HOMEWORK

1. Cohesive Devices
 Coherence: The ways a text makes sense to readers & writer through the
relevance and accessibility of its configuration of concepts, ideas and
theories.
 Cohesion: The grammatical and lexical relationship between different
elements of a text which hold it together.
 Cohesion refers to the relations of meaning that exists within a text.
 Cohesive devices include: transitional words and expressions and paragraph
hooks.
 Cohesive devices are typically single words or phrases that basically make
the text hang together. By analogy, they are much like the seams in our
clothing which keep items like jackets and trousers together.
 Three elementary examples of cohesive devices are word repetition,
synonyms and pronouns. 
o Word repetition
 Example: The problem with text linguistics is that it is not easily
understood by most people. Text linguistics is a relatively new
field in linguistics that necessitates a shift in focus from the word
and sentence level to the whole text level.
In the first sentence, the noun group "text linguistics" appears
again in the second sentence which is repetition of the same
lexical item. This recurrence of the same lexical item adds to the
text's overall cohesiveness. It would be incoherent to start
talking about something else other than text linguistics in the
second sentence. 
o Synonyms
 Example: My favourite city in the world is San Francisco. The
capital is world renown for its clam chowder which attracts
tourists from all over the world.
 In the second sentence "the capital" functions as a synonym for
city. Although the second sentence could begin with "city" the
synonym used adds word variety to the text, helping the reader
stay focused and interested in the idea being discussed. 
o Pronouns
 Example: Baywatch is a TV show produced in America. It has
been translated into more than 150 languages.
In the second sentence "it" refers back to Baywatch. It would be
redundant to have the second sentence begin with Baywatch. 

2. Ellipsis
 Use ellipsis marks when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more
from a quoted passage.
 It entails syntactic reduction, a form of inexplicitness consisting in the
unspoken, the unexpressed, but understood.
 It entails the omission or deletion of some items of the surface text, which
are recoverable in terms of relation with the text itself.
 Within the frame of Text Linguistics, ellipsis is considered a major cohesive
device, contributing to the efficiency and compactness of a text
 Conversational
o Language is very gappy. We find gaps both in spoken and written
texts.
o Especially in face-to-face conversation, we often do not bother to
encode information that can be understood from the linguistic or
situational context.
 A: Where’s my book?
B: [E] On the sofa.
 Textual
o The actual language surrounding an utterance or sentence =
CONTEXTUAL ELLIPSIS
o It is endophoric  referring to elements within the text
o It can be anaphoric:
 Brian won’t do the dishes, so I’ll have to [E].
o Or cataphoric:
 Since Brian won’t [E], I’ll do the dishes.
1. Anaphoric references
 Anaphoric reference means that a word in a text refers back to other ideas in
the text for its meaning. It can be compared with cataphoric reference, which
means a word refers to ideas later in the text.
 ‘I went out with Jo on Sunday. She looked awful.' ´She` clearly refers to Jo,
there is no need to repeat her name.

2. Cataphoric references
 Cataphoric reference means that a word in a text refers to another later in the
text and you need to look forward to understand. It can be compared with
anaphoric reference, which means a word refers back to another word for its
meaning.
 'When he arrived, John noticed that the door was open'. ‘He’ refers to John.

3. Logical connectors
 Logical connectors are used to join or connect two ideas that have a
particular relationship. These relationships can be: sequential (time), reason
and purpose, adversative (opposition and/or unexpected result),
condition.
 Logical connectors are words and phrases which, to give just a few examples,
are used as sequencers (first(ly), second(ly), then, next,after that);
contrasters (however, on the one hand … on the other hand); generalizers
(generally speaking, on the whole, in most cases); and topic-introducers
(with regard to, regarding).

4. Lexical devices
 A lexical cohesion device is a sub component of cohesion devices. In writing
a cohesion device (such as subsitution, reliteration, repetition..etc) is used to
connect sentences together physically, provide semantic harmony in a
discourse or add estetic flow to a poem(or other similar form of written art). A
lexical cohesion device simply refers to a cohesion where the inferent belongs
 to the identical lexical category as the referent. The cohesion is based of a
symbolic similarity (physical appearance of the words) or stored in a nearby
lexemes
 Lexical cohesion is the most advanced cohesive means and thus the most
difficult one to grasp.
 According to Halliday & Hasan (2001:287), “lexical cohesion is a cover term
for the cohesion that results from the co-occurrence of lexical items that are in
some way or other typically associated with one another, because they tend
to co-occur in similar environment”.
 The cohesive effect of lexical cohesion is achieved when two or more lexical
items within a sentence or across sentence boundaries are associated with
each other.
 The association may be one of related or equivalent meaning or may be one
of contrast or may be one of co-occurrence.
 Types of Lexical Cohesion :
o Reiteration
 . I turned to the ascent of the peak.The climb is perfectly is
easy. ð Synonym
 e.g. I turned to the ascent of the peak. The thing is perfectly is
easy. ð General noun
o Collocation
 For instance; hair/comb, reader/writer, door/window, chair/table,
north/south, peace/war, bee/honey etc.
 e.g. Why does this little boy wriggle all the time? Girl don’t
wriggle.

5. Grammatical devices
 A linguistic marker in which the grammatical meaning is the signified, and the
grammatical device is the signifier.
 For example, in the Russian grammatical form milyi-milyi (“very nice”), the
meaning “a high degree of a quality” is the signified, and the device of
reduplication is the signifier; in Malayan, the same grammatical device is used
for expressing the plural: orang-orang (“people”). In one language there may
be various grammatical forms with the same meaning; compare the
Russian premilyi (“very nice”)—the grammatical device is the addition of the
prefix pre-.
 Example: Don't vs Doesn’t
o "He don’t care about me anymore." (This is INCORRECT.)

o Doesn't, does not, or does are used with the third person singular -
words like he, she, and it.

o Don't, do not, or do are used for other subjects.

o "He doesn’t care about me anymore." (This is CORRECT.)

 Example : Present perfect

o "He has took the train." (This is INCORRECT.)

o The correct form for the present perfect is:
o would + have + past participle
o "He has taken the train." (This is CORRECT.)