this system will be recognized the bolted moment connection. The global continued on next page
in the 2012 International Building Code. response is characterized by three regions.
Initially, the subassembly responded elastically
with the bolted connection acting essen-
Test Program tially as a rigid joint. Bolt slip was observed
15
10
A total of nine full-scale interior beam-column during the 0.75% through 2% drift cycles,
5
subassemblies were tested; see Table 1 for the which corresponded to the flat plateaus in
Load (kips)
member sizes. The subassemblies simulated the global response. Then the bolts started 0
to bear against the beam and -5
99 in. column webs at about 3% drift,
Reaction
-10
60 in. which resulted in a significant
Wall
(a)
larger width-thickness ratios
Column (w/t) to study the effect of local 1500
W14x99
1000
enced beam or column buckling 500
Moment (kip-in)
Moment (kip-in)
Column h ponents corresponding to the resistance of the
0
eccentrically loaded bolt group due to bolt
slip and bearing, respectively. Based on the -500
Test
analytical model presented earlier, equations -1000
(a)
and tables have been developed and provided
-1500
in AISI 110 to calculate these two quantities.
IC -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
r0 Slip-Bearing Rotation (rad)
CG (a)
dmax Seismic Performance Factors
2000
Based on the large ductility capacity observed
from the cyclic testing of beam-column sub- 1000
C-section Beam
h assemblies, a value of 3.5 for the Response
Moment (kip-in)
Modification Coefficient, R, was proposed. 0
HSS Column
Recognizing that the hysteresis behavior of
VC
a CFS-SBMF exhibits a yield-like plateau -1000
(b) that is followed by a significant hardening in
the moment connection region, a statistical -2000
Figure 5: Bolt Group in Eccentric Shear: (a) CFS- evaluation through nonlinear time-history -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
SBMF; (b) Freebody “A”. analysis showed that the Newmark-Hall Slip-Bearing Rotation (rad)
ductility reduction rule to account for the (b)
Seismic Design Concept benefit of ductility is conservative. A revised
Figure 6: Measured versus Predicted Responses: (a)
rule was proposed, which was then used to Specimen 3; (b) Specimen 4.
Figure 7 shows the expected response of a
derive the Deflection Amplification Factor,
CFS-SBMF. The elastic seismic force cor-
Cd. The derivation gave Cd = R/1.2 (≈ 3.0).
responding to the Design Basis Earthquake
Conservatively, this value is adjusted up to within the configurations used in the ini-
(DBE, point “e”) is reduced by the R factor (=
3.5 for adoption by ASCE 7-10. tial research. AISI S110-07 with S1-09 was
3.5) to point “d” for sizing beams, columns,
Once the designer calculates the design recently adopted as a reference in the 2012
and bolted moment connections in accor-
story drift using the Cd factor, the AISI International Building Code and is available
dance with the AISI S100. Unlike other steel
S110 design procedure then can be used for purchase online at AISI’s Publications
seismic force-resisting systems where point “d”
to compute the maximum seismic force in Bookstore at www.steel.org/shopaisi.▪
represents the first significant yielding event,
the moment connection (point
CFS-SBMF actually would “yield” at a lower
“c” in Figure 7). Although this
seismic force level (point “a”) due to slippage Beam
procedure eliminates the need ∆ ∆ ∆
of the bolts in moment connections. A hori- Σ(V +R V )
to specify an empirical System S t B
zontal plateau (points “a” to “b”) would result
Overstrength Factor, Ω0, for
due to the oversize of the bolt holes. As the Column
consistency with the format of h
story drift is increased, the lateral resistance
other framing systems, a default
of the frame starts to increase from point “b”
value of 3.0 is adopted in ASCE
once the oversized hole is overcome and the
7-10. The adequacy of these
bearing action of the bolts starts to occur. VS+RtVB VS+RtVB VS+RtVB
proposed seismic performance
The designer amplifies the story drift at point
factors to ensure a sufficient (a)
“d” by the Deflection Amplification Factor Cd
margin of safety against col-
to estimate the maximum inelastic story drift
lapse under the Maximum Base Shear Corresponding linear system
(∆ at point “c”) that is expected to occur in
Considered Earthquake has
a Design Basis Earthquake event. To ensure e Actual Response
also been verified by FEMA VDBE
that beams and columns will remain elastic,
P695, Quantification of Building
the challenge then is to evaluate the maxi- c
Seismic Performance Factors. x1/R
mum seismic force corresponding to point K
In October 2009, AISI pub-
“c” while considering the effect of significant d
lished Supplement No. 1 to
hardening due to bolt bearing. This seismic Vd
AISI S110-07. In Supplement a b
force level, which is equivalent to the seismic
No. 1, revisions were made nVS
load effect with overstrength, Emh , in ASCE
to the document adopting all
7, represents the required strength for the o ∆y ∆d ∆DBE ∆ Story Drift
the modifications included in
beams and columns. Specifically, the required xCd
ASCE 7-10, Chapter 14. The
moment for both beam and column at the
majority of these modifications
connection location is: (b)
ensure that the application of
Me = h(VS + RtVB) Equation 3 the design provisions remains Figure 7: CBF-SBMF Expected Response: (a) Yield Mechanism
and Column Shear Distribution; (b) General Structural Response.
DeSign
Cold-Formed Steel – Special Bolted Moment Frame (CFS-SBMF) are found in
ASCE 7-10, the detailing requirements for this system can be found in the 2007 edition of
the AISI S110 standard including Supplement 1-09. Although newly adopted, this framing
system has been used in the construction of free standing platforms (mezzanines), equipment
support platforms, elevated office support platforms, portal frames and small buildings for
design issues for many years. Structures built in high seismic areas have demonstrated good performance in
structural engineers seismic events; however, up until recently no test data was available to show why and how
this system resisted seismic forces. A companion article in this issue details the testing and
analysis performed at UCSD. (See Codes & Standards, page 8.)
consistently as an
energy dissipation
By Ken Wood, P.E. c HSS Column
mechanism, which is a key element in devel-
oping a seismic force-resisting system. The
design requirements in AISI S110, which were
developed from the testing, allow the engineer
to design a framing system based on the Figure 1: Bolted Connection-SBMF.
Figure 1: Bolted Connection-SBMF
connection response, so the beams and columns
Ken Wood, P.E. is the Principal of KL will remain elastic during a significant seismic on the beam and column selection is in Table
Wood Engineering, Inc. He is a member event. The capacity design for a yielding element C-D1.2-1 or Table C-D1.2-2 of AISI S110.
of the AISI COS Sub-32 committee – in this case the bolted connection – is required These are the only connection combinations
responsible for the development of in order to determine the maximum seismic for which coefficients have been developed to
AISI-A110. Ken can be reached at effect in the non-yielding members (beams and be used in the analysis of the column shear.
klwoodengineerin@qwestoffice.net. columns) at the design story (amplified) drift, Once the framing system has been selected,
∆. The connection, when subjected to a seismic an analysis should be performed, using the
event, resists rotation by developing the expected applicable building code load combinations
moment resulting from two force resisting com- with R = 3.5 (ASCE 7-10, Table 12.2-1),
ponents (Figure 2) in the connection. of the system to establish the structural
The first force resisting component is due period. Using ASCE 7 Equation 12.8-3 (Cs
to slip of the faying surfaces and, if the seis- = SD1/T(R/I) for T≤TL) times the appropriate
mic event is significant enough, then the seismic mass, Ws, for the structure use, the
second force resisting component, the bear- total base shear is calculated for the frame
ing component, develops in the connection line being checked. Once the base shear is
Column Shear
to complete the total shear demand on the established, the drift can be calculated by
Vb range
columns (∑n(Vs+RtVb) (Figure 3). From this dividing the total base shear by the structural
total column shear the expected moment (Me = framing lateral stiffness, K. This drift, ∆, when
Vs h(Vs+RtVb)(Eq. D1.2.3.1-1) can be computed. amplified by Cd, is the design story drift used
in the first check to determine if the bearing
component Vb of the connection is zero or
Story Drift The Design Procedure not. In order for Vb to be zero, ∆ must be
∆s The first step in the design process is to select less than ∆s+∆y. If Vb = 0, then the expected
∆ y+∆ s a beam and column combination (see Table connection moment is simply Me = Vsh. If Vb
∆y
C-D1.1-1 in AISI S110) and determine a is zero, then the value for Vs can be calculated
Figure
Figure 2:2: Structural
Structural Response
Response of Bolted of Bolted
Connection
standard beam to column connection from using AISI S110, Equation D1.2.3.1-2. See
Connection. this selection. The standard connection based Figure 4 for a flow chart on the design process.
12 February 2011
∆
beam capacity is based on the beam being braced properly in all three axes. No
Beams: 2C20x3 ½x.135 capacity ΦMn = 187 kip-ft Me = V s h
Max. demand Mu = 83.24 kip-ft Load combination: 1.2D+1.6L Compute ∆ b per Eq. (C-∆1.2-9)
I
s a tiny detail worth getting right? Does Many of the stone slabs on the Arsht Center
selection of a self-drilling screw merit an exterior, weighing approximately 200 pounds
engineer’s attention? each, are held in place by six ¼-inch structural
Over 50,000 self-drilling, self-tap- self–drilling screws.
ping screws were
used to hold slabs
Hard Facts About Hardening
Small Details, Big Consequences of Sardinian granite
onto the exterior of Screws capable of self-drilling and self-
the massive Adrienne tapping in structural steel are a relatively
Arsht Center for the Performing Arts in recent invention, dating back to the 1970s.
The Right Type of Fastener Can Miami, Florida. This detail was important They drill their own holes and tap their own
Make the Difference Between enough to warrant specifying a specialized threads, making the substrate act as the nut
fastener – a selectively-hardened self-drilling that secures the fastener. Hundreds of mil-
Success and Failure screw – instead of the conventional case- lions are used around the world every year.
hardened fasteners that are widely used in Attachment of cladding systems is one of
By Gregg Melvin and Steven H. Miller, CDT
the industry. The reasons for this selection their major uses, but they are also specified
might be surprising. in a wide variety of structural applications.
In order to drill into metal, fasteners need
an integral drill-point that is harder than the
The Adrienne Arsht Center metal being penetrated. This is achieved by first
for the Performing Arts forming the fastener, and then hardening it.
Case-hardening has been the most common
Gregg Melvin (gmelvin@acument.com) The Arsht Center is the second largest per-
method used. Low-carbon steel fasteners are
is a senior applications engineer with Elco forming arts center in the US, a 570,000
heated in a high-carbon environment, infus-
Construction Products. He has been in the square foot complex that took five years to
ing carbon into the outer layer of the steel
fastener industry for more than 20 years. construct. Its two main structures, the Sanford
and creating a hardened shell, or case, that is
and Dolores Ziff Ballet Opera House and
Steven H. Miller, CDT (steven@chusid.com) hard enough to drill and tap soft steel. The
the John S. and James L. Knight Concert
is an award-winning writer and photographer inner core of the fastener remains softer and
Hall, include a 2400-seat theater, a 2200-seat
specializing in issues of the construction more ductile.
concert hall, and a 200-seat studio theater.
industry. He works with Chusid Associates, a
What appears to be stone architecture
technical and marketing consultant to makers
reminiscent of ancient structural methods
of advanced building products.
is actually two layers of very modern design:
a backing wall of concrete masonry units
(CMUs) and a decorative veneer of granite
just 1.4 inches thick. The stone slabs, which
averaged 2.5 feet by 4 feet, were made from
three different kinds of granite, each requiring
slightly different treatment because of varia-
tions in thickness and hardness. The wind
loads reach 140 psf near the roofline of the
structures, which are located in one of only
Self-drilling, self-tapping screws install quickly
two High Velocity Hurricane Zones under
using hand-tools. Courtesy of CDC Curtainwall
Florida’s stringent building codes. Design Consulting, Inc.
14 February 2011
The chief weakness of these fasteners can be, fasteners were perfected. These highly cor-
ironically, their hardness. Only the drill tip rosion-resistant units are made by fusing
and the first few threads need to be hardened a high-carbon steel drill-tip and tapping
for self-drilling. The part of a screw used for threads onto a 300 series (18-8) stainless
load-bearing, however, is the main section of steel screw shank. The tip is then selectively
the shank, behind the tapping-threads and hardened. These bi-metallic fasteners soon
up to the head. That section has no need of emerged as the fastener of choice for exteriors
surface hardening; unfortunately, case-hard- and other aggressive environments.
ening is not selective and the entire fastener Now, a new generation of fasteners is being
is treated. introduced that offer much higher loading
Hardened steel can account for about 25% capacities for a given diameter, allowing sig-
of the total diameter of the screw. The hard- nificant reductions in the number of fasteners A granite slab is held in place on the exterior of the
ened metal is brittle, not ductile. The effect that need to be used for an application. These Arsht Center using a two-part clip assembly. Courtesy
is that the cross-sectional area of ductile steel new fasteners utilize a “super” alloy and a of CDC Curtainwall Design Consulting, Inc.
can be reduced to 75% or less. In certain proprietary heating process that results in steel
situations, as discussed below, that ductility of very high tensile strength, and possessing a Brittle materials tend to shatter easily under
is highly desirable. specific micro-structure that impedes delayed impulsive loading. However, the energy of
Selectively-hardened self-drilling fasteners hydrogen damage. They have been subjected these loads can be dissipated by ductile struc-
were developed about 20 years ago. They to Rising Step Load testing, in which samples tural elements that deform without failing.
perform the same function as case-hardened are exposed to a solution with high hydrogen With a case-hardened screw, the ductile
units but avoid surface hardening of the load- content and put under stress that is periodi- steel can be diminished to 75% or less of
bearing portion of the fastener. In selective cally increased over a number of hours. The the full cross-sectional area. This makes the
hardening, only the drill-tip and tapping fasteners were stressed up to 70% of their ulti- fastener more vulnerable to failure under an
threads of the unit are hardened. The entire mate strength (average 190 ksi/1,310 Mpa) impulsive load.
head and the main length of the shank remain and showed no signs of hydrogen-induced In a selectively-hardened screw, the full
softer and more ductile. damage. They easily exceed the loading stan- diameter remains ductile, more likely to
The first selectively-hardened fasteners were dards for the highest SAE grade, grade 8. Their stretch than to break under extreme loading.
made of a single piece of special, high-carbon tested ultimate strength is also higher than the This makes selectively-hardened fasteners a
steel alloy. Since carbon is already present ultimate strength of the highest metric bolt good choice for building enclosure systems for
in the metal, enrichment in a high carbon standard, grade 12.9. structures in seismic zones and severe weather
chamber is unnecessary. Instead, the fastener These super-high-strength, selectively- conditions, buildings that require high secu-
tip is passed through a high-voltage induction hardened fasteners can save money. They are rity or are considered likely targets for violent
coil to heat it, hardening it to approximately expected to cost approximately 20% more attack, and buildings adjacent to potential
Rockwell hardness HRC 52, while leaving than a selectively-hardened fastener of the attack targets.
the rest of the fastener unaffected at Rockwell type used on the Arsht Center. They can Surprisingly, however, hurricane-rated fas-
hardness in the range of HRC 28-34. reduce the number of fasteners needed for a teners were not required for the cladding
Since the Arsht Center was built, the sci- given load by up to 40%, a potential savings on the Arsht Center. The granite slabs were
ence of selectively-hardened fasteners has of 20% on materials cost. considered a sacrificial veneer that could
continued to advance. First, bi-metallic The savings on labor – from installing fewer break and fall off without compromising the
screws – can multiply the savings on mate- weather-proof “skin” of the building.
rials several fold. According to Joe Brescia,
founder and CEO of Architectural Glass and
Aluminum, a leading provider of architectural
Designed-In Danger
glazing and cladding, installation gets more Instead, selectively-hardened fasteners were
expensive the higher you are above ground. chosen because of a little-known but signifi-
Above 10 stories, it costs about $6.00 for cant issue: due to the use of dissimilar metals
every part installed. This means that, even for in the attachment of the stone slabs, there was
an expensive fastener that might cost $1.00 a significant risk of hydrogen assisted stress
or $1.20 each, switching to the super alloy corrosion cracking (HASCC), also known as
fasteners will save enough on labor to make delayed hydrogen embrittlement. HASCC is
the fasteners themselves better than free. a by-product of galvanic reaction, but it only
affects steel hardened above certain levels.
HASCC can cause the heads of standard
Extreme Loading quality, properly load-rated, code-approved
Under extreme loading situations such as hur- fasteners to pop off without warning, poten-
Bi-metallic fasteners are also selectively-hardened. The
ricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, or explosions, tially causing failure of the cladding system.
drill-tip and tapping threads are high-carbon steel,
fused to a stainless steel shank (left, before coating).
the ductility of fasteners becomes a significant Under test conditions, it can occur in as little
The high-carbon steel is hardened, leaving the shank issue. These loads are applied impulsively, as 24 hours. It can also occur in a fastener that
unaffected. The entire fastener is then covered with like a hammer-blow, which can produce a has been in service, under load, for 20 years,
corrosion-protective/galvanic barrier coating (right). different type of response from gradual or if moisture is introduced.
Courtesy of Elco Construction Products. continuous loading in a structural element. continued on next page
aluminum clip and an unprotected steel screw. Even though the fastener would
be immune to HASCC, galvanic action would cause accelerated corrosion of
the aluminum, weakening it at the connection point and possibly resulting in
pull-through.
The slab joints are then sealed with a non-staining silicone to protect against
wind and rain infiltration.
Costs
Although usually more expensive on a per-unit basis, selectively-hardened fas-
Selectively-hardened fasteners are hardened by passing the drill-
teners can be less expensive in use than the more conventional case-hardened
tip through a heat-source. The main load-bearing section of the
shank remains ductile. Courtesy of Elco Construction Products.
ones. The drill-tips of conventional fasteners frequently snap off, wasting many
screws; this is rare, however, when using selectively-hardened fasteners, yield-
ing overall cost savings. Labor-reduction associated with the new super alloy
When galvanic reaction occurs, the hydrogen generated fasteners is expected to result in even more significant overall savings, especially
by the galvanic cell can cause HASCC. Then the hardened on high-rise structures.
case of the fastener can form micro-cracks right down to
the inner, ductile core. Since many of these fasteners have
hardness up to HRC 42, even the core is hard enough to
Summary
be vulnerable to embrittlement and micro-cracking can When designing structural connections between dissimilar metals, attention
continue inwards. This can compromise not only the must be paid to galvanic reaction. If hardened-steel parts such as self-drilling
hardened case but a considerable part of the softer core, screws are used for the connection, HASCC is also a possibility. Selectively-
leaving as little as 25% uncompromised metal. The design hardened fasteners with corrosion-preventative coating can avoid these dangers
load may then exceed the capacity of the screw, causing and protect the integrity of the structure. In exterior applications or aggressive
the head to pop off. interior environments, bi-metallic or super alloy fasteners are recommended.▪
Selectively-hardened fasteners are HRC 34 or less (Grade
5 strength) in the load-bearing portion of the shank and
head, and therefore immune to HASCC.
The cladding system of the Arsht Center involved alu-
minum, stainless steel, galvanized steel, and carbon steel.
Given so many possibilities for galvanic reactions and
HASCC, with so many metal combinations in a humid
environment, selectively-hardened fasteners made sense.
The Arsht Center granite was attached using aluminum
anchor clips that fit in kerf-slots on the edges of the stone
slabs. Top and bottom courses of stone were attached with
running aluminum extrusions the full width of the stone.
Intermediate courses have smaller clips, ranging from 8
to 12 inches long.
The anchor clips are two-piece aluminum assemblies.
One L-shaped piece is anchored to the CMU backing-
wall with 5/8-inch stainless steel wedge-bolts, painted
with yellow chromate to prevent corrosion. This piece is
anchored to the wall before lifting the stone slab into place.
The second piece is screwed to the first with three ¼-inch
selectively-hardened screws. This clip-piece has a down-
ward-facing lip that mates with the kerf-slot in the top
edge of the stone below it. Detail showing the two part clip assemblies, attached to the backing wall with a 5/8-inch
The fasteners have a corrosion-preventive coating for wedgebolt (F1), and connected with ¼-inch selectively-hardened self-drilling screws (F2).
long-term structural integrity. If moisture infiltrated the Courtesy of CDC Curtainwall Design Consulting, Inc.
clip assembly, it could set up a galvanic cell between the
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that span up to 20 feet wide and 19 feet tall. In fact, there are 368 pre-engineered
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or creating an “open” floor plan, Simpson Strong-Tie has the frame, which means
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I
n August of 1992, Hurricane Andrew hurricanes, the pounding hail of severe thun-
made landfall in southern Florida. derstorms, or wind-driven fire embers.
Andrew came on shore with torrential Privately funded by a consortium of insur-
rain accompanied by 145 mph sus- ance companies, this $40 million facility will
tained winds with 170 mph gusts, which produce new building standards for construc-
was measured before the equipment was tion practices, and test current and future
rendered inoperable by the ever increasing materials against the worst Mother Nature
winds. Andrew was has to offer. Real-world application of IBHS
Sketch-up view of a test specimen in the test chamber. Courtesy of Odell Associates, by Tommy Dew, Jr.
18 February 2011
construction, and weathering of the test
specimens where the shingles may be heated
to approximate the condition of weathered
roofing. The specimen (i.e., a two-story house)
is moved throughout the facility on a custom
designed motorized house moving system.
There are four key engineered components
of the IBHS Research Facility that are used to
facilitate these studies: the fan array and flow
contraction area, test chamber, turntable, and
fire protection systems.
Fan Array and Flow An overall view of the IBHS Test chamber and office building. Courtesy WALTER P MOORE.
Contraction Area the operation of the fans. Typical slabs and hurricane strength over land. The super-
The fan array and flow contraction area walls are made of 8-inch-thick precast panels. structure of the fan array is designed to
provides support for the 105 electric fans Stability along the axis of the chamber is support large 8,000-pound thrust from each
on one end and funnels the air through 15 provided by load-bearing walls, and stability fan, as well as the overall maximum thrust
tubes towards a smaller area on the other end, transverse to the axis is provided by external of 400 kips from the entire fan array. The
which increases the velocity of the moving air 1-foot-thick precast buttress walls. The walls fans also weigh upwards of 9,000 pounds
and promotes uniformity of the flow exiting and slabs of the reduction chamber were given each, which require the fan array to be sup-
each tube. The structures supporting the fan a smooth finish to reduce the turbulence in ported on a large mat foundation.
array and the contraction area are structur- the air flow. In front of the fans is a 400-foot diameter
ally independent from the main building and Careful attention was given to the ‘clear zone’ that is kept free from debris and
are constructed of precast concrete. Precast accommodation of the 16-blade, 5½-foot obstructions. Air entering the fans comes from
offered a durable substrate on which the fans diameter fans. These fans, in conjunction this zone. Wire mesh screens across the fan
could be mounted. Its mass also mitigates with the reduction chamber, are capable of intake prevents foreign objects from being
vibration introduced into the structure from producing winds equivalent to Category 3 drawn into the fan. A 20-foot-high earthen
Test Chamber
The 21,000-square-foot chamber houses the
test specimen and must withstand an internal
wind pressure of 30 psf due to the force of
wind moving through the chamber. A 60-foot
clear height is maintained throughout the
chamber. The walls and steel framing mem-
bers are designed to withstand impact loads
which could be caused by airborne debris
separating from the test specimen. The outlet
wall consists of 6-inch-thick reinforced
concrete precast panels that are capable of
resisting the impact of a 15-pound 2x4 travel-
ing at 100 mph. The roof structure consists
of 10-foot-deep structural steel wide flange
roof trusses supporting wide flange purlins
and metal deck. The roof framing and trusses
are designed and braced to perform in uplift The aluminum deluge truss rig being assembled on the test chamber floor just above the turntable.
conditions when the chamber is pressurized Courtesy WALTER P MOORE.
during a test. The roof deck is fastened with
self tapping screws, which provide supe- raised during a test so it does not interfere with
rior resistance to uplift. All steel members the air flow. Lighting Production Equipment
Moving Forward
within the test chamber are galvanized to and Walter P Moore designed a 20-inch by Although the design and construction of this
guard against corrosion, as the chamber will 20-inch, 55-foot by 63-foot aluminum rig- $40 million research facility presented many
often be subjected to rain-tests. Due to the ging grid which supports the sprinkler system engineering challenges, the engineers and
galvanization process, all members have field- piping, and a system of 4,000 pound hoist architects were more excited about the larger
bolted connections. The side walls of the test motors is used to raise and lower the rigging purpose of the facility. In the same manner in
chamber are also precast concrete due to the grid. A system of elbow joints and swivel bear- which automobile crash tests improved the
required impact resistance. ings allows the rigid 8-inch-diameter supply safety of vehicles, this research facility prom-
piping to remain attached in any position. ises to give building designers an unparalleled
In addition, four remotely controlled water opportunity to learn and to improve the safety
Turntable cannons are strategically placed around the and performance of our built environment.
A 55-foot-diameter custom-built turntable chamber. The fire protection system is fed The IBHS Research Facility will, without a
is used to allow the building specimen to by a 750,000-gallon water tank which was doubt, lead to more sustainable and durable
be rotated at different angles relative to the constructed on the facility (650,000 gallons structures for future generations. It will pro-
air stream. The turntable has a 6-inch-thick is allocated for fire suppression through the vide the research needed to improve future
concrete slab surface which is used to secure deluge and sprinkler systems, while the remain- building codes. The researchers at the IBHS
the specimen during testing, and is designed ing 100,000 gallons is used for rain production, Research Facility will begin their experiments
for gravity loads, as well as for shear and the water cannons and a water curtain at the in early 2011.▪
overturning loads due to the force of the outlet that is used to quench embers blowing
wind acting on the specimen. Three build- out of the test chamber).
ing designs were assumed in the analysis so
that the loads could be enveloped for the
turntable design: a two-story framed house,
a small brick veneer commercial building,
Project Team
and a typical prefabricated metal building. Owner: Institute for Business and Home Safety, Tampa, FL
Structural Engineer: Walter P Moore, Atlanta, GA
Design Architect: Odell Associates Inc., Charlotte, NC
Fire Protection MEP Engineer: United Engineering Group, Charlotte, NC
In addition to a dry pipe sprinkler system at Civil Engineer: BP Barber, Charlotte, NC
the roof of the test chamber, a deluge sprinkler Precast Supplier: Metromont, Greenville, SC
system guards against a possible fire in one of Contractor: Holder Construction Company, Atlanta, GA
the test specimens installed on the turntable. Macton: Oxford, CT
The system needed to be positioned within Lighting Production Equipment: Atlanta, GA
15 feet of the test specimen roof, but must be
TO
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IN THE SPECS
Watch
Institute (SJI) has completed the 43rd ratio of less than 12.
Edition of the Open Web Steel Joist and Joist
Girder Specifications, as well as the Code of
Standard Practice.
Span versus Clearspan
This edition includes significant changes In communication between the Specifying
updates on emerging and improvements. The 40 balloted revi- Design Professionals and the SJI Member
technologies, products sions encompass previously unpublished companies, it has become apparent that the
design checks and assumptions, better use current LH and DLH tables can be confus-
and services of “mandatory” code language, and reor- ing when determining a uniform load from
ganization of certain sections for better the load table based on the “clearspan.” The
clarity. But most important, the changes K-Series Standard Load Tables are based on
are all aimed at making SJI products safer, “span” and many users have assumed the LH
easier to use and more economical. This and DLH Standard Load Tables also use span
article highlights significant changes for the instead of clearspan. The resulting LH and
Specifying Design Professional. DLH joist selection based on span rather
than clearspan would be conservative, but
Longer Spans and Load Table may not lead to the most efficient joist selec-
tion. Consequently, all four Longspan Joist
Revisions Standard Load Tables (LH and DLH Series
New Horizons in Open Web A substantial expan-
sion to the deep
in both ASD and LRFD) have been made
simpler to use and more consistent with the
Steel Joists and Joist Girders Longspan DLH-
Series Load Tables
K-Series Standard Load Tables by incorporat-
ing span instead of the clearspan terminology.
increases the maxi- Previously for joists with spans within or less
mum span length for these SJI joists. The than the “Safe Load” range, interpretation of
Longer Spans, Less Bridging new longest length is 240 feet – almost a several footnotes was required to establish the
and Better End Anchorage 100-foot increase from the previous maxi- uniform load capacity. The revised Standard
mum length of 144 feet. To accommodate the Load Tables simplify the use of joists in the
By Tim Holtermann, P.E., S.E., longer spans, the maximum joist depth has Safe Load range because the Safe Load can
Mark Godfrey, P.E., and been increased from 72 inches to 120 inches. simply be divided by span, and for spans less
Bruce F. Brothersen, P.E. The “chord number,” which is the final two than the minimum Safe Load length, a new
digits of an LH/DLH-Series joist designation, column provides the maximum safe uniform
is simply a relative indicator and a reference load value.
to a particular row in the Load Tables. The The “Clearspan” terminology is inconsis-
increased range of the DLH-Series Load tent with other top chord length criteria
Tables has led to the use of chord numbers used in the specifications, such as camber
up to 25, where the previous limit was 19. and erection stability bridging. So the use
Timothy J. Holtermann, P.E., S.E. is
Also, because of the tremendous range of the of a common term span will greatly simplify
the Corporate Engineering Manager for
DLH-Series joists, it becomes impractical the specification.
Canam Steel Corporation and is based
to list every one foot increment of span
in Washington, MO. He is also the chair
in the Load Table. For the larger chord
of the Steel Joist Institute Engineering
numbers, depths and spans, the increment
Practice Committee. He can be reached
between Load Table columns increases to
at tim.holtermann@canam.ws. JOIST END REACTION
3 feet, and then 5 feet. Linear interpola- LOCATED AS SHOWN
Mark Godfrey, P.E. is the Engineering tion can be used for spans between the
Manager for Quincy Joist Company in given columns.
Quincy, FL, and is a member of both the In addition to the expansion of the DLH-
SEAT HEIGHT
SJI Engineering Practice Committee and Series Load Tables, a number of other less
Education Committee. He can be reached substantial Load Table revisions have been
at mark.godfrey@quincyjoist.com. made. For K-Series, the 8K1 designation
has been dropped, because typically either
Bruce F. Brothersen, P.E. is the Engineering
a joist substitute can be used or there is
Manager at Vulcraft-Utah, in Brigham
sufficient headroom clearance to allow
City, UT, and is Chairman of the SJI
the use of a 10K1. The joist substitute
education committee. He may be reached at
tables have been revised, extending their
bbrothersen@vulcraft-ut.com.
range from a maximum span of 8 feet to
a new maximum span of 10 feet. A few
22 February 2011
Anchorage clearance, or the inside face of the form to be
Bridging
The Steel Joist Institute Specification includes tapered to allow the steel embed plate to fall Joist bridging plays a key role in the stabil-
an introduction to each joist series. For the no farther than ½ inch from the face of the ity and load carrying capacity of the joists.
K-Series, the statement is made that standard wall. Perhaps for K-series joists bearing on the During the construction and erection phase
K-Series joists have a 2½ inch end bearing top of masonry walls, the Specifying Design of a project, the bridging stabilizes the joist
depth. This implies that other depths may Professional may wish to move the reaction for construction loads prior to the top chord
not be available or that, if the seat is deeper, point of the joist closer to the center of the having full lateral support from the steel
the entire joist would no longer be “standard,” wall to minimize the opportunity for spalling deck. After construction and during the life
which is not the case. Likewise, the introduc- of the concrete at the edge of the embed plate. of the structure, bridging stabilizes unsup-
tion for the LH and DLH Series states that The new specification clarifies that seat ported joist components for the design
the bearing seat depth has been established at depths greater than 2½ inches, for K-Series loads. Consequently, bridging is not directly
5 inches or 7½ inches depending on the chord joists, are readily available. An exception is designed for the external loads applied to
number of the joist. Although the Accessories created in the K-Series, LH and DLH Series the joists. Joists are designed to be strong “in
and Details section of the catalog shows seat specifications allowing the Specifying Design plane” or the direction perpendicular to the
depths for sloped joists that are greater than Professional to locate the bearing plate more applied loads. In the “out of plane” direction,
the established standards, there are other con- than ½-inch from the face of the wall, pro- joists are weaker and need bridging to keep
ditions where the use of deeper seats may be vided that the condition is clearly noted on them properly stabilized and aligned so that
more appropriate and necessary. the contract drawings and the bearing seat they can resist the in plane loads. Factors that
In some cases, the “standard” bearing depths depth is sufficient. Specifically, the Specifying determine the type and number of rows of
can be problematic and a deeper seat is the Design Professional needs to note the required bridging not only include construction loads
best solution. For example, on perimeter location of the joist end reaction over the wall. but also span, depth and member compo-
beams or supporting members with unbal- To deliver the end reaction to the desired loca- nent sizes. Bridging consists of horizontal and
anced tributary loading, the Specifying tion, the joist manufacturer needs to provide diagonal angle members connecting to the
Design Professional may wish to move the sufficient bearing seat depth. The specifica- joist top and bottom chords. Common types
reaction point, for a K-Series joist, to the tions state if the joist reaction is to occur more of bridging are Horizontal Bridging, Welded
center of the support to minimize eccentric than 2½ inches from the face of the wall, the Cross Bridging, Bolted Cross Bridging, Bolted
loading. When Insulating Form Concrete minimum seat depth shall be 2½ inches plus Erection Stability Cross Bridging (EX) and
walls are used, the outside of the form may a dimension equal to the distance the joist Uplift Bridging.
need to be notched to allow for joist end web reaction is to occur beyond 2½ inches. continued on next page
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bridging force. Consequently, the new bridging tables include this It is the culmination of years of research and a concerted effort to
force (Pbr) for different standard sizes of joists. simplify the use of open web steel joist products. This article has
As a result of the revisions to bridging provisions in the 43rd SJI highlighted just a few of the changes. In 2011, the SJI will be con-
Specification, some joists will have fewer rows of bridging. In all ducting Webinars to explain the changes in more detail. Visit the SJI
cases, the bridging will be more exact in it usage. website at www.steeljoist.org to learn more about new publications
and educational opportunities.▪
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By Jeffrey Diephuis, P.E. aircraft’s weight and resist added wind and seismic loads from the 747
T
while the structure was completed. KPFF and Hoffman collaborated
he newest building on the Evergreen Aviation & Space with Carr Construction and Campbell Crane to identify the best solu-
Museum campus in McMinnville, Oregon, inspires amaze- tion – balancing the needs of the project schedule, construction sequence
ment. It appears as though a massive 747 aircraft is sitting and cost. The team launched a 3-D modeling effort, which allowed
on top of the structure and, indeed, it is. This surprising them to virtually experience every step of the complex lift, move and
sight sets a precedent in structural engineering, as never before has landing, with accurately modeled building, crane and plane elements.
anyone placed a plane so large on the roof of an erected building. The first task in preparing for the lift was to determine the needed
On a campus known for the Howard Hughes’ HK-1 flying boat bracing for the incomplete building and accommodate construction
(commonly known as the Spruce Goose) and a Titan II rocket, this sequencing. In addition to typical erection bracing, two temporary
milestone project is fitting. Visitors who come to marvel at the HK-1’s steel braced frames were added to resist wind and seismic loads on
vast size or the Titan II’s enormous length in the adjacent buildings the building and airplane. The engineers designed the frames to resist
will soon be able to splash down from the 747 plane atop the new 120kips of lateral force each. Each frame consisted of W8 wide-flange
Wings & Waves Waterpark building as well. Stairs will lead guests into braces which connected to the building’s concrete column and tubular-
the rooftop attraction where water slides will spill from the aircraft’s truss gravity framing system. After erecting the remaining building
fuselage and into the building’s wave pool 62 feet below. structure and completing the lateral system, the construction team
Group Mackenzie of Portland, Oregon, provided the architectural removed the temporary frames from the structure.
and structural engineering design for the building, working in a The lifting procedure involved two cranes; however, the project
design-build collaboration with Hoffman Construction Company. marks the first time an aircraft of this size has been lifted with one
principal crane. A Manitowoc 2250 with MAX-ER served as the
primary crane, while a Leibherr LTM 1400 with luffing jib posi-
Taking Off tioned over the nose served to control the plane’s orientation and
Positioning the recently decommissioned 747-100 cargo plane on the
constructed building required a carefully engineered solution. Despite
the fact that they take to the skies daily, 747s are enormously heavy
and lifting one requires exceptional effort. Completing the lift meant
raising the 269,000-pound plane 55 feet into the air and transport-
ing it 165 feet to perch atop the building frame. The construction
team considered a myriad of variables including weight distribution,
balance, wind speed, crane travel speed, and clearances between the
crane, plane, and building.
Without access to a mobile crane that had the capacity to lift the airplane
and reach over the completed building structure, the construction team
had to devise a scheme for placing the 747 on the partially completed
building. The resulting plan required one-third of the roof structure and
the second floor mezzanine to be left unconstructed in order to provide a
“slot” in the structure for crane access to the plane’s final location.
Hoffman, along with their steel erection subcontractor Carr
Construction of Portland, Oregon, asked Portland’s KPFF Consulting
The 747 was lifted approximately 6 feet off the ground during the test pick.
Engineers to assess the plane’s stability throughout the lift’s phases. KPFF Courtesy of Jeffrey Diephuis.
was also charged with bracing the incomplete structure to carry the
A
monumental net sculpture was installed in Denver July,
2010, as a featured element of the Denver Biennial of the
Americas. The sculpture, 85x63 feet in plan and 30 feet
deep, was suspended 93 feet above the ground from a
203-foot long planer mesh tensioned between the Denver Civic Park
Greek Theater and Denver Art Museum (Figure 1). In generating the
sculpture form, artist Janet Echelman drew inspiration from a map
illustrating the effects of the February 2010 Chilean earthquake and
its ensuing tsunami. The sculpture, fabricated of advanced lightweight
materials, required the use of sophisticated non-linear structural analy-
sis methods to accurately predict internal forces and deformations.
The Biennial was a month-long event celebrating the culture of
the western hemisphere. The event included music performances, Figure 1: Artist’s initial sketch showing the sculpture suspended between the
roundtable discussions, public lectures, and art exhibits. Attendees Denver Art Museum and Greek Theatre, located in Civic Park. Courtesy of
included current ambassadors, national cabinet secretaries, and former Janet Echelman, Inc.
presidents. As part of the event, the Denver Office of Cultural Affairs
Museum with a recently restored 1920s Greek Theatre in Civic Park,
commissioned Massachusetts-based artist Janet Echelman to design
and creating a quickly deployable (and demountable) piece. She was
a temporary sculpture to be displayed in the southwest corner of
further challenged to meet an extremely tight schedule: only four
Denver Civic Park. The sculpture would be the largest and most
months separated artist selection and sculpture installation.
visible artwork of the Biennial.
In February 2010, an earthquake, measuring 8.8 on the Richter
Echelman is known for designing monumental public net sculptures
scale, struck Chile. The event, which lasted over 90 seconds, had an
animated by wind. Suspended in the air, the sculptures are made of
epicenter 71 miles north of Concepción, Chile’s second largest city.
modern lightweight fiber materials and illuminated at night. Recent
Many buildings collapsed and 486 people perished. During the event,
work includes Her Secret is Patience, the new 145-foot tall civic icon
rapid movement of the ocean floor generated a tsunami that affected
in Phoenix Civic Space Park, and Water Sky Garden, a 75,000-square-
the eastern half of the Pacific Ocean. Scientists with the National
foot immersive art environment with two net sculptures located at
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) used data from
the Richmond Olympic Oval, the official venue for the speed-skating
a network of specialized ocean buoys to generate a map illustrating
events of the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Winter Games.
increased wave amplitude resulting from the earthquake (Figure 2).
Amplitude increased over four feet near Chile and one foot over
Sculpture Design 2000 miles west of the coast. This map served as the initial form
generator for the sculpture.
Echelman’s primary goal for the Denver sculpture was to represent
Scientists calculated that the event shortened the length of the day by
natural phenomena linking the 35 countries of the western hemi-
1.26 microseconds, a figure which became the title of the piece. The
sphere. Additional goals included visually connecting the Denver Art
earthquake, resulting from tectonic plate movement, redistributed mass
closer to the Earth’s core. To satisfy the law of conservation of angular
momentum, the Earth’s rotational speed increased, similar to what
happens when a spinning ice skater pulls her arms closer to her body.
Echelman’s studio created the net form using proprietary computer
software. An outline, created by isolating the area from the NOAA
map most affected by the tsunami, was extruded downward, cinched
at the center, and subjected to gravity forces. The studio divided the
resulting form into differently colored horizontal bands that correlated
to wave amplitude.
CM
MY
CY
CMY
Installation
JunoWorks, a Denver-based fabrication studio specializing in art and
architectural metal works, installed the sculpture. JunoWorks first
attached the stays to the Art Museum with a crane, and then lifted
the tensioned mesh and net sculpture over trees and other obstacles
using tall man lifts. Chains were attached to the ends of the stays to Figure 5: The sculpture illuminated at night, a fitting memorial to the 2010
allow adjustment for tolerance and relocation of ground anchors due Chilean earthquake. Courtesy of Janet Echelman, Inc.
to conflicts with in-place utilities and trees. JunoWorks tensioned the
chains with ratchet winches and monitored forces with in-line load
cells. Construction lasted about a week, with the installation of the From Diaster to an International Bond
tensioned mesh and sculpture taking a single day.
Echelman’s “1.26” is a unique fusion of traditional net technol-
ogy, advanced modern materials, and refined aesthetics (Figure
5). Representing wave patterns that affected the entire Western
Hemisphere, it is a fitting memorial of the earthquake that struck
Chile February 2010 and how that event joined 35 countries as one.
The City of Denver currently plans to reinstall the sculpture during
future Biennial Events.▪
Project Team
Engineer of Record: Martin/Martin Consulting Engineers
Net Design Engineer: Peter Heppel Associates
General Contractor: JunoWorks
Sponsoring Agency: Denver Office of Cultural Affairs
Architect of Record: Fuse Studio Architects
Lighting Designer: Richter Scale Productions
Figure 4: Inclined tensioned mesh form. Artist: Janet Echelman, Inc.
Design
Frame design:
- AASHTO LRFD, CAN/CSA-S6, Eurocode 2
- IRC:21, TB 10002 3-05, JTG D62-04
- TWN-BRG-LSD/ASD
Bridge load rating: AASHTO LRFR
Post-tensioned box girder design: ASSHTO LRFD, Eurocode 2
Composite plate girder design: Eurocode 4
Tendon stress limit check
10% off
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS: IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
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Author: Alan Williams, Ph.D., S.E., C. Eng.
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Ln Ls
Figure 1: RTU Drifting-North Wind.
T
he American Society of Civil Over time, wind and thermal effects come
Engineers’ ASCE 7-10 load stan- into play and the roof load morphs into the
dard is now available and, as one balanced load, ps. It is this balanced load,
would expect, some things have which includes the exposure, thermal and
changed. Although slope factors, that is consistent with drifting
the snow and rain and the like.
Snow & Rain Provisions chapters are nomi- In ASCE 7-10, this intent is hopefully
36 February 2011
below and ambient air above. At the other
extreme is a freezer building with cold air
4˚max Thermal Conditions Ct
below and ambient air above. Between these
two extremes are the ground snowpack with
warm earth below and ambient air above, and Unheated and open air structures 1.2
a) Venturi Tube with Laminar Flow a loading dock roof with ambient air above Structures intentionally kept
and below. 1.3
below freezing
4.7˚ In ASCE 7-05, a thermal factor of Ct = 1.2
1/2 1/2 was specified for both unheated structures That is, freezer buildings now have their own
12 12 and structures intentionally kept below freez- group with a new Ct of 1.3, while loading
ing. Based upon the SEAW observations and docks are grouped with unheated buildings
differences in heat transfer characteristics, in with a Ct of 1.2.
TAY24253
ASCE 7-10 BraceYrslfStrctrMag.qxd
we have: 9/3/09 10:09 AM Page c1ontinued on next page
STRUCTURE TAY24253
magazine Brace YourselfFebruary
37 Ad Structure2011
Magazine October 2009 Half-Page Island 5" x 7.5"
6h drifts had a rise-to-run of one Based on the evidence from fluid mechanics
vertical to two horizontal (1V: and a desire to simplify matters, the empirical
2H) or less. relation in Equation 1 was eliminated from
1 h Both sets of observations sug- the ASCE 7-10 provision.
Upper Roof 6
gest that the angle of repose of
“For hip and gable roofs….with a
Lower Roof drifted snow is about 26 degrees,
slope less than 2.38 (½ on 12) unbal-
substantially less than that for
anced snow loads are not required to
fresh fallen snow. It is possible
be applied.”
S < 20' that windblown snow particles
become more rounded as a
Lower Bound Eave to Ridge Distance-
result of the transport process.
Unbalanced Load
a) Geometric Criteria – Drift only for Close (S < 20ft) Whatever the actual scientific
Lower Roofs in Wind Shadow (S < 6h) reason, the committees choose a The empirical relationship between drift
somewhat conservative approach. height hd, ground snow load pg, and upwind
fetch distance lu, in Equation 2 (Figure 7.9
Smaller of hd “For hip and gable roofs
of ASCE 7) was originally developed from a
and (6h-S)/6 with slope exceeding 7 on 12
database of leeward roof step drifts.
(30.2)…unbalanced loads are
Smaller of 6hd not required to be applied.”
and (6h-S) hd = 0.433√ℓu 4√Pg+10 – 1.5 Equation 2
Lower Bound Slope-
In the database, the fetch distances were typi-
b) Drift Surcharge Load Unbalanced Loads
cally hundreds of feet. This may well have led
Figure 3: Leeward Drift on Separated Roofs. The lower bound slope, below to the fact that the relation is problematic for
which unbalanced loads need not much shorter fetch distances. For example,
be considered, has varied over the years. In the one calculates negative drift heights for small
original load standard ASCE 7-88, the limit fetch distances and low ground snow loads.
Unbalanced Loads was 15 degrees. In ASCE 7-02, an empirical With this undesirable feature in mind, a mini-
It seems that each new version of ASCE 7 curve fit relation: mum fetch distance of 25 feet was specified.
brings changes to the unbalanced load provi- For the roof step geometry, an upwind fetch
70
sion. ASCE 7-10 is no exception. However, angle = + 0.5 Equation 1 of 25 feet or less is unusual and designers did
W
the good news is that the changes make the not question the lower bound fetch distance
provision simpler (more engineer friendly) was introduced where the angle is in degrees of 25 feet.
and more realistic in terms of the applicable and the eave to ridge distance W is in feet. This In ASCE 7-05, the drift height relation
roof geometrics. was modified in ASCE 7-05 to exclude roofs in Equation 2 also was used to determine
with slopes less than ½ on 12 since there was unbalanced loads on hip and gable roofs. The
Upper Bound Slope –
no empirical evidence of drifting W
Unbalanced Loads
on such shallow, near flat roofs.
In ASCE 7-05, unbalanced loads were Note that evidence from fluid
required for hip and gable roofs with slopes mechanics, specifically the behav-
up to 70 degrees. This limit is the same as that ior of Venturi tubes, is consistent
for balanced loads. That is, the slope factor with the ½ on 12 roof slope limit. Pf
Cs is zero for roof slopes of 70 degrees and In order to achieve laminar flow,
higher, and the thinking was if fresh fallen the maximum angular deviation
Sloped Upper Roof
snow doesn’t “stick” to such steep roofs then at a Venturi tube can be no more h>S
the drift loads would similarly not accumulate than about 4 degrees, as shown in 1
on them. Figure 2 (page 37). Laminar flow 1
Underlying this approach is the assumption means no flow separation and no
Lower Roof
that, in terms of an angle of repose, drifted areas of aerodynamic shade. For
snow behaves like fresh fallen snow. However, the gable with ½ on 12 slope,
two independent sets of observations suggest also shown in Figure 2, the total
differently. One set is from the Tahoe-Truckee angular deviation from the wind- S < 15'
Engineers Association (TTEA). Located in a ward to leeward roof surfaces is a) Geometric Criteria – Sliding Load only for
truly beautiful part of Northern California 4.7 degrees. That is, based on the Close (S < 15') Lower Roof in 45˚ Shadow (S<h)
which gets large amounts of snow, roof snow Venturi Tube analog, one expects
loading is a particularly important consider- flow separation, areas of aerody- 0.4Pf W(15-S)/15
ation for TTEA. Their observations suggest namics shade and drifting for the
that unbalanced loads (across-the-ridge drifts) ½ on 12 roof (4.7° > 4.0°) while
only form on roof slopes of 6 on 12 or less. one expects no flow separation, 15-S
The other set are observations of the rise-to- no aerodynamic shade and no
run of roof step drifts taken from insurance drifting for a 3/8 on 12 roof slope b) Sliding Load
company files. The vast majority of roof step (3.58° < 4°).
Figure 4: Sliding Load on Separated Roof.
Sliding Loads- Separated Structures Contact Kyle DeBuse at Valmont Tubing toll-free at 1-800-825-6668 ext. 3558 or
kld2@valmont.com to learn more on the design possibilities of HSS SuperStruct.
In ASCE 7-05, a sliding load was required for
a lower roof if the slope of the upper level roof
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T
he economy of cast-in-place con- • Areas of slabs where embedded items bar. When hooked top bars are required in a
crete structures depends in large such as those required to support 7.5-inch thick slab, the #5 bars can be easily
part on decisions made early in facade supports installed with ¾-inch clear cover top and
design regarding framing dimen- Designers need to consider actual dimen- bottom, without having to rotate the bars to
sions, repetition and simplicity of formwork. sions of reinforcing bars, including hook install them. While a larger number of smaller
Once design is underway, attention to the ease dimensions and bend radiuses. Figure 1 bars will be required, the cost for installing
of reinforcing steel placement contributes illustrates an example of wishful thinking reinforcing steel is usually estimated based on
further to the economy of design. The term by an engineer attempting to fit too much the tonnage of reinforcing steel rather than
“constructability” with respect to cast-in-place reinforcing steel in too little space. number of bars. The only issue related to
concrete construction refers primarily to the Consider conflicts where multiple typical using 90 degree stirrup hooks is that ACI 318
ease with which formwork can be constructed details occur at a single location: Engineers specifies that a transverse bar perpendicular
and reinforcing steel placed. The next several often use typical details to show frequently to the hooked bar be located inside the bend.
QA Corner articles will discuss cast-in-place occurring conditions. Constructability issues This is generally not an issue though, since
concrete constructability tips. can occur when multiple typical details occur there is usually such a bar parallel to slab edges
This month’s article focuses on a fundamen- at a single location. anyway. A good rule-of-thumb is to use bars
tal theme – making sure the reinforcing steel Look for congestion when there are more of sufficiently small size such that the hook
fits. As simple as it sounds, this issue is often than two layers of top or bottom bars in dimension does not exceed 80% of the slab
overlooked. What follows is a list of sugges- thin slabs: Two-way slabs usually have two thickness. While adhering to this rule may not
tions related to placement of reinforcing steel. layers of top bars and two layers of bottom always be possible, it’s a good starting point.
Envision placing the reinforcing steel when bars spanning in orthogonal directions. Avoid using 180 degree hooks in slabs:
designing the structure: Engineers should Occasionally there can be a third layer of While the use of 180 degree bar hooks
imagine themselves in the field trying to place top or bottom bars, such as in a two-way slab might seem like a good idea, doing so can
the reinforcing steel in the structures that they where a non-typical diagonally spanning bay complicate the placement of reinforcing
design. Visualizing the construction process frames to an orthogonal bay. A third layer steel. Consider the reinforcing steel shown
will aid in catching constructability flaws. of top bars can be especially problematic, in Figure 3. While bars with 90 degree
Draw reinforcing steel details to scale to particularly at slab edges where those bars hooks can be dropped straight down into
verify that the bars will fit: Look for areas are hooked. place, bars with 180 degree hooks cannot be
where reinforcing steel congestion may be a Consider hook dimensions when selecting dropped into place unless the perpendicular
problem. Areas where congestion problems reinforcing: Top bars with hooks are easiest edge bar is temporarily moved out of the
often occur include, to install when the hooks can be oriented way and then re-positioned after the hooked
• Slab/column connections straight down as shown in Figure 2. This can bars are installed. Consider top reinforcing
• Narrow beams be more readily achieved by using the smallest steel occurring in a slab at a corner column.
• Columns with more than 2% vertical bars practical and, when the bars are #5 or Visualize placing the slab top bars in both
reinforcing steel smaller, specifying the use of 90 degree stirrup directions using 90 degree hooks versus
• Areas of slabs perforated with multiple hooks. Ninety degree stirrup hooks are smaller placing bars with 180 degree hooks.
openings, particularly near columns than 90 degree standard hooks for #3, #4 and Limit the percentage of column verti-
and slab edges #5 bars. For example, the dimension of a 90 cal reinforcing steel to 2% for economy
• Slabs in which electrical cable and degree hook on a #6 bar is 12 inches versus and 4% for constructability: ACI 318 per-
conduit are installed 6 inches for a 90 degree stirrup hook on a #5 mits columns to be reinforced with up to
Figure 1: Actual bar dimensions must be considered. Figure 2: Bars with smaller hooks are easier to install in thin slabs.
8% vertical reinforcing steel. Unfortunately, Avoid using bundled bars in columns: For
columns reinforced with 8% steel using lap the reasons discussed above, avoid using bun-
splices will have 16% steel at splice locations dled bars in columns. If you have to bundle
unless mechanical splice couplers are used. the bars, the column is too small. Splices
Figure 4 shows the reinforcing steel in two in bundled bars must be staggered, which
24-inch by 24-inch columns – one reinforced adds another level of complexity. Likewise,
with 8-#11 (ρ=2%) and one reinforced with mechanical splice couplers, when required,
16-#11 (ρ=4%). The section was cut where cannot be easily installed on bundled bars.
the bars are lap spliced. Note the close bar Coordinate placement of slab embedded
spacing in the column with 16 vertical bars. electrical conduit: Designers must specify
M
ost visible among America’s visual mass.” In his many notable skyscrapers,
impressive list of elite Kahn clearly mastered those objectives, often
engineering giants are its influencing the final architectural appearance
leading-edge structural engi- of signature buildings in a major way.
neers, the designers of spectacular bridges, Considered the father of tubular design
skyscrapers, sports facilities, space-age-looking in high-rises, Khan was a firm believer that
buildings and national monuments – record- meshing the talents of structural engineers
setting complex structures that are often the and architects always resulted in the best solu-
biggest, tallest, longest and/or first. Foremost tions. According to John Zils, senior engineer
on that list is Pakistan native Fazlur R. “Faz” and associate partner with Skidmore, Owings
Khan, a structural trailblazer whose break- & Merrill (SOM), “It was his unique abil-
throughs in structural engineering for tall and ity to bridge the gap between architectural
long-span buildings exerted an unprecedented design and structural engineering that truly
and lasting influence on the profession, both set Faz apart from other structural engineers.”
nationally and internationally. Because of that, Khan became an icon in both
Mir M. Ali, University of Illinois professor architecture and structural engineering.
and author of Art of the Skyscraper: The Genius Born on April 3, 1929, in Dhaka, Bengal Fazlur R. Khan. Courtesy of Skidmore, Owings &
of Fazlur Khan, said that in addition to being (then in British India), Fazlur was the son of Merrill LLP (SOM) and Stuart-Rogers.
labeled as one of the greatest engineers of our Abdur Rahman and Khadija (Khatun) Khan.
time, Khan was many times referred to as the His father Abdur was a well-respected high Chicago, he developed methods for using
“Einstein of Structural Engineering.” school mathematics teacher and the author shear wall and frame interaction to resist lat-
According to David Billington, coiner of the of several seminal textbooks on the subject. eral forces. Later, he refined this system to
phrase “structural art,” Khan’s work exempli- He eventually became the Director of Public come up with the “tube-in-tube concept,”
fied that concept. Said Billington, “The first Instruction in the region of Bengal. In addi- initially used for the 52-story One Shell Plaza
fundamental of structural art is the discipline tion to his father, Fazlur’s early decision to Building in Houston.
of efficiency; a desire for minimum materi- become an engineer was influenced by an Khan’s diagonal-framed tube system, first
als, resulting in less weight, less cost and less older cousin who preceded him into college used for the John Hancock Center in Chicago,
to study engineering. connected widely spaced exterior columns
After completing undergraduate coursework with diagonals on all four sides of the build-
at the Bengal Engineering College, University ing. The concept allowed the 1965 Hancock
of Calcutta, Fazlur proceeded to the University building to reach 100 stories, making it the
of Dhaka, where he received his bachelor’s in tallest building in the world. The Hancock
engineering degree in 1950, finishing first in Center and Khan’s other masterpiece – the
his class. A Fulbright Scholarship, combined 110-story, 1974 Sears Tower with its unique
with a Pakistani government scholarship, “bundled tube” structural system – drew
brought him to the U.S. and the University worldwide attention to the advancements that
of Illinois at Urbana. There, he earned two American structural engineers were making in
master’s degrees – one in structural engineer- skyscraper design. At 1,468 feet, Sears Tower
ing, and the other in theoretical and applied remained the world’s tallest building for more
mechanics – followed by a PhD in structural than 20 years. Clad in a black aluminum skin
engineering in 1955. with bronze-tinted, glare-reducing glass and
Khan immediately joined the internationally with a gross area of 4.4 million square feet,
known architectural and engineering firm the structure was impressive and massive by
of SOM in Chicago. By 1960, he was fast any standards. Only the Pentagon had more
establishing his trademark of pioneering cre- space at the time.
ative concepts for tall buildings framed with Khan’s portfolio of notable international
structural steel, concrete and/or composite structures includes the Haj Terminal Building
systems. His “tube system,” using all the exte- at the Jeddah International Airport in Saudi
rior wall perimeter structure of a building to Arabia, an enormous tent-like structure cover-
simulate a thin-walled tube, revolutionized ing nearly one square kilometer (105 acres)
tall building design. of area, more space than any other roof in
Sears Tower, now known as the Willis Tower. In 1962, while designing the 38-story, the world when built. Kahn allowed that the
Courtesy of SOM and Hedrick Blessing. reinforced concrete Brunswick Building in pioneering design of the terminal, with its
COLORS JOB#
STRUCTURE magazine
FILE NAME
45 February 2011
4C AZZ-36326 AZZ-36326_7.5x4.75 OK as is
PROOF SIZE OK with changes
life, and life is art, drama, music, and most one of the world’s top 20 structural engineers His works and his citations are reflective of
importantly, people.” Khan, himself, was an of the last 125 years. Three decades earlier, Khan’s main legacy – more than any other
aficionado of classical music, especially Bach when Khan was 41 years old, the Chicago individual, he helped usher in a renaissance in
and Brahms. For enjoyment, he loved singing Junior Chamber of Commerce had named skyscraper construction in the U.S. during the
Tagore’s poetic songs in Bengali with family him Chicagoan of the Year in Architecture second half of the 20th century. He epitomized
and friends. and Engineering. both structural engineering achievement and
Khan and his wife, Liselotte, who emigrated Among Khan’s other honors were the Wason the need for creative collaborative between
from Austria, had one daughter, born in Medal (1971) and Alfred Lindau Award architect and engineer. To him and his col-
1960. A structural engineer like her father, (1973) from the American Concrete Institute, laborators, for architectural design to reach its
Yasmin Sabina Khan said of her father, “He Thomas Middlebrooks Award (1972) and highest levels, it had to be solidly grounded
was concerned, foremost, with people and Ernest Howard Award (1977) from ASCE, in structural realities.▪
how engineering affected them. He wanted Alumni Honor Award (1972) from the
his structures to be part of a culture and University of Illinois, Kimbrough Medal
society that strove to benefit its people.” In (1973) from the American Institute of Steel Richard G. Weingardt, P.E., is Chairman
celebration of his life, she wrote an in-depth Construction, Oscar Faber Medal (1973) of the Board for Richard Weingardt
book about him and the impact of his work, from the Institution of Structural Engineers Consultants, Inc. in Denver, Colorado.
Engineering Architecture: The Vision of Fazlur (UK), AIA Gold Medal for Distinguished Mr. Weingardt is the author of nine books.
R. Khan, published in 2004. Achievement (1983) and Aga Khan Award His latest, Circles in the Sky: The Life and
Khan died of a heart attack while on a busi- for Architecture (1983) from the American Times of George Ferris, is the one-and-only
ness trip in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, on March Institute of Architects, and John Parmer biography of Ferris and how he built his
27, 1982. Only 53, he was a general partner Award (1987) from the Structural Engineers 1893 Ferris Wheel. Mr.Weingardt can be
in SOM, the only engineer holding that high Association of Illinois. reached at rweingardt@aol.com.
position at the time. His body was returned Khan was elected into the National
to the U.S. and is buried in his adopted home Academy of Engineering in 1973, and
of Chicago. received Honorary Doctorate Degrees The online version of this article con-
Posthumously, the city of Chicago named the from Northwestern University in 1973 and tains additional photographs. Please visit
intersection of Franklin and Jackson Streets, Lehigh University in 1980. In 2006, he www.STRUCTUREmag.org.
located at the foot of the Sears Tower, “Fazlur was inducted into the Illinois Engineering
R. Khan Way” in his honor. One year later, in Hall of Fame (sponsored by the Illinois
1999, Engineering News-Record listed him as Engineering Council).
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N
ow more than ever, the concrete 329 is to ballot the document and adopt the booms, and the development of forming
industry is looking for ways to do ITG-8 Report as the an ACI 329 document. systems that can be erected safely and quickly
it better, faster, more economical, Possible future goals include: then moved to the next location.” Having
and with greater environmental • Develop additional performance-based been personally involved in developing the
stewardship. All of this requires mechanisms criteria and guidance for future revi- mixes for the Trump project, the only change
for innovation in an industry that can be slow sions to the ITG-8/ACI 329 Report. I would make to Stan’s comment is that it
to change. Author Jack Gibbons, with the help • Review ACI Documents to identify isn’t just about high strength, it’s about high
of ACI 329 Chair Mark F. Chrzanowski, look barriers to performance-based specifi- performance. Only about 40% of the Trump
at how the American Concrete Industry has cations and work with committees to Tower concrete was high strength, but every
set their sights on developing a culture that address the barriers. cubic yard was “high performance” for con-
encourages innovation through performance- • Review current industry practices to struction purposes. Another published quote
based delivery of concrete. identify barriers to performance-based regarding the construction of Trump Tower
One of the most significant recent develop- specifications and work within the came from Dave Alexander, Senior Vice
ments in concrete is the creation of American industry to remove the barriers. President of McHugh Construction, con-
Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 329, • Document performance projects with crete contractor for the project “….moving
Performance Criteria for Ready Mixed Concrete. the intent of educating. and placing 180,000 cubic yards of con-
This committee formally recognizes the need crete…..was a technical challenge that might
to move beyond prescriptive mix specifica- What does this mean? have been impossible only 10 years ago.”
tions in order to meet the demand for higher (Author’s Opinion) SOM wrote a performance specification for
performance concrete and the more rapid cycle the concrete which thoroughly detailed their
I participate in a seminar each year at
construction schedules that today’s projects requirements and then let Prairie Materials
the World of Concrete titled, How to Use
require, while addressing the need to practice (the ready mix producer) use their expertise
Chemical Admixtures Effectively. Using
greater environmental stewardship by allow- to design the mix.
admixtures individually, or in many cases,
ing a project team to tailor the utilization of
in combination, is the primary tool advanc-
materials and construction means and methods
ing the performance of concrete. Today water Conclusion
to the specific needs of a given project.
reducers are more powerful than we could
Back in 2004, the Strategic Development ITG-8 and ACI 329 are laying the ground-
have ever imagined, and accelerators and
Council of ACI identified the move from pre- work for how the concrete industry can
retarders are often used all year long. Rapid
scriptive to performance-based specifications proceed. We have only scratched the sur-
cycle concrete construction is common
as an industry-critical technology. This led face of how successful it can be designing
today and would not be possible without
to the creation of Innovative Task Group-8, for performance. The Trump Tower is only
the creative use of chemical admixtures. It
(ITG-8), whose mission statement read, “to one example where performance was essential
wasn’t that long ago when a three-day cycle
develop a report on performance criteria and in every area. Future examples may be even
was the accepted norm for post-tensioned
test methods for concrete materials that could more extreme and their success may depend
concrete. Then it was reduced to two. Today
be used in codes and specifications.” on designing for performance.▪
it’s not unusual to pull strand in only one
day. Durability has increased with the use
History of supplementary cementitious materials
Jack Gibbons is the Central Region
(SCMs), as well as our ability to produce low
Since their first meeting in Fall of 2007, Manager for the Concrete Reinforcing
heat mass concrete, and SCMs are crucial
members of ITG-8 have been busy writ- Steel Institute. Jack is a long time member
to the production of high- and ultra high-
ing a guide report that investigates the of ACI and serves on several technical
strength concrete. All of this has been made
issue of specifying concrete through per- committees, and is a regular speaker at the
possible because of mixes being designed for
formance-based criteria. In December World of Concrete. He may be reached at
performance and not by prescription.
2010, ACI published ITG-8R-10 Report on jgibbons@crsi.org.
One of the best comments I’ve seen on
Performance-Based Requirements for Concrete
the current advances in concrete construc- Mark F. Chrzanowski, P.E. is a Principal
and subsequently discharged the members
tion was from Stan Korista of Skidmore, Structural Technologist for CH2M HILL and
of ITG-8. It will now be the task of newly
Owings & Merrill in an interview he gave is currently serving as an expert in concrete
formed ACI Committee 329 to champion
on the design and construction of Chicago’s materials to the Panama Canal Authority
the concept of performance-based concrete.
100-story Trump Tower. Korista states, (ACP). Mark also is a member of ACI and
“What has made the difference for concrete serves on several technical committees. He may
Goals construction is the development of high- be reached at mchrzano@ch2m.com.
According to ACI 329 Chairman strength concrete mixes, the greatly increased
Chrzanowski, the short term goal for ACI efficiency of concrete pumps and placing
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Email: david.mcmullen@kpff.com Web: www.csiberkeley.com
specialized bridge engineering services. Founded in 1972
Web: www.kpff.com Product: CSIBridge
with a goal of providing the highest standard of bridge
Product: Bridge Engineering Description: From the developers of SAP2000,
engineering, the Company is recognized throughout
Description: KPFF provides planning, design, and CSIBridge is a new, comprehensive state-of-the-
North America and internationally as a leader in the
construction support services for new bridges and art software product for the structural & seismic
design, evaluation, rehabilitation and construction
bridge replacements; widening, rehabilitation, and analysis, design and rating of simple and complex
engineering of bridges of all sizes and types.
retrofit of structures; load ratings; and inspections. bridges. All operations are integrated across a single
DBM Contractors, Inc. Projects include simple stream crossings, urban user interface that provides an easy-to-use and
interchanges, grade separations over railroads, intuitive workflow environment.
Phone: 800-562-8460 construction at remote sites, long-span structures,
Email: rcarnevale@dbmcm.com and floating bridges. GT STRUDL
Web: www.dbmcontractors.com
Phone: 404-894-2260
Product: Bridge Foundations VSL Email: joan.incrocci@ce.gatech.edu
Description: Design-build specialty geotechnical
Phone: 800-899-1016 Web: www.ce.gatech.edu
contractor specializing in drilled foundation support, earth
Email: info@structural.net Product: GT STRUDL
retention, slope stabilization, and ground improvement for
Web: www.vsl.net Description: GT STRUDL Comprehensive Linear/
structural support and seismic hazard mitigation.
Product: Bridge Construction Services Nonlinear, Static/Dynamic analysis features for
FIGG Description: With experience on over 130 major Frame and Finite element structures includes moving
projects worldwide, VSL has resources from proven load generation, response spectrum, transient, and
Phone: 850-224-7400 systems to constant innovation for the most pushover analyses. Models plastic hinges, discrete
Email: lfigg@figgbridge.com challenging projects. Resources include special dampers, tension/compression only members and
Web: www.figgbridge.com superstructure construction techniques such as cast-in- nonlinear connections. Multi-Processor Solver Feature
Product: Bridge Design place cantilever, precast, incremental launching & stay is available which enables the solution of static/
Description: FIGG specializes in bridge design and cables. Custom designed equipment includes precast dynamic models with over 300,000 DOF.
construction engineering and management. Our erection gantries, form travelers & strand jacks.
focus on bridges allows us to create landmarks that
incorporate function, sustainable design and beauty MIDASoft, Inc.
to enhance the quality of life for communities across Phone: 212-835-1666
Software Vendors/Developers Email: midasoft@MidasUser.com
America in the philosophy of Creating Bridges as Art®.
Web: www.MidasUser.com
Hayward Baker Inc. ADAPT Corporation Product: Midas Civil 2011
Phone: 800-456-6548 Phone: 650-306-2400 Description: Midas Civil 2011 is the leading structural
Email: info@HaywardBaker.com Email: info@adaptsoft.com steel design software with live load optimizers for
Web: www.HaywardBaker.com Web: www.adaptsoft.com curved/straight girder, composite, skewed slab, frame,
Product: ADAPT-ABI and arch bridges. Other applications include segmental
Product: Ground Improvement Description: Easy-to-use, cost effective, and practical post-tensioning, suspension, cable-stayed, and culvert
Description: Dry Soil Mixing, Dynamic bridge design software for all of your concrete bridge bridges. Midas Civil is continuously enhanced to
Compaction, Injection Systems for Expansive Soils, types: balanced cantilever (cast-in-place or precast), be fast, user-friendly, and equipped with innovative
Rapid Impact Compaction, Rigid Inclusions, Vibro incrementally launched, span-by-span, cable-stayed, graphic components.
C
omposer Morton Feldman used the metaphor “wild beast”
to describe what he believed was the generative vigor
within art. The new indoor-outdoor music pavilion on
the CalArts campus in Valencia, California, is wild but
welcoming, featuring a flowing, arched roofline. Positioned just inside
the main campus entry, the new structure serves as a prominent
gateway to the campus.
The Wild Beast’s versatility expands the educational resources of the
Courtesy of Tom Bonner 2009.
school. The venue functions as a classroom, as a 100-seat indoor music hall
and, when the hangar-style doors are open, as an outdoor amphitheater The primary structure consists of four parallel ribs that spring up
with a capacity for up to 500 spectators. It can be used for instruction, from the floor, arch over the space, and then rest lightly on a concrete
rehearsal, performances and student gatherings. Through creative col- masonry wall. These ribs – 14-inch wide-flange sections rolled the
laboration between the architect and engineer, the image of the project ‘hard way’ to radii as tight as 12 feet – achieve a 60-foot roof span.
evolved from the client’s functional requirements for additional classroom The shell’s geometry was originally designed using NURBS curves and
space for their music program into an iconic project that has now been then rationalized into a series of segments with defined arc lengths and
adopted by CalArts as a primary symbol of artistic creativity. radii. Frame action is utilized where the roof is curved, transitioning
LA-based architectural firm Hodgetts+Fung envisioned a space echoing to composite action where the roof flattens out.
the interior of a string instrument and called for a light and flowing roof Composite metal deck spans between the ribs, connecting to the
form. This aesthetic goal required the structural engineer to optimize the webs of the two outer members to minimize apparent structural depth.
balance between form and function, and two concepts were investigated High-strength concrete was sprayed on the outer face of the metal
with the goal to minimize the structural depth of the curved structure. deck to provide acoustic mass and increase overall rigidity.
First, a system consisting of a concrete “sandwich” shell with a central The structure’s longitudinal lateral system comprises a series of curved
styrofoam core and rebar “trusses” at 24 inches on-center in both the cantilevered columns, although the struts at the end resting atop the
longitudinal and transverse directions was studied. masonry wall provide some additional restraint through frame action.
Alternatively, a system of longitudinal curved steel beams at the outer During an earthquake, the structure will undergo lateral drift along
edge and valley lines supporting a composite deck with 3-inch shotcrete its primary axis. The strut connections employ pins and clevises to
was studied. By providing fixity at the base and roller supports at the allow out-of-plane rotation, effectively creating a horizontal roller
tip of the roof, it was possible to take advantage of the curvature to joint that accommodates large drifts and minimizes load transfer to
minimize deflection and bending in the members. The form of the curve the cantilevered concrete masonry wall below.
was adjusted to maximize structural efficiency by balancing positive and The transverse lateral system is more rigid, with behavior similar to
negative moments, and this proved to be the most cost-effective solution. that of a concentric braced frame. The inclined struts at the cantilever
end transfer lateral load directly from the roof diaphragm to the
concrete masonry wall, and at the curved end diagonal bracing is
provided between the relatively vertical portions of the W14 ribs,
hidden behind acoustical panels.
The 600-square foot hangar-style doors were designed to be par-
ticularly heavy to provide acoustic mass. The door frame, requiring
both vertical and horizontal stiffness, is formed from two side-by-side
W24 beams welded flange-to-flange to form a flanged box beam, and
braced out-of-plane at its corner by a single, wide-flange beam that
doubles as rigging for spotlights and microphones.
Copper shingles, mullionless glazing and custom plywood panels give
this building the refined finish it deserves. Together with the exposed
structure, they form a unit that communicates the elegance of a musical
instrument and the athletic poise of a wild beast.▪
SEI CASE
Reston, VA Washington, DC
Associate Members
AISC International Code Council Metal Dek Group, a Unit of CSI
Chicago, IL Birmingham, AL Columbia, SC
American Forest & Paper Association ITW Red Head Schuff Steel Company
Washington, DC Addison, IL Phoenix, AZ
Bentley Systems, Inc Metal Building Manufacturers USP Structural Connectors
Carlsbad, CA Association Burnsville, MN
Cleveland, OH
Institute for Business & Home Safety
Tampa, FL
Affiliate Members
CETCO Building Materials Group Dwyer Companies Powers Fasteners
Hoffman Estates, IL West Chester, OH Brewster, NY
Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute Fibrwrap Construction, Inc. RISA Technologies
Washington, DC Lombard, IL Foothill Ranch, CA
Construction Tie Products (changed Hardy Frames, Inc. SE Solutions, LLC
from Associate to Affiliate this year) Ventura, CA Holland, MI
Michigan City, IN
Helical Anchors, Inc. SidePlate Systems, Inc.
CSC Inc. Minneapolis, MN Laguna Hills, CA
Chicago, IL
Hilti, Inc. Steel Joist Institute
DECON USA, Inc. Tulsa, OK Myrtle Beach, SC
Beaufort, SC
Sustaining Members
Barrish, Pelham & Associates, Inc. Criser Troutman Tanner Consulting LBYD, Inc.
Sacramento, CA Engineers Birmingham, AL
NCSEA News
Wilmington, NC
Barter & Associates, Inc. Ruby & Associates, Inc.
Mobile, AL Degenkolb Engineers Farmington Hills, MI
San Francisco, CA
Burns & McDonnell Simpson, Gumpertz & Heger, Inc.
Kansas City, MO DiBlasi Associates, P.C. San Francisco, CA
Monroe, CT
Cartwright Engineers Structural Engineers Group, Inc.
Logan, UT Dominick R. Pilla Associates Jacksonville, FL
Nyack, NY
CBI Consulting, Inc. TGRWA, LLC
South Boston, MA Dunbar, Milby, Williams, Chicago, IL
Pittman & Vaughan
Construction Technology Laboratories The Harman Group, Inc.
Richmond, VA
Skokie, IL King of Prussia, PA
Engineering Solutions, LLC
Cowen Associates Consulting Thornton Tomasetti
Oklahoma City, OK
Structural Engineers Chicago, IL
Natick, MA Gilsanz Murray Steficek, LLP
United Structural Systems Ltd., Inc.
New York, NY
Lancaster, PA
Location: Reservations:
Omni Amelia Island Plantation 1-888-261-6165 Group number: 022011NCSEAWINT
Amelia Island, Florida 32034
Mention NCSEA Winter Institute for a special room rate Register at www.ncsea.com
of $149 until February 9.
Room rate includes free hourly transportation to/from JAX Airport (Jacksonville, FL). Call 904-277-5920 at least 3 days
before your arrive with your flight information to secure a ride.
February 10, 2011: Detailing of Unbonded Post-Tensioned Structures to Minimize the Effects of
Restraint to Shortening – Bryan Allred
March 1, 2011: Building Information Modeling in Structural Engineering Practice Today –
Upcoming David J. Odeh
NCSEA March 10, 2011: Post-Tensioned Slabs on Ground Design – Bryan Allred
April 19, 2011: Code Issues in Existing Buildings: Archaic and Obsolete Structures –
Webinars: Donald Friedman
May 17, 2011: AISC T.R. Higgins Lecture–The AISC Seismic Design Provisions: Past, Present
and Future – James O. Malley
Track Chair Bruce Peterson James Dolan William Baker Ahsan Kareem Alicia E Díaz de León
8:00 AM – Innovative Seismic Long Span Stadium Roofs Building Specific Seismic State of the Practice for Legal and Business Challenges
9:30 AM Analysis of Bridges Strengthening and Design Blast Resistant Design to the Dissemination of
of Structures Failure Information
10:00 AM – Seismic Reliability and Integrating Life Cycle and Nonlinear Seismic Analysis Innovative Methods Forensic Investigation of
11:30 AM Performance Assessment Carbon Assessments for Everyday Application to Defeat Blast Loads: Crane Failures: Case Studies
of Bridges Windows and Doors and Lessons Learned
12:00 PM – 2:00 PM Opening Luncheon, Plenary Speaker and Awards Program
2:15 PM – Bridge Structural Health Existing Masonry Seismic Design of Cold Current State of Practice Wind Vulnerability for
3:45 PM Monitoring Specification: Buildings Evaluation Formed Steel and Metal of Bridge and Tunnel Critical Facilities
2020 and Retrofit Building Systems Vulnerability Assessments/
Evaluations
4:00 PM – Long Term Structural Structural Performance Lateral Force Systems Advances in Concrete for Performance Issues in
5:30 PM Health Monitoring in Fire Blast Resistant Structures Buildings and Structures
of Bridges
6:00 PM – 7:30 PM Grand Opening Reception
10:30 AM – Cable Supported Bridges Reinforcing Topics for Soil Structure Interaction ASCE 7-10 Wind Loads SEI/ASCE Chile Earth-
12:00 PM Concrete Structures and Seismic Isolation at quake Assessment Team
Nuclear Facilities Report Session 2
1:30 PM – 3:00 PM Closing Session – Unique Challenges of the Built Environment of Las Vegas
For more information about the 2011 Structures Congress, including Registration and Housing
Energy Structures
New Research and Novel New Research and Novel Business and and Non-Structural
Las Vegas Structures Applications 1 Applications 2 Professional Practice Components
Theodore L. Droessler A. Emin Aktan Paul Mlakar John Tawresey Robert Bachman
Hoover Dam Bypass Project Dynamic Monitoring of Civil Advanced Computation SE Licensure Structural Performance
Structures Using Advanced Techniques in Structural Criteria for Alternative Energy
Sensing Systems and Techniques Engineering Production Systems
Nevada Geology and Seismic Analysis of Nuclear Remote Sensing of Structural How the Future of Structural Design and Reliability of
Assessment of Seismic Facilities Damage Engineering Sees the Future Transmission Tower and Wind
Hazards of Structural Engineering Turbine Structures
Opening Luncheon, Plenary Speaker and Awards Program
Alternative Project Life Cycle Performance Under Student Structural Design Thinking about Engineering Design and Evaluation of
Delivery Methods Multiple Hazards Competition Non-Structural Components
and Non Buildings
Research in Nevada Multi Hazard Modeling and RAPID Assessment of Effect Construction Crane Collapse Seismic Response of
Universities Response of Structures of Haitian Earthquake Case Study Ceiling Piping Partition
Non-Structural Systems
Grand Opening Reception
New Research and Novel New Research and Novel Business and CASE Risk Management
Applications 1 Applications 2 Professional Practice Convocation Non-Building Structures
Advances in Shape Memory Creating Greater Triple Connection Details The Changing Face of Seismic Blast Vibration and
Materials Bridge Applications Bottom Line Benefits from Engineering Indemnity: Meaner Modular Weight Management
Sustainability Approaches and Uglier! Aspects of Petrochemical
Structure Designs
Progress of the SEI Recent Advances in Current and New Technology New Tools for Managing Risk Design, Investigation
Disproportionate Collapse Structural Engineering in the Business of Structural and Project Implementation and Repair of Large
Standards and Guidance Engineering Non-Building Structures
Committee
Advances in Structural Experimental Validation of ASCE Guiding Principles Lessons Learned from Seismic Retrofit of
Analysis – Multiscale Design Concepts and Analytical Arbitration, Mediation Non-Building Structures
Mechanics and Advanced Methods for Collapse-Resistance and Litigation
Simulation Methods in of Structures Subjected to
Structural Engineering Explosive and Abnormal Loading
Evening at the Hoover Dam
W
hen a person trains in mar- of us if I am successful in other areas of life
tial arts long enough and besides Engineering.
acquires sufficient skill, he Not only am I a 5th degree black belt in
receives a black belt to wear Taekwon-Do, I have also recently published
with his uniform. Once he obtains this belt, a science fiction novel called The First Degree.
he does not declare that he has a black belt; It is the story of an Engineer who is a student
he does not claim that he owns the black belt, of Taekwon-Do, and who has some surprising
nor even that he wears the black belt. What he adventures involving space and time travel,
says is that he is a black belt. The training that alien life forms, deadly weapons, amazing
earned him the new belt color has changed computer technology, and interesting char-
his entire identity, and symbolizes much more acters doing interesting things. Of course, in
than just a reward or medal of achievement order for me to be successful as a new author,
in the martial arts. my publisher must sell enough books to make
Engineers should be the same. We do not money; and the more copies we sell, the more
merely act as Engineers only during the times success I will have in promoting what we as
when we are working on a project or only in Engineers do. Becoming a successful Author,
the office; but the title of Engineer remains with a capital A, will provide me with more
with us on the weekend at home, and in bowl- opportunities to speak to audiences who
ing alleys, restaurants and churches as well. will listen as I tell them about what we do as
We have had our very identities changed by Engineers. I can tell stories and explain things
the training that we have received, and we do in a way that they might enjoy, as they learn
not want to separate ourselves from the title to understand better who we Engineers really arts and inspecting bridges are all separate
that we use: Engineer with a capital E. are. I want to make them more aware of us, and unrelated activities, but I beg to differ
I might state the fact that I am an Engineer just as Mr. Weingardt has suggested. – because I am an Engineer who does all
upon meeting another person for the first I will probably never get called by a reporter three of these, they are inter-related as far as
time. Most of us consider this line of work about the fact that I am an Engineer. However, I am concerned. I encourage all Engineers to
as something to be proud of, and something now that I have written a novel, someone at a try, when you assemble with non-engineers,
that defines our very being and purpose. The newspaper or television station might want to to let the audience know that your identity
title Engineer is a role that defines us just as interview me. Then, when I mention that I includes engineering as well as the activities
the color of the belt defines the martial artist. am also a black belt in martial arts, that will that brought you together.
I agree with Richard G. Weingardt, P.E., who probably find its way into the story as an Finally, we need to be more interesting. I
has written at least eight books and numerous entertaining bonus for the audience. I know love to hear about Engineers standing in front
articles for STRUCTURE® magazine, about that in such an interview, I will also mention of an audience, or writing articles or books
Engineers doing non-engineering things to that I am an Engineer and present this fact that get read by many people, and effectively
promote our profession to non-engineers. in a way that will be perceived as a bonus as communicating about engineering subjects
He inspired me to believe that if I accom- well. Perhaps I will tell the audience some- in a way that truly interests the audience.
plish something like earning a black belt in thing that they did not know about bridges Maybe you can become such a person your-
martial arts or writing a novel – more on that or buildings. This exposure of the world of self. Too often, brilliant Engineers are lacking
in a moment – I should tell people that I engineering would be possible because I had in presentation and communication skills, as
have done so, and make sure that they know accomplished something supposedly unre- smart as we may be in our various fields of
that I am an Engineer. I should strive to call lated to engineering. expertise. The audience may get bored if we
attention to the fact that Engineers make What opportunities do you have to connect fail to entertain. I think that we should strive
a difference; if I am asked to speak to any your hobbies, interests, and non-professional to find ways to entertain people and, in the
audience, even for a non-engineering reason, accomplishments to engineering? It could process, make sure that they know that we
they ought to know that I am an Engineer. be said that writing fiction, doing martial are Engineers.▪
By doing so, I can enhance their knowledge
and change the way they define the role of
David W. Hillery, P.E. (david.hillery@gmail.com) is a structural engineer
an Engineer in their own minds. I can, and
with Jacobs in Houston, Texas. His book, The First Degree, is available online at
should, make a difference to them, as a way
www.DorranceBookstore.com.
of promoting my profession. It will help all
Structural Forum is intended to stimulate thoughtful dialogue and debate among structural engineers and other participants in the design and
construction process. Any opinions expressed in Structural Forum are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of NCSEA,
®
CASE, SEI, C 3 Ink, or the STRUCTURE magazine Editorial Board.
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