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1178267349setting Out
1178267349setting Out
Setting Out- begins in a plan and ends up with some particular project correctly
positioned on the area.
Definition- Setting out is the establishment of marks and lines to determine the
position and level of the elements fro construction project so that works may proceed
with reference to them.
Techniques used to achieve these aims are based on three general principles.
a) Horizontal control points must be established within or near the design area.
b) Vertical control (bench marks) must be within or near the design area.
c) Accurate positioning techniques must be adopted to establish design points from
horizontal and vertical control.
i) Transfer of height
ii) Setting out a horizontal line.
iii) Setting out a gradient line.
iv) Setting out a contour line.
Many Structures consist of steel reinforced steel columns supporting floor slabs.
These columns are usually at right angles to each other. Setting out is generally
facilitated by the use of a grid where the grid interactions define the positions of
columns.
1) Survey Grid- this is the rectangular co-ordinate system on which the original
topographic survey is carried out and plotted i.e. the National System or local
system.
2) Site grid- this defines the position and direction of the main building lines of the
project. In order to set out the sight grid it may be convenient to translate the
coordinates of the sight grid to those of the survey grid.
Y =Y + Y1Cos-X1Cos
X= X+X1Cos+Y1Sin
Where = relative rotation of the two grids.
Y, X = difference in Y and X of the respective grid origins.
Y1, X1 = Coordinates of the point on the sight grid.
Y,X – Coordinates of the point on the survey grid.
Structural Grid- This is used to locate the position of structural elements within the
structure.
Controlling Verticality
Using a plumb-bob
Using a theodolite
If two centre-lines at right angles to each other are carried vertically up a structure as it is
being built, accurate measurement can be taken off these lines and the structure as a
whole will remain vertical. Where site conditions permit, the stations defining the 'base
figure' (four per line) are placed in concrete well clear of construction (Figure
10.14(o)). Lines stretched between marks fixed from the pegs will allow offset
measurements to locate the base of the structure. As the structure rises the marks can be
transferred up onto the walls by theodolite, as shown in Figure
I0.14(b), and lines stretched between them. It is important that the transfer is carried out on
both
faces of the instrument. Where the structure is circular in plan the centre may be established
as in Figure 10.14(d) and the
radius swung out from a pipe fixed vertically at the centre. As the structure rises, the
central pipe is extended by adding more lengths. Its verticality is checked by two
theodolites (as in Figure W.14(b)) and its rigidity ensured by supports fixed to scaffolding.
The vertical pipe may be replaced by laser beam or autoplumb, but the laser would still
need to be checked for verticality by theodolites.
Steel and concrete columns may also be checked for verticality using the theodolite. By
string lining through the columns, positions A -A and B - B may be established for the
theodolite (Figure 10.15); alternatively, appropriate offsets from the structural grid lines may
be used. With instrument set up at A, the outside face of all the uprights should be visible.
Now cut the outside edge of the upright at ground level with the vertical hair of the
theodolite. Repeat at the top of the column. Now depress the telescope back to ground level
and make a fine mark; the difference between the mark and the outside edge of the column
is the amount by which the column is out of plumb. Repeat on the opposite face of the
theodolite. The whole procedure is now carried out at B. If the difference exceeds the
specified tolerances the column will need to be corrected.
Axes
Height mark
Bolt Position
Fig 10.12
d
Calibrated spirit level
Building
Plumb
Line
Peg
Fig 10.13
Base
Figure
Structure
Fig 10.14
Using optical plumbing
For high-rise building the instrument most commonly used is an autoplumb (Figure
10.16). This instrument provides a vertical line of sight to an accuracy of ±1 second of arc (1
mm in 200 m). Any deviation from the vertical can be quantified and corrected by rotating
the instrument through 90° and observing in all four quadrants; the four marks obtained
would give a square, the diagonals of which would intersect at the correct centre point.
A base figure is established at ground level from which fixing measurements may be taken. If
this figure is carried vertically up the structure as work proceeds, then identical fixing
measurements from the figure at all levels will ensure verticality of the structure (Figure 10.17).
To fix any point of the base figure on an upper floor, a Perspex target is set over the opening and
the centre point fixed as above. Sometimes these targets have a grid etched on them to facilitate
positioning of the marks.
The base figure can be projected as high as the eighth floor, at which stage the finishing trades
enter and the openings are closed. In this case the uppermost figure is carefully referenced, the
openings filled, and then the base figure re-established and projected upwards as before.
The shape of the base figure will depend upon the plan shape of the building. In the case of a long
rectangular structure a simple base line may suffice but T shapes and Y shapes are also used
Controlling Grading Excavations
Excavations must be controlled in the construction of sewers, roads and pipelines. Site
rails and travellers are used to control the gradient of excavation. Site rails consist of
horizontal timber crosspiece nailed to a single upright or a pair of uprights.
Examples:
Calculate the staff reading necessary to locate the staff reading over AB if BS-1200m
to BM with RL of 67.650m
1 in 200
BM 67.650
Deformation Surveys
Relative Monitoring
D2
D1
Measure d1 @ time t1, measure again after some time t2. Building is monitored by
checking target at A.
Absolute monitoring
Control stations are considered error free i.e. they are not subject to movement.
Deformation can be checked by measuring changes in coordinates and distances.
Examples of structures.
1. Large dams
2. Tall multi storey buildings
3. Large Bridges.
Causes of Deformation
1. Slope instability
2. Seepage
3. Inadequate slope protection.
4. Floods/ water.
Factors to consider.
a) Control points should be inter-visible from at least two other points.
b) They must be anchored on rock or at least they must be deep enough so that they
are unaffected by surface movement.
c) They should be sufficiently marked and protected to prevent being damaged
For the control points, there is Horizontal control and vertical control.
OBSERVATIONS
a) Theodolite Observation
At all stations, a minimum of two arcs must be taken. Whether fixing points
by triangulation or traversing. The normal system of observation is employed
i.e. closing on to the initial station at the end of each round.
Make horizontal observation when refraction is least ( early morning and late
afternoon)
Distance Measurement
Can be measured using E.D.M units. Measurement s must be made in both directions
and a mean calculated. As with most E.D.M units the best weather conditions are
when the day is cool. Measure in both directions (A to B and B to A). Apply the
necessary correction after measurements.
Choice of Instruments.
Theodolites
Where triangulation provide the main system of control i.e. for large dams a Wild T3
can provide the required accuracy. For small surveys, a universal single second
theodolite is sufficient e.g. Wild T2. This can be used in towns where the main
method of fixing points is by traversing.
These instruments must be tested for any residual errors.
Tapes
This should be made of high quality steel with millimetre graduation. They should be
standardised and their weight per unit length known. If the quality of the tape is
suspect, it must be checked against a standard tape.
Levels
Any modern precise automatic level can be used. An important feature in precise
levelling is that invar staves with double scales are used (one scale on the left, one on
the right). Levels should be tested for collimation error.
Computation Methods
The best method for computing deformation observation is by using least squares and
this method is suitable if a computer is available. Whichever method is chosen, the
same method should be used each time the points are re-fixed.