Cell Theory

We have also seen from the hierarchy of levels of organization of!

living things, that all living things ______________________.!
consist of cell

Microscopic observations of living organisms have yielded three !

generalizations which constitute the “cell theory”.!

Known as the cell theory :!

- ______________________
all living things are composed of one or more cells.!
- cells are the ______
smallest structural and functional unit of organisms.!
- new cells only come from pre-existing cells by _______________.!
cell division

-  this is an example of ___________

biogenesis which is the creation of!
living organisms by other living organisms.!
1!
Cell’s, on their own, have a limitation:!
- they are generally restricted ________________.!
to small size

- why is this?!

2!
 Why Most Cells Remain Small in Size

Size of a cell is limited because cell’s are subject to the!

______________________________.!
surface area to volume ratio

As cells get ___________!

larger their S/V declines

_________________.! Fig. 2.5!

As cells increase in size, there is a point where the plasma!

membrane can not _______________________________
pass not enough material across its to meet!
the needs of the _______________________.!
increased cytoplasmic volume

-  problem is volume increases by the _______ cube but surface area !

only increases by the __________________________.!
squares as cell size increases
3!
 Another problem when cells get large is ______________________!
that diffusion is only efficient over short distances

________________________.!

diffusion supply
diffusion !
supply!

metabolic demand is being met

metabolic demand not

metabolic demand is being met
met. Cytoplasm starves
Small cell! Large cell!

Can get around S/V and diffusion supply !

problems in a large cell to some extent!
_________________________________!
by flattering, elongating or branching the cell or having microvilli on

_________________________________!
cell surface

_______________.! RBC neuron

 Microvilli
Microvilli are microscopic cellular _____________________
membrane protrusions that!
___________________________
increase the surface area of cells and ______________________!
minimize any increase in cell volume

___________, and are involved in functions, such as absorption, !

secretion, and cellular adhesion.

Fig. 48.12

Small portion of the plasma membrane on the!

lumen side of intestinal epithelial cells.!

https://quizlet.com/19110502/parts-of-the-cell-flash-cards/

Microvilli form a structure called a ______________

brush border on the apical !
surface of some epithelial cells.!
5!
Streaming of the cytoplasm in some cells can distribute nutrients!
around the cell without having to rely solely on diffusion to get!
nutrients to the cell center. !

cytoplasmic streaming

As discussed previously, because cells are so small, microscopes !

are required to see most cells.!

6!
Microscopes ________ magnify objects but they also help us to __________!
resolve

_________________________.!
objects that are close together

Magnification: _____________
ratio between the size of an image produced by a !
microscope and its actual size.!

Resolution: the minimum distance by ______________________

which two points (objects) !
_________________
can be separate and still be seen as two points.!
- dependent upon the ____________
wavelength of the illumination used.!

- our eyes can resolve objects that are .1 mm or more apart.!

Contrast: how _____________

different one structure looks from another.!
- can be enhanced by use of dyes.!

7!
Two Types Of Microscopes Available Based On !
Source Of Illumination !
Light microscopes!
- Use _________
light for illumination!
- Focus light using glass _________!
lenses

- Resolution 0.2 μm(.0002 mm) !

Electron microscopes!
- Use _________________
electron beam for illumination!
- Focus beams of electrons using __________!
magnets

- Resolution .2nm (.0000002mm) !

8!
 Units Of Measure

F 7!

Units of measure and the ranges in which!

they are used in the study of molecules!
cells and cellular structures.!

9!
 Types Of Light Microscopes
A. Light Microscope (Bright Field)

Achieve magnifications of!

up to ___________.
1000x !

Transmitted ___________
white light is used!
to illuminate samples. !

Advantages: Simplicity of usage and ease of specimen preparation !

- can observe ____________
living specimens and _______________
stained sections !
of tissues. !
Disadvantages: Low contrast of most biological samples!
- low apparent optical resolution due to the blur of ____!
__________________.!
out of focus

- resolving power- _________

.0002 mm or ___________.!
.2 micrometers
10!
 Unstained sample! Stained sample!

By staining tissues that are colorless, the contrast between the!

parts of the cell can be _______________.!
increased

Staining increases contrast but usually ________________.!

kills living cells

11
 B. Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) And
Phase Contrast Microscopes

DIC

Phase
Phase contrast
Fig. 2.4 contrast

Uses special lenses to enhance differences in density, giving a cell!

a 3-D appearance.!
Improves contrast when observing unstained living cells.!
12
 C. Fluorescence Microscopy!

Some chemical dyes and proteins fluoresce (______________________!

gives off a particular
______________________
wavelength of light when ultraviolet light is shone upon them).!
Fluorescent dyes or proteins can be designed to label a ______________!
particular protien
___________________
or organelle within cells.!
Microscope has filters that illuminate the cells with the particular !
wavelength of light that the fluorescent dye will absorb.!
Only the light emitted __________
by the dye will be allowed to reach the observer!
or detector. ! 13!
In order for this type of microscopy to work, parts of the ________
cell in a sample!
___________________.
must be flourescent Can accomplish this using:!

1) Fluorescent stains!

Some fluorescent stains are small molecules which can __________!

themselves bind
__________
to a biological molecule of interest within the cell.!
Nuclei are stained blue with DAPI – _______________________!
binds strongly to A-T rich regions in DNA
____________. Can be used on both dead and living cells. !
14!
Or a fluorescent stain can be bound to an antibody designed!
to attach the a particular cellular structure of interest.!

Microtubules are marked green by an antibody bound to FITC –!

FITC is often conjugated or linked to an antibody in order to !
make a specific, fluorescent marker. !

15
2) fluorescent proteins!
_____________________,
Green fluorescent proteins GFP traditionally!
refers to a protein first isolated from!
the jellyfish Aequorea victoria.

__________________________________
using biotechnology, the GFP gene has been inserted into the !
genome of organisms and maintained in their genome through!
breeding.!

16
Gene for synthesis of GFP is inserted into a gene that
produces a particular protein of interest.

ww.conncoll.edu/ccacad/zimmer/GFP-ww/prasher.html

When that protein is synthesized, GFP is also synthesized.!

GFP gene is frequently used as a _______________________.! 17
The GFP protein acts as a _______________________________!
reporter of the expression of the gene of interest
_______________________.!

Due to the widespread usage and evolving needs !

of researchers many ______________________
different mutants of GFP gene !
_______ have been engineered which fluoresce !
colors other than green.!

Glofish green fluorescent mice

18
D. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy!

19
____________
laser illuminate various points in the sample.!
Points are processed by a computer to give a very ______________.!
sharp 3-D image

Often used in conjunction with fluorescent microscopy to view !

the ______________________________
location of fluorescent molecules within cells.! 20!
Generates high-resolution optical images with depth selectivity.!

21!
 Types Of Electron Microscopes
Disadvantage of electron microscopes is you _________________!
can not study living cells or tissues
_____________________ with them.!
A. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)!
Most ________________
cells organelles are too small to be studied with a light!
microscopes.!
Organelles and other cell structures can be studied using electron!
microscopes.!

Use an ______________
electron beam instead of light and the beam is focused!
using ________________
magnets rather than glass lenses.!

A TEM, a ____________________________,
a transmission electron microscope is used to study _____!
thin
________________
sections of tissue.!
22
A beam of electrons is focused on a _______________________ in!
then section of specimen
a vacuum.  Electrons that pass through the tissue form the image;  !
structures that scatter electrons ____________.
appear dark  Various ________!
fixing
and _______ methods
staining are used to highlight structures of interest.  !
Beam of electrons passing through the tissue is focused onto a!
fluorescent screen.!
A part of the image on the screen can be photographed to produce!
an ______________________.!
electron micrograph

23!
Electron microscopes can achieve magnifications of up to ________.!
500,000x

Resolving power of a TEM is about .0000002mm or .2 nanometers!

(1x10-6 mm).!
Because the ______________________________
wavelegths of electron beams are much shorter!
than beams of light.!

24!
 E. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
To observe the ____________
3-D structure of very small specimens, a scanning !
electron microscope (SEM) is used.!
Object is coated with gold.!
A electron beam striking the gold surface causes the surface!
to ________________.!
emit electrons

Emitted electrons are _____________________

focused onto a screen and the3-D image!
is photographed.!
Resolving power of an SEM is about 10 nanometers and !
magnification is up to 100,000.!

25
Purification of cells and their parts may be performed using the!
following a method called ___________________________.!
subcellular fractionation

26
Subcellular
Fractionation
________________
rupture cells in some way in!
an isotonic solution creating!
a ____________
suspension of broken cells!
and subcellular components!
Use ________________________!
differential centrifugation
to obtain relatively pure samples!
of the _______________________.
desired components(s) !
- use of a sequential increase in !
__________________
gravitational force results in !
the sequential ______________
separation of !
__________________
organelles according to!
their density.!
27
 Cell Organization
Features Shared By All Cells
All cells are surrounded by a ___________________
plasma membrane and some cells!
have _______________________,
coordinated chemical system as well.!

Fig. 2.9!
28
 polar head

nonpola Fig. 5.4

r tails

Because phospholipid molecules are _________________

amphipatic they can !
spontaneously form into micelles, liposomes or phospholipid!
bilayer cell membranes __________________________.!
in the prescence of water

Fig. 5.5 29!

Amphipathic molecules are ____________________________
hydrophilic at the polar end and !
________________________
hydrophobic at the nonpolar end of the molecule.!

__________________
water pushes the hydrophobic regions!
of phospholipids away from itself resulting!
in one of the molecular formations illustrated !
on the previous slide. !

Fig. 5.4

30!
All cells store hereditary information in the same linear chemical!
code consisting of the _______________
nucleic acid DNA molecules located in one!
or more ____________________.!
chromosomes

Chemistry of _____________
every living cells is fundamentally similar, because!
it must provide for the synthesis of ________________________.!
DNA, RNA, and protein

DNA is not synthesized as an isolated free strand but on a !

template __________________________.
formed by a preexisting DNA strand !
All cells replicate their genetic information by ________________
templated !
__________________________.!
polymerization

Template DNA!
DNA replication!
New DNA!

31!
Templated polymerization is also used to transcribe portions of !
the information on DNA into _______________________.
molecules of RNA !

RNA

RNA in turn guides the synthesis __________of proteins by the more complex !
machinery of ________________,
translation involving large _____________!
multimolecular
_____________________________________.!
machine in the cytoplasm called ribosomes

Fig. 2.11! ribosome!

32!
All cells contain ___________
cytoplasm and the aqueous environment of the !
cytoplasm is called the ______________.!
cytosol

Cytosol is an _____________
aqueous solution containing ions and various organic !
molecules. !
The cytoplasm also has a _________________________________.
cytoskeleton made of protein fibers !
- cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and plays key roles in cell!
division and chromosome segregation.!

33
 Cell Types
Two cell types are recognized, the ___________________
prokaryotic cell typical of!
__________________________________.!
prokaryotes in Domain Bacteria and Archaea

And the _____________

eukaryotic cell typical of ___________________________.!
eukaryotes in Domain Eukarya

Prokaryotic cells are simply organized, small and __________________!

without
__________________________.!
membrane-bound organelles

Eukaryotic cells have a more complex organization, are larger and!

possess a _______________________________.
variety of membrane-bound organelles !
Fig. 2.9

Fig. 2.7

prokaryote 34
eukaryote
 Internal Organization in Eukaryotic Cells!
In cells of eukaryotes, the region inside the plasma membrane is!
subdivided into the ________________________.!
nucleus and the cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of the ______________

liquid cytosol and ____________!
recognizable
______________________________.!
subcellular structures called organelles

Our study of the eukaryotic cell is going to illustrate a very !

important biological principle: !
-!structure is related to function

How the specific structure of molecules, organelles, cells, tissues,!

organs, and body structures are structured to support the !
functions that they are required to perform.!

35
In multicellular eukaryotes shape, size, and organization vary!
considerably among different species and among different cell!
types of the same species.!
All the cells have the same _________
genome but because different genes !
are expressed in different cells they don’t have the same!
___________________.!
proteomes

epithelial cells! neurons!

36
A genome is an organism’s ___________________,
complete set of DNA including all of !
its genes.!

The proteome is the entire set of _________________

proteins expressed by a genome, !
in a cell, tissue or organism at a certain time.!

37
 Internal Organelles!
I. Nucleus!
_____________,
Large organelle which you can study under the light microscope.!

Is involved in:!
- _________________
Cellular reproduction !(contains the genetic material DNA and!
replicates DNA).!
- _____________________!
controls activity of cell by (transcribes and splices RNA)!
controlling gene expression

- __________________________
controls selective exchange of molecules between the!
cytoplasm and the nucleoplasm. !
nucleus maintains the integrity of the DNA

38!
 Fig. 2.10

Surrounded by a _______________
nuclear envelope consisting of _______________!
two membranes
__________________________________.!
separated by a fluid-filled perinuclear space

In animals protein fibers called!

___________
lamins line the inside of the !
envelope reinforcing the !
envelope.!

Different proteins line the inner surface of!

the nuclear envelopes of protists,!
fungi and plants.! 39
Nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules, but large !
molecules must be able to enter an exit the nucleus.!

But these larger molecules can cross the nuclear envelope because!
the envelope is penetrated by many _______________________!
large nuclear pore complexes
___________________. !

Pores are the main site of __________

exchange between the cytoplasm and the!
nucleoplasm.!

40!
 Fig. 2.10!

Octagonally symmetrical pores formed of more than 100 different !

proteins called ________________.!
nucleoporins

Over 500 molecules per second can pass through each nuclear pore. !

____________________________________
RNA molecules and ribosomal subunits are transported from the !
nucleus into the cytosol while _____________
proteins enter the nucleus through!
the pores.!
41!
Nucleoplasm includes the ______________
liquid medium inside the nucleus as well!
as a ______________________________________________.
network of fibers called the internal nuclear matrix !
The nucleus is filled with ___________________.!
chromatin

Chromatin: a collection of eukaryotic ________________

DNA molecules with their !
_____________________.!
associated proteins

Each individual DNA molecule with its associated proteins is called a !

_______________________.!
chromosomes

Individual chromosomes are _______________

not distinguishable in a non-dividing cell.!

42!
One or more _____________
nucleoli may be present inside the nucleus.!

A nucleolus is a nuclear structure formed around the genes coding!

for ___________________________.!
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Fig. 2.10!

The _________
nucleolus is a region where ________________
ribosomal subunits are assembled !
from ribosomal RNA(s) and proteins.!
Ribosomal subunits exit the nucleus through the nuclear pores and!
enter the cytosol.!
43!
Some cells, as they mature lose their nucleus.!

Mammalian red blood cells are an example.!

Red blood cells within in the circulatory system lack nuclei.!

44!
II. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and Ribosomes

ER is a network of membranes forming _____________________!

flattened interconnected
_____________________________.!
fluid-filled tubules called cisternae

Fig. 2.9 45!

Enclosed fluid-filled spaces within each cisterna is called the _____.!
lumen

ER membrane provides increased !

surface area for for attachment!
of proteins involved in directing!
__________________.!
cellular reaction

lumen
Fig. 2.12

46!
ER connects at certain points with the outer membrane of the!
_____________________.!
nuclear envelope

ER involved in ________________________________
formation of nuclear membrane during cell!
division and the ____________________
addition or subtraction of membrane from the !
nuclear envelope.!
So, lumen in the cisternae is continuous with the ______________
perinuclear !
_____________
space but separated from the cytosol.!

ER lumen serves as a transport pathway ____________________!

separated from the cytosol
____________ for certain molecules.!

Molecules often enter vesicles that ______________

bud off the ER and are then!
transported in these vesicles to other parts of the cell.!

47!
Note the attachment !
of ER to outer membrane !
of nuclear envelope!
cisternae

lumen

Fig. 2.16

48!
Two kinds of ER:!
1) Rough ER – outer
! surface studded with ribosomes

2) Smooth ER –!outer surface without ribosomes

Fig. 2.12

49!
II. A. Ribosomes!
These tiny cytoplasmic structures which are really!
more like ____________________.!
enzymes than organelles

Are the site of _____________________.!

protein synthesis

Each ribosome consist of ___________________

two subunits that join !
together in the cytosol at the beginning of _________________.!
protein synthesis

Synthesis of a protein (polypeptide) on a ribosome is called!

_________________.!
translation

Fig. 13.10
ribosome!

Fig. 2.11!
50!
Some ribosomes are ____________________.!
free in the cytosol

Proteins synthesized on these:! -!1) are

! used in the cytosol
-  such as ____________
enzymes or !
components of the!
__________________!
cytoskeleton

ribosome!

Fig. 2.11! or 2) they will enter organelles, other than!

the ER, by _________________________!
post-translational import

such as:!
-!nucleus
-!mitochondria or plastids

51
 Posttranslational Import!
Certain polypeptides produced in the cytosol can ______________!
enter organelles
after protein synthesis by _____________________
post-translational import.!

Involves a _______________
signal sequence on the polypeptide (called a ________!
transit
___________)
sequence which is recognized by a ______________
receptor protein on the!
membrane of the target organelle.!

posttranslational import of
a __________________________ into
a mitochondrion

http://www.unitus.it/scienze/corsonew/lezione11.html 52
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LfDYGanMi6Q

53!
Proteins synthesized on ________________________
ribosomes attached to the ER either:!
-  1) become inserted ____________!
into the ER membrane
___________________.!
- or 2) _________________________!
enter the ER for enzymatic modification and
___________________________.!
transport
ribosome!

Insertion of a protein
into the ER membrane
during translation

54!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LfDYGanMi6Q

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4g

55!
 Cotranslational Import Into The ER
Polypeptide chains synthesized on ribosomes attached to the !
ER may ______________________.!
enter the lumen of the ER

First few amino acids of the!

polypeptide chain form a __________!
single sequence
_________ which _________________!
initiates attachment
of the ribosome to the ER membrane.!

Fig.
13.19
. called coiltranslation import 56!
 II. B. Function of Rough ER Fig. 2.16

Fig. 2.12

Rough ER provides a _______________________!

transport pathway for proteins
________ that enter the lumen that are destined!
for different parts of the ___________________!
endomembrane system
______________________.!
Substances ready for transport are packaged into ________________
tiny vesicles !
____________________;
which bud off the ER the vesicles then move through the cytosol!
and fuse with a _____________________.!
target organelle
57!
Many of the proteins found in the cisternal space of the ER!
are there only _________________
temporarily as they pass on their way to!
other locations.!

http://slideplayer.com/slide/2521323/

http://slideplayer.com/slide/2521323/ Slide 17

Other proteins, however, _____________

constantly remain in the lumen of the ER!
and are known as endoplasmic reticulum _________________.!
resident proteins

58!
Rough ER also has ______________
enzymes that can modify the transported proteins!
by _________________________________________
adding oligosaccharide carbohydrates to the proteins.!
-  the covalent attachment of a carbohydrate to another molecule is!
called _______________:
glycosylation if to a lipid (_________________)
result is a glycolipid or to!
a protein (result is a _______________________).!
glycoprotein

https://www3.nd.edu/~aseriann/CHAP12B.html/sld081.htm 59!
 glycoproteins!
protein!
When proteins enter
protein the ER most acquire
the 14 sugar residues
shown here _____________________
oligosaccharide
Some of these sugars carbohydrate!
may be removed and
carbo-
others added as proteins
hydrate pass through the Golgi
apparatus

Oligosaccharide carbohydrates are short chain carbohydrates!

made of ____________________________.!
3 to 14 monosaccharide

The amount of rough ER varies in cells depending how much !

protein is being __________________________.!
synthesized for transport

Pancreatic cells that secrete proteins _____________

for digestion in the small!
intestine and ________________
protein hormones for transport in the blood have!
a lot of rough ER.!

60!
Some ribosomes attach to the outer surface of the ______________.!
nuclear envelope

Fig. 2.10!

61!
II. C. Smooth ER

In our liver cells smooth ER has enzymes that can ____________,!

detoxify drugs,
_______________________________.!
including barbiturates and alcohol

- breakdown lipids that are toxic.!

Smooth ER in our muscle cells can _________________
remove Ca++ from the!
cytosol and _____________________.!
store these ions inside the ER

Fig. 2.12

62!
Nervous stimulation of the muscle cell causes a _______________!
sudden release
_________________________________.!
of Ca++ into the cytoplasm

Ca++ in the cytoplasm causes the ______________________.!

muscle cell to contract

Once stimulation ceases, Ca++ is pumped _________________.!

back into the ER

First messengers are the neurotransmitters, Ca++ are second !

messengers.!

Figure 38.6

63!
Smooth ER is the site of _________________________________.!
lipid synthesis and lipid modification

It is responsible for phospholipid synthesis, so the ER is the !

_______________________________.!
site of new membrane synthesis

ER in gonads has the enzymes necessary to convert the ________!

steroid
__________________________________.!
cholesterol into the steroid sex hormones

In animals it is the site of the breakdown of the polysaccharide!

_______________________
glycogen by hydrolysis into individual glucose molecules. !

64!
III. Golgi Apparatus
Golgi apparatus is a system of membrane-bound, fluid-filled sacs!
(cisternae) arranged _________________________.!
parallel to each other

Fig. 2.13!
Number can vary from one to hundreds in cells.!

The ________________
receiving (cis) side faces the _______________________!
ER and the shipping (trans)
side faces the __________________.!
plasma membrane

The cis side ____________________

receives substances (particularly proteins) from!
the rough ER via ______________________
vesicles that bud off the ER and then fuse with!
the cis side of the Golgi.!
65
____________
vesicle from ER Golgi complex _______—vesicles
cis - face
____, about to from ER fuse with
fuse with the this side
Golgi membrane

_________
clisternae

Vesicles budded
Internal from Golgi _________
containing
space ___________________
finished product

trans face— _______

vesicles
_________
leave Golgi from this
side for other cell
locations
Fig. 2.13 66!
Once in the Golgi, the received molecules are ____________________!
transported from

__________________________
sac to sac via tiny vesicles that bud off one sac and move to the!
next sac.!

Fig. 2.13
Fig. 2.16

Molecules can be ________________________

sequentially modified by the different!
enzymes as they move sequentially through the Golgi sacs.!
- ______________
glycosylation of lipids and proteins continues in the Golgi.!
Once the molecules reach the trans side, they ________________!
maybe further modified
________________ by enzymes within the last sac.! 67
Then they are then ______________.!
sorted

And they are then __________________________

packaged into appropriate vesicles for transport.!

The Golgi _______________________

regulates the movement of several kinds of proteins!
throughout the cell.!
- Golgi does this by adding tags to the proteins which __________!
determine
_________________
their destination within the cell.!

68
____________________
Secretory vesicles that bud off the Golgi and go to the plasma!
membrane contain molecules destined to be ___________________.!
released from the cell

Once the vesicles reach the plasma membrane, they fuse with the!
membrane and release their contents to the outside via __________.!
exocytosis

The membrane of the vesicle becomes part of the ________________.!

plasma membrane

Fig. 2.14

Exocytosis is also a way of _____________________

adding new membrane to the plasma!
membrane.!
- is important in _________________.!
cell growth
69
 Golgi Complex

Endocytic vesicle

Instructions for
building proteins
5 Lysosomes leave the nucleus
Damaged and enter the
organelle cytoplasm.
Nucleus
Vesicles
Golgi 2
1 Rough ER
complex
Secretory
3 Ribosomes Proteins (green and
vesicles yellow) are
4 assembled from
amino acids by
ribosomes attached
to the ER or free
Fig. 2.16
70! in the cytosol.
Molecules for use within the cell are released from the Golgi and:!
- packaged into vesicles called ___________________.!
lysosomes

- transported in vesicles to the _____________.!

ER

- transported in vesicles to the ________________________.!

central vacuole in plant cells

71
IV. Lysosomes
Small membrane-bound vesicles in animal cells containing _________!
hydrolytic
_________________________________
enzymes necessary to digest complex organic molecules.!
Found in animal but not plant cells.!

Bud off the _____________________________.!

trans side of the Golgi apparatus

1) Involved in _______________________________.!
intracellular digestion in food vacuole

Food vacuoles are __________________

endocytic vesicles that take food!
items into the cell at the plasma membrane.!
Fig. 2.15!

Endocytosis is also a way of!

________________
removing membrane from the !
plasma membrane.!
Fig. 2.14! 72
Lysosomes fuse with the food vacuole adding!
their digestive enzymes in to the food vacuole!
Enzymes in lysosomes require ____________!
an acidic environment
_________________.!
Fig. 2.14
The pH inside lysosomes is around __________.!
4.5 - 5

2) Molecules that need to be _______________________________

hydrolyzed in a metabolic pathway can!
enter a lysosome, be hydrolyzed, and the products of the reaction!
will then be ____________________________.!
released back into the cell’s cytosol

e.g. Tay Sachs disease – example of a lysosome storage disease.!

fatal genetic disease of the central nervous system.!

73
3) Lysosomes are also involved in the breakdown of ____________!
worn out or
_________________________________________.!
damaged organelles or other cellular material

Process is called _________________.!

autophagy

Organelle first engulfed into an ______________________.!

autophagosome

A lysosome then fuses with this organelle and _________________!

release its enzymes
_________________________.!
into the organelle

The molecules that result from the hydrolytic reactions are ________!
reused
by the cell or they are _____________
excreted from the cell.! 74
http://dev.biologists.org/content/135/14/2347/F1.expansion.html

75
V. Vacuoles!
Fluid-filled spaces surrounded by a ______________________.!
vacuolar membrane

In animal cells, vacuoles tend to be small and may function in!

__________________.!
storage

a) Contractile Vacuole!
In freshwater protozoans a ____________________
contractile vacuole is involved in!
removing _________________
excess water that diffuses into the cell.!

Fig. 22.4!

The vacuole ______________________

expands filling with water from the cytoplasm and!
then contracts ________________
expelling the water to the outside of the cell.! 76
Important in __________________:
osmoregulation the maintenance of salt and!
water balance.!

77
b) Food Vacuoles!
Some protozoans cells and some animal cells engulf larger food!
items into their cells ______________________________________.!
by a form of endocytosis called phagocytosis

Material to be ingested makes contact with the plasma membrane, !

which then ___________________.
invaginates !
Invagination pinches off, leaving the engulfed material in a !
membrane-enclosed vacuole and the cell membrane intact.!
The resulting membrane-bound organelle is a ________________.!
food vacuole

food vacuole Fig. 22.4!

Fig. 2.14!
78
They serve as a sites of ________________________.!
intracellular digestion

__________
Lysosomes fuse with the food vacuole and __________________!
introduce hydrolytic
________________________.!
enzymes into the vacuole

The enzymes digest the contents of the vacuole.!

Resulting _______________________
smaller monomer molecules are then absorbed into !
the ____________.!
cytosol

79
c) Central (or Plant) Vacuole!
Many mature ____________
plant cells contain a _______________________.!
large central vacuole

It stores a large amount of _________,!

water Fig. 2.9!
__________________________.!
enzymes and inorganic ions

central !
Outer membrane called! vacuole!
the ______________.!
tonoplast

When it is full of water it causes the ___________________

plasma membrane to exert!
pressure, called ____________,
turgor pressure against the outer cell wall in plant!
cells.!
Turgor pressure is important in the ____________________
above ground support in plants.!
- important in ____________________.!
cell support 80
Turgor pressure is important in ______________
cell growth in plants.!

Central vacuole contains _________________

hydrolytic enzymes which break down!
larger organic molecules into smaller ones.!

Site of storage of ___________________________________

blue and purple anthocyanin pigments which!
color flowers and ripening fruit.!

e.g. beet root!

May store __________________________

toxic or distasteful molecules which deter herbivores!
from feeding on the plants.! 81
 VI. Endomembrane System
Is a collection of _____________________
internal membrane that form a single functional !
and developmental unit.!

Parts of the system are ____________

physically connected or ________
indirectly connected!
by the movement of _____________
vesicles between organelles.!

Endomembrane system includes the:! ER!

Golgi apparatus!
lysosomes!
secretory vesicles!
nuclear envelope!
vacuolar membranes!
plasma membrane!

It forms a collection of internal membranous sacs _________________!

that divide the cell

___________________________________.!
into structural and functional compartments
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Membrane ______________________________
flows between parts of this system and to and from the!
plasma membrane via _________________.!
tiny vesicles

Membrane flows from the ___________________________

rough ER to the nuclear envelope through!
direct connections between these two organelles.!

83