Philippine Handbook Algebra

in Chemical Engineering Catalina Mijares

A1. ALGEBRA

A1.1. OPERATIONS ON ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

1. Addition/Subtraction
Only similar terms (such as similar powers, similar fractions, similar radicals, etc.) can be
combined as a single term by algebraic addition or subtraction. For a finite number of terms
that are not similar, their sum (or difference) could only be represented by joining the terms
by + or - signs.

2. Multiplication/Division
Multiplication or division of algebraic expressions require the use of the following exponent
rules. These rules apply to all types of exponents – integer or fractional, negative or positive,
irrational, real or complex.

1. am  an = am+n

am
2. n
 a m -n if m > n
a
= a0 or 1 if m = n
1
= n-m if m < n
a

3. (am)n = amn

4. (ab)m = ambm
m
a am
5.    m
b b

NOTE:
1. Negative exponents may be made positive by the following definitions:

1 1
a–1 = and a- n =
a an

2. When applying the exponent rules on fractional exponents it is necessary that the
following algebraic operations on fractions be properly observed.

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Addition/Subtraction of Fractions:
- the fractions must be made similar before addition can be done.

a c ad cb ad  cb
   or
b d bd bd bd

Multiplication of Fractions

a c ac
 
b d bd

Division of Fractions

a c a d
   
b d b c

3. Powers with fractional exponents are normally written as radicals.

1
Definition: a n = n
a
m

a n  n (a ) m or ( n a )m

A1.2. BINOMIAL EXPANSION: THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

na n -1 b n (n - 1)a n -2 b 2 n (n - 1)(n - 2)a n -3 b 3

(a + b)n = an + + + + …..
1! 2! 3!

n( n - 1)(n - 2)....(n - r  2) a n -r 1b r -1

+ + …….+ bn
( r - 1)!

na n -1 b n (n - 1)a n -2 b 2 n (n - 1)(n - 2)a n -3 b 3

= an + + + + …..
1 1(2) 1( 2)(3)

n ( n - 1)(n - 2).......(n - r + 2)a n -r +1 b r -1

...... + + ....... + b n
1(2)(3).......(r - 1)

Note: The bold-faced term above is the formula for finding the rth term.
(r is the number of the term in the expansion)

Some Properties of the Expanded Form of ( a + b )n

1. For integer n > 0, there are (n +1) terms in the expanded form.

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However, if n is negative or fractional, the expansion will consist of a sum of an infinite

number of terms.

2. The sum of the exponents of the powers of a and b in every term is n.

3. The exponents of the powers of a decrease from n to zero while those of b increase from
zero to n.

4. The terms in the expanded form of (a + b) n are all positive; while for those of (a - b) n, they
are of alternate + and - signs.

5. In the use of the expansion formula (before any simplification is carried out), there should
be (r – 1) factors appearing at the numerator and at the denominator of the numerical
coefficients in each term. At the numerator the largest factor is n; at the denominator the
largest is (r – 1).

Example:
There must be 3 factors at the numerator and at the denominator of coefficient of the 4 th
term in the expansion of (a – b)9 since (r – 1) is 3. The 4th term should be:

(9)(8)(7)a 6 b 3
-
(1)( 2)(3)

(The sign of the term is negative because the sign between a and b in the given binomial
is negative and b has an odd exponent in this term).

6. Provided simplification of the terms has not been done yet, symmetry of coefficients is
exhibited among the (n + 1) terms of the expansion.

A1.3. FACTORING FORMULAE

Some algebraic expressions, particularly those obtained by the special product formulas, can
be written back to their product form. The process of carrying this out is called factoring.
Below are the most common factorable forms.

1. Common Factor: (ac + bc) = c(a+b)

This method must always be tried first before applying any other method of factoring.

2. Difference of Two Squares: (a2 – b2) = (a – b)(a + b)

Any power with an even-numbered exponent is considered a perfect square.
3. Sum or Difference of Cubes: (a3 – b3) = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)

(a3 + b3) = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)

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Any power with an exponent that is divisible by 3 can be considered a cube. Sometimes a
power can be considered a cube and at the same time as a perfect square. For such
instances, the formula for a difference of two squares must be used.

Example: x6 – y6
This binomial may be written either as [(x3)2 – (y3)2] or as [(x2)3 – (y2)3].
For this particular case it would be easier to factor the expression as a difference of
two squares rather than as a difference of cubes.

4. Sum or Difference of Odd Powers (both terms with the same odd positive exponent).

(an + bn) = (a + b)(an -1 – an -2b + an -3b2 - ……. - abn -1 + bn)

Take note of the alternate + and – signs in the 2nd factor

(an – bn) = (a – b)(an-1 + an-2b + an-3b2 + ……+ abn-1 + bn)

Take note of the + signs in all the terms of the 2nd factor

If the powers are of different exponents, the formula may also apply provided both
terms of the binomial could be expressed as powers with the same odd exponent.
Example: (x5 – 32y10) can be written as [x5 – (2y2)5].

5. Perfect Square Trinomial: a2  2ab + b2 = (a  b)2

6. Quadratic Trinomial: acx2 + (bc + ad)x + bd = (ax + b)(cx + d)

The factors of this trinomial are obtained by trial and error having in mind that the middle
term must be the algebraic sum of the inner product and the outer product of the terms of
the desired binomial factors.

7. Square of a Trinomial: a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc = (a + b + c)2

This type consists of six terms, three of which are perfect squares and therefore all positive.
The signs of the last three terms of the given expression will determine the signs of b and c
in the factored form.

8. Addition and Subtraction of a Perfect Square to Produce a Difference of Two Squares.

This may apply to some binomials or trinomials. A perfect square term is added to the
given expression to insert a middle term or to adjust a given middle term to produce a
perfect square trinomial. So as not to change the value of the original expression, the same
term is subtracted simultaneously. The factored form of the resulting perfect square
trinomial and the term subtracted make up an expression factorable as a difference of two
squares.

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Example:
v4 + 4 = (v4 + 4v2 + 4) – 4v2 (add and subtract the perfect square 4v2)
= (v2 + 2)2 – (2v2)2 (factorable by formula #2)
9. Grouping

This method is suggested if the given expression consists of four or more terms. The goal
in grouping is to form an expression with a lesser number of terms and that which would
be factorable by any of the methods presented earlier. Thus, grouping may be done so as
to produce a common factor, to produce a difference of two squares, to produce a
factorable trinomial, etc.

Example: ax + by – bx – ay = (ax – bx) - (ay – by)

= x(a - b) – y(a – b)

In this example some terms were grouped to get a binomial whose terms have (a –
b) as a common factor. This resulting expression could then be factored by formula
#1.

A1.4. SOLUTIONS OF EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

1. First-degree Equation:
Transpose all terms with the variable to one side of the equation and the constants to the
other side. After combining similar terms on each side, divide the equation by the
coefficient of the variable to find the value of the variable involved.

2. Quadratic Equation: ax2 + bx + c = 0 (standard form)

Methods of Solution

2.1 By Factoring (when possible)

Write the equation in the standard form and factor the right side.
Equate each factor to zero and solve the two simpler equations obtained.
Principle used: If (a)(b) = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.

2.2 By Completing the Square

Step 1 Divide the equation by a.
b c
x2 + x 0
a a
2
 b 
Step 2 Transpose the constant term to the right side and add   to both sides.
 2a 
2 2
b  b  c  b 
x2  x   -  
a  2 a  a  2a 

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Step 3 Factor the left side and simplify the right side.
2
 b  b 2 - 4ac
x   
 2a  4a 2

Step 4 Extract the square roots of both sides :

b b 2 - 4ac
x+ =±
2a 2a

Step 5 Solve for the variable:

-b b 2 - 4ac
x= ±
2a 2a

2.3. By Quadratic Formula

If the terms in the final stage of completing the square (see above) are combined, the
2
result would be x = - b ± b - 4ac . This is the formula known as the quadratic
2a
formula. Before identifying a, b, and c for substitution into the formula, it is necessary
that the equation be first written in its standard form.

3. Fractional Equations

Eliminate the denominators by multiplying both sides of the equation by the least common
denominators (LCD) of the fractions involved. Then solve the resulting equation (which is
now free of fractions) by any method appropriate for it.

Caution: Be sure to check for possible extraneous solutions by substituting the values
obtained into the original equation. As long as only the LCD was used to get rid of the
equations of fractions, it is enough to inspect the denominators when the checking is done.
Any value that would make a denominator equal to zero upon substitution should be
considered an extraneous solution.

4. Equations with Radicals

Method of Solution:

Step 1 Isolate one radical on one side of the equation.

Step 2 Raise both sides of the resulting equation to an appropriate power to eliminate
the isolated radical.
Principle: (n a ) n = a or [(a)1/n]n = a
Caution: If the other side of the equation involves two or more radicals, take
care that proper use of exponent rules are observed when this side of the
equation is raised to a power.

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Step 3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 as many times as needed until all radicals have been
eliminated.

Step 4 Solve the resulting equation (which is now free of radicals) by an appropriate
method.

Step 5 Check for extraneous solutions by substituting the values obtained into the
original equation. Use only principal roots in the checking process.

5. Polynomial Equations of Degree n (n > 0; n  3)

a0xn + a1xn - 1 + a2xn - 2 + ……+ an-1x + an = 0

Method:

Factor the left side of the equation: (x – r1)(x – r2)…….(x – rn-1)(x – rn) = 0.

Equate each factor to zero and from each of these equations solve for the value of the
variable. There should be n roots altogether.

To factor a polynomial of degree n a method called synthetic division is used. This is a

compressed form of division of a polynomial by the binomial (x – r). Any r that would result
to a zero remainder is known as a zero of the polynomial or a root of the polynomial
equation. It must be noted that synthetic division will work only for rational roots of the
equation.

Synthetic Division

Step 1. There are three horizontal lines to be formed in the process. On the first line
(top line) write the coefficients of the powers in the descending order. If any
power is missing in the given equation, write zero for its coefficient.
p
Step 2. To find the first factor (x - r1), choose a trial divisor r1 of the form q , where p
is any one of the factors of the constant term an ; q, any one of the factors of the
leading coefficient a0.

Step 3. Bring down the leading coefficient a0 to the 3rd line.

p
Step 4. Multiply a0 by the trial divisor q and write the product on the 2nd line right
under a1. Add this product to a1 and write the resulting sum in the same column
but on the 3rd line (lowest line).

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Step 5. Multiply this sum with the trial divisor and write their product on the 2 nd line
and under the next coefficient found on the first line. Add this product to the
coefficient and write the sum in the same column but on the 3rd line.

Step 6. Repeat the process to all the succeeding columns until the column for a n is
reached. If the sum obtained on the 3rd line in the column of an is zero, this would
indicate that the trial divisor r1 is a root. The factor corresponding to this root is
(x – r1) and the polynomial equation may be written as (x-r1)Q(x) = 0.

p
a0 a1 a2 a3 ... an-1 an q
p p p
a0( q ) (b) q c( q ) … … - an
p p p
a0 [a1+(a0) q ] [a2 + b( q )] [a3+c( q )] … … 0

b c d

The resulting row of numbers in the 3rd line (a0, b, c, d,….,0) are the coefficients
of the depressed polynomial Q(x). This polynomial is called “depressed”
because it is of a degree one less than the previous.

Step 7. Repeat steps 2 - 5 on this depressed polynomial, this time using another trial
divisor, r2. If a zero sum on the 3 rd line of the last column is again obtained, this
would indicate that r2 is a 2nd root. If a zero sum is not obtained, try another
p
available q value. (Note that there may be repeated roots). The goal is to get a
zero sum on the 3rd line of the last column. When this happens, repeat the
procedure to the next depressed polynomial, and so on.

In the event that only three constants are left in the 3rd line, the depressed
polynomial would only be a quadratic trinomial. When this stage is attained, stop
the process. Instead, just solve the resulting quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
to find the remaining two roots.

A1.5. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

Definition: y = ax (a is a constant, a > 0, a  1)

The values of the exponential function are positive for all x.

Solution of Exponential Equations

Exponential equations are equations having the variable in an exponent.

Case I. Form: ax = k, (k is a constant)

Method: Convert the equation to its logarithmic form to find x.

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Thus, x = log ak is the solution of the above equation.

Case II Form: af(x) = ag(x)

Principle: If am = an, then m = n

The use of the above principle will give the equation f(x) = g(x). Solve this non-
exponential equation by any appropriate method.

This method is applicable even if the bases are different provided they can be made
identical as shown in the following example.

Example: 2x – 1 = 32x may be rewritten as 2x-1 = (25)x or 2x-1 = 25x .

Case III. Form: af(x) = bg(x). (a  b)

Method:

Step 1. Take the logarithms of both sides (base 10 or base e).

Using natural logarithms, ln[af(x)] = ln[bg(x)].

n
Step 2. Apply the logarithmic property: logb(M) = nlog b(M)
Thus, f(x)ln(a) = g(x)ln(b) Note that the variable exponents found on both sides
of the given equation were eliminated in this step.

Step 3. Solve the resulting non-exponential equation by an appropriate manner.

A1.6. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

This is the inverse of the exponential function. As such, interchanging the positions of x and
y in the exponential equation and then solving for y will define the logarithmic function.

Thus, if x = ay, then y = logax (a > 0, a  1) is the definition of the logarithmic function.

Since the exponential is always positive, its inverse, the logarithmic function, would be
defined only for x > 0.

Solution of Logarithmic Equations

Logarithmic equations are those, which contain logarithms of an expression that

involve the variable.

Case I log b[f(x)] = k (k = constant)

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Rewrite the equation in its exponential form f(x) = bk.

Doing this would give rise to a non-logarithmic equation which could then be
solved.

Case II logbf(x) = logbg(x)

Principle: If logb[f(x)] = logb[g(x)], then f(x) = g(x).
Application of the principle would give a non-logarithmic equation f(x) = g(x).
Solve this resulting equation by any appropriate method.

Case III logbf(x) + logbg(x) = logbh(x)

Convert the equation to either Case I or Case II by the use of the following
properties of logarithms.
logbM + logbN = logb(M)(N)
M
logbM – logbN = logb ( )
N

A1.7. SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS: ELIMINATION

METHODS

a1x + b1y = c1 (A1 – 1)

a2x + b2y = c2 (A1 – 2)
1. Elimination by Addition or Subtraction

Eliminate one of the unknowns by making the coefficients of the variable of choice
numerically equal in both equations. This effect is obtained by multiplying each of the
equations by an appropriate factor. Subsequent addition (or subtraction) of the two equations
will then leave only one variable. When one of the unknowns has been evaluated, substitute
this value into either of the given equations to find the value of the other unknown.

Eliminate y: b2a1x + b2b1y = b2c1 (Eq.(A1-1) x b2)

(-) b1a2x + b1b2y = b1c2 (Eq.(A1-2) x b1)
-------------------------------------
(b2a1 – b1a2)x + 0 = b2c1 – b1c2

b 2 c1 - b1c 2
Solve for x: x =
b 2 a 1 - b1a 2
Then substitute this value of x into either of the given equations to determine the value
of y.

2. Elimination by Substitution

Step 1. Using one of the given equations, express one of the unknowns as a function of the
other unknown.

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c1 - a 1 x
Thus, from Eq. (A1 - 1): y=
b1
Step 2. Substitute this equivalent expression for y into Eq.(A1 - 2)
 c1 - a1 x 
a2x + b2   = c2
 b 1 
Only x remains in the resulting equation. Solve for x and then substitute the value
obtained into the equivalent form of y to give the value of the other variable.

NOTE: For systems of three or more linear equations, the technique is to gradually reduce
the number of variables. This is done by the repeated use of either or both of the previously
described elimination methods on carefully chosen pairs of equations obtained along the
process until only one variable remains. Once this remaining variable has been evaluated, just
retrace the steps done to solve each of the unknowns through a systematic substitution of the
values already obtained.

A1.8. DETERMINANTS: SOME RELATED DEFINITIONS

1. A determinant is a square array of numbers representing a single numerical value. Two

vertical lines are always used to enclose the array in the representation of a determinant.
Examples:
a 11 a 12 a 13
1 5
A = a 21 a 22 a 23 B= 4 3
a 31 a 32 a 33

The numbers in the array are called elements of the determinant. A horizontal line of
elements is a row; a vertical line of elements a column. The subscript of an element ,
say a23, indicates that the element is located in the 2nd row (i = 2) and in the 3 rd column
(j = 3) of determinant A. The number of rows and columns determines the size or order
(i x j) of a determinant. Thus, det A is of order 3 x 3 or simply of order3 while det B is
of order 2.

2. Minor of an element

A lower-ordered determinant obtained from the original determinant by deleting the row
and column of the element being considered.
a1 b1 c1
Thus, for C = a 2 b2 c 2 the minor of element a1 would be the determinant
a3 b3 c3
b2 c2
.
b3 c3

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3. Cofactor of an element

The minor of the element preceded by either the + sign or the – sign. The sign depends
on the value of the sum of i (the row number) and j (the column number) of the
element involved. If the value of ( i + j) is even, affix the + sign; if the value of (i + j)
is odd, affix the  sign.

So, for detC above, the cofactor of the element a 1 is also its minor the sum i + j is even
(row 1, column1). But the cofactor of the element a 2 is the negative of its minor since
for this instance the sum i + j is odd (row 2, column 1).
b1 c1 b1 c1
The minor of a2 is while its cofactor is  .
b3 c3 b3 c3

A1.8.1 Some Properties of Determinants

These properties may be used to simplify the expansion or evaluation of a determinant

particularly for determinants of order 4 or higher.

1. If the elements of one column (or one row) of a determinant are multiplied by a
number, k, the original value of determinant is multiplied by k.

2. If corresponding elements of two columns (or rows) of a determinant are added or if

the elements of one column (or row) are multiplied by the same number k and added
to the corresponding elements of another column (or row), the value of the
determinant is not changed.

3. If the positions of two columns (or rows) in a determinant are interchanged, the sign of
the determinant is changed

4. If the elements of two columns (or two rows) in a determinant are identical or
proportional, the value of the determinant is zero.
5. The value of the determinant is zero if the elements of one column (or row) are all
zeroes.

A1.8.2. Expansion of a Determinant

A determinant represents a single numerical value. For a determinant of order 2, this value is
obtained by the method called diagonal multiplication. But for a determinant of order 3 or
higher the method known as expansion by minors is utilized.

1. Diagonal Multiplication (only for determinants of order 2)

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To evaluate a 2 x 2 determinant, the product of the elements along the secondary

diagonal are subtracted from the product of the elements along the primary diagonal.
(Refer to the arrows below)

a1 b1
Thus, D = (“primary” minus “secondary” diagonal)
a2 b2
= a1b2 – a 2b1 (This is the value of determinant D)

2. Expansion by Minors (for determinants of order 3 or higher)

By this method, the value of a determinant is obtained by summing up the products of

each term in any chosen row (or column) by their corresponding co-factors.
a1 b1 c1
Example: Given : C = a 2 b2 c2 .
a3 b3 c3

Choosing the elements of the 1st column as basis, the value of detC is:
b2 c2 b1 c1 b1 c1
b3 c3
C = (a1)   (a2)  b 3 c3 + (a3)  b 2 c2

The negative sign of the 2nd term was due to the sign of the co-factor of element a 2.
(The elements of any row or column could have been used as basis instead of those of
column 1).

NOTE: Before using expansion by minors, it would be advisable to first zero out,
except for one, all the elements in the chosen basis column (or row) by determinant
property #2. This way, when expansion by minors is applied, only one term would
remain in the evaluation, that one which involves the remaining non-zero element.
Repeated use of this property on the succeeding lower-ordered determinants would
considerably simplify the evaluation procedure particularly for determinants of order 4
or higher.

A1.8.3. Solution of Linear Systems Using Determinants: Cramer’s Rule

Step 1. Transpose the constant terms to the right side of the equations.
a1x + b1y = c1 (A1 – 3)
a2x + b2y = c2 (A1 – 4)

Step 2. Solve the values of the variables using the following formulas:
Ax Ay
x = ; y =
|D| |D|

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|D| is the determinant of the coefficients of the variables in given system.

a1 b1
|D| =
a2 b2

|Ax| and |Ay| are formed by replacing by the constants, c 1 and c2, the column of |D| that
corresponds to the coefficients of the variable being considered
c1 b1 a 1 c1
c2 b2 a 2 c2
Thus, x = y =
a 1 b1 a 1 b1
a 2 b2 a 2 b2

Step 3. Expand the determinants by the appropriate method and evaluate the variables.
c1b 2 - c 2 b1 a 1c 2 - a 2 c1
Thus, x = y =
a 1b 2 - a 2 b1 a 1b 2 - a 2 b1

Step 4. Express the solution of the system as an ordered pair (x,y)

A1.9. MATRICES: RELATED DEFINITIONS

1. Matrix – a rectangular array of numbers (or quantities) that is subject to some definite
rules when used for some mathematical operations.

2. Order of a Matrix – number of rows and columns, (i x j).

A matrix with 2 rows and 3 columns is of order 2 x 3. For square matrices, since the
number of rows and columns are the same it is enough to state one number, say, order 3
for a 3 x 3 matrix.
3. Equal Matrices – matrices of the same order and having identical corresponding
elements.
 x  3
By the definition of equal matrices, the matrix equation   =   means
y 2   
x = 3 and y = 2.

4. Addition of Matrices – matrices are conformable for addition only if they are of the
same order. Addition is done by adding the corresponding elements of the given
matrices. The sum of the matrices is of the same order as the original matrices.

 a11 a12  b b12  a b a12  b12 

  +  11  =  11 11 
 a 21 a 22   b21 b22   a 21  b21 a 22  b22 

5. Multiplication Involving Matrices

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5.1 Scalar multiple of a matrix

 a1 b1   ka1 kb1 
kA = k   = 
 a2 b2   ka 2 kb2 

5.2 Matrix Multiplication

If matrix A pre-multiplies matrix B, i.e., AB this is possible to carry out only for
cases where the number of columns of A (the premultiplier) is the same as the
number of rows of B (the post multiplier). The multiplication is done in a row by
column fashion (see arrows below) and the result is called an inner product. If the
premultiplier A is of order m x n and the post multiplier is of order n x p, then the
product AB will be of order m x p.

 a1 b1  c1 d1 e1 
Example: AB =   
 a2 b2  c 2 d2 e2 

For each row of A, the process is repeated until all the columns of B have been
multiplied by the same row. Note that the elements in 1 st row of the product AB are the
inner products obtained after every column of B had been multiplied by the 1st row of
A. To get the elements of the 2nd row of AB, repeat the process on the next row of A,
(and so on, until the last row of the premultiplier is reached).

Referring to the matrices above,

 a1c1  b1c 2 a1 d1  b1 d 2 a1e1  b1e2 
AB =  
 a 2 c1  b2 c 2 a 2 d1  b2 d 2 a 2 e1  b2 e2 
Matrix AB is of order 2 x 3 since A is of order 2 X 2 and B is of order 2 x 3. Note that
it is not possible to carry out the product BA since the number of columns of B is not
the same as the number of rows of A.

6. Cofactor Matrix Ac: A matrix whose elements are the cofactors of the elements of the
determinant associated to a given matrix.
 a1 b1  b - a2 
If A =   , then Ac =  2 
 a 2 b2   - b1 a1 

7. Transpose of a matrix, AT: The transpose of a given matrix is the matrix whose
elements are obtained by interchanging the positions of the rows and columns of the
originally given matrix.

8. Adjoint Matrix, Aa : This is the transpose of the cofactor matrix.

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 b2 - b1 
Refering to Ac (see #3 above), Aa =  
 - a2 a1 

9. Inverse of a Matrix, A-1: A matrix which when used to multiply a given matrix gives
the identity matrix. The inverse of a given matrix may be obtained by dividing its
adjoint by the value of its determinant.
Aa
A-1 =
A

10. Identity Matrix for Multiplication, I: A matrix which when used to multiply a given
matrix gives back the original matrix as a result. This is a matrix whose elements along
its primary diagonal are in unity and the rest are all zeroes.
1 0 0
1 0  
I =   I = 0 1 0
0 1  0
 0 1 
Note: As a general rule, matrix multiplication is not commutative, but for the two cases
shown below the multiplication can be done in any order.

1. AA-1 = A-1A = I
2. IA = AI = A

A1.9.1. Solution of Linear Systems by Matrices: Matrix Inversion

Given: a1x + b1y = c1 Eq.1

a2x + b2y = c2 Eq.2

Let A = the coefficient matrix of the given system

X = the column matrix of the variables involved
C = the column matrix of the constants

Step 1. Express the given system in matrix form:

AX = C

Step 2. Multiply both members of the matrix equation by the inverse of A

A-1AX = A-1C
I X = A-1C
X = A-1C (This is the solution of the system in matrix form).

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A1.9.2. Resolution to Partial Fractions

N( x )
An algebraic rational expression may be broken down into simpler fractions called its
D( x )
partial fractions. The process of breaking down a given fraction into its partial fractions is
known as resolution to partial fractions.

N( x )
To be able to properly carry out this process it is necessary that have the following
D( x )
initial properties.

1. Both N(x) and D(x) are polynomials with real coefficients;

2. The degree of N(x) < degree of D(x);

3. The given expression fraction is irreducible, i.e., there are no common factors
between N(x) and D(x).

If the denominator D(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients, it can be factored into either
linear or quadratic factors. The type of factors in D(x) of a given fraction will determine the
form the partial fractions corresponding to it.

Case I. Unrepeated Linear Factors of D(x): (ax + b)

For each unique linear factor (ax + b) of D(x), there corresponds a partial fraction
A
of the form where A is a constant; A  0.
ax + b

Case II Linear Factors of D(x) with Multiplicity k: (ax + b)k

For each repeated linear factor (ax + b)k of D(x), there corresponds a sum of at
most k partial fractions of the form

A1 A2 A3 Ak
+ 2 + 3 + ........ +
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b) (ax + b) k

where A1, A2, A3, …. Ak are constants; Ak  0.

Case III. Unique Quadratic Factors of D(x): (ax2 + bx + c)

For each unrepeated quadratic factor of D(x), there corresponds a partial fraction
Ax + B
of the form where A and B are constants; Ax + B  0.
ax 2 + bx + c

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Case IV. Quadratic Factors of D(x) with Multiplicity k: (ax2 + bx + c)k

For each repeated quadratic factor (ax2 + bx + c)k of D(x), there corresponds a
sum of at most k partial fractions of the form

A1 x + B1 A 2 x + B2 A 3 x + B3 A k x + Bk
+ + + ....... +
ax 2 + bx + c (ax 2 + bx + c) 2 (ax 2 + bx + c) 3 (ax 2 + bx + c) k

where all A’s and B’s are constants; Akx + Bk  0.

A1.10. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION

An arithmetic progression is a sequence of quantities (called terms) in which each term after
the first is obtained by adding a fixed value to the term immediately before it. This fixed value
is called the common difference between any two succeeding terms of the sequence.

For the arithmetic progression a1, a2, a3,……, an the last term an is given by the formula
an = a1 + (n -1)d where n = number of terms
d = common difference
a1 = first term

Associated with an arithmetic sequence is an arithmetic series. This is the indicated sum of
the terms of the arithmetic sequence or arithmetic progression.

Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + ……+ an ; Sn = the sum of the series.

The sum of this series is given by any of the two formulas below.
n
Sn = (a + a n ) (A1 – 5)
2 1
or equivalently,
n
[ 2a1 + (n - 1)d]
Sn = (A1 – 6)
2
a+b
The arithmetic mean of two numbers a and b is . In an arithmetic progression, the
2
term between any two given terms is the arithmetic mean of the two terms. Thus all the
terms from the 2nd to the (n-1)th term in the arithmetic series are arithmetic means.

A1.11. GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION

A geometric progression is a sequence of quantities (called terms), in which each term after
the first is obtained by multiplying by a fixed value the term immediately preceding it. This
fixed value is called the common ratio of any two succeeding terms of the sequence.

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For the geometric progression a1, a2, a3, …., an the last term (or nth term) is given by the
formula
an = a1rn-1 n = number of terms
r = common ratio
a1 = first term

Associated with a geometric sequence is a geometric series. This series is the indicated sum
of the terms of the geometric sequence or geometric progression.

Let Sn = the sum of the series

Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + …..+ an

The sum Sn of a geometric series is given by any of the two formulas below.
 r n -1
Sn = a1   , (r  1) (A1 – 7)
 r -1 
or equivalently,
 a1 - ra n 
Sn =   , ( r  1) (A1 – 8)
 1- r 

The geometric mean between two numbers a and b is ab . In a geometric progression, the
term between any two given terms of the sequence is the geometric mean between these two
terms. Thus, all the terms from the 2nd to the (n-1)th term of the geometric sequence are
geometric means.

Algebra, A1 - 1

arithmetic progression, A1 - 18
binomial expansion, A1 - 2
binomial theorem, A1 - 2
Cramer’s rule, A1 - 14
determinants, A1 - 11, 12, 13, 14, 16
exponential function, A1 - 8
factoring formulae, A1 - 3
geometric progression, A1 - 19
logarithmic function, A1 - 9
matrices, A1 - 14, 15, 16
operations on algebraic expressions, A1 - 1
partial fractions, A1 - 17
solutions of equations in one variable, A1 - 5
solving systems of linear equations, A1 - 10

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