Running head: SELF-MANAGEMENT 1

Self-Management

Debbie Roth

Franciscan University of Steubenville

EDU 348
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Self-Management

Students often rely on their teachers and other adults to tell them what they should be

doing and to monitor their behavior. Disruptive classroom behaviors are exhibited by

approximately 20% of students and such behaviors affect not only those students’ learning but

also the learning of all those around them (Thompson, 2014). Even if a student’s behavior is not

disruptive to others, the undesired behavior can lead to decreased learning if frequent redirection

by the teacher is necessary. For some students, disruptive behavior may be a result of a disability

(King-Sears, 2008). Students with disabilities may also need more help in attending to the task

on hand (Schulze, 2016). One strategy that addresses these concerns is self-management. Self-

management can help students decrease their disruptive behavior and increase positive behaviors

by learning to self-monitor, self-evaluate, and self-reinforce behavior (King-Sears, 2008). Such

behaviors provide students with a means to become more independent in their learning and to

control their own actions. Self-management is composed of many aspects that may be included

in an intervention or behavioral plan but are not necessarily all present. This behavior

management practice is student-focused and can help students beyond the classroom. Numerous

studies have suggested the benefits of self-management as a behavior management practice,

including the opportunity for students to practice social emotional learning (SEL) skills

(Thompson, 2014). Self-management also promotes inclusion by promoting students’ self-

determination, improving students’ self-help skills, reducing the need for teachers to manage

students’ behavior, and increasing students’ self-regulation, engagement, and independence

(McDougall et al., 2017). Within the general education classroom, self-management helps shift

the teacher’s time and resources away from behavior management and toward teaching,
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increasing the learning of all students within the classroom (Busacca, Anderson, & Moore,

2015).

Definition of Self-Management

Self-management is composed of many aspects. Self-monitoring is commonly identified

as a component of self-management. It contains two subcomponents: self-observation and self-

recording. Self-observation occurs when a student examines his or her own behavior (Schulze,

2016). Self-recording occurs when students mark down whether they observed the target

behavior (Schulze, 2016). Some authors refer to self-observation as self-assessment, but under

either name it involves students asking themselves if they are performing the target behavior

(McDougall et al., 2017). For example, a student might monitor whether they are on task by

examining their behavior at specific intervals and recording whether or not they are exhibiting

the target behavior. If the student is monitoring on-task behavior, they might ask themselves,

“Am I following directions?” every 15 minutes and mark a record sheet with a plus sign if they

are following directions and a minus sign if they are not. A student who is not self-monitoring

may not pay attention to whether they are following directions and have to be redirected

frequently by the teacher.

Another feature of self-management is goal-setting, where students choose a goal, the

criterion for that goal, and make a plan to reach the goal with the help of an adult (Schulze,

2016). A third component of self-management is self-instruction. Self-instruction involves

students using self-statements to prompt themselves to complete a task or series of tasks

(Schulze, 2016). When students are self-instructing, they are talking themselves through a

process (McDougall et al., 2017). Self-graphing or self-charting is another aspect listed by some

authors as a component of self-management. Self-graphing requires the student to chart their

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results shortly after they perform a task or finish a monitoring session (McDougall et al., 2017).

The visual representation that graphing provides to students allows them to more easily monitor

their progress (Schulze, 2016). A more recent technique employed by students is self-modeling.

(McDougall et al., 2017). Self-modeling is primarily video self-modeling (VSM) and involves a

student being recorded performing the target behavior so that they can watch the video and

model for themselves (McDougall et al., 2017).

Self-evaluation is yet another facet of self-management. It involves a student judging the

quality or quantity of their own performance (McDougall et al., 2017). Finally, some others see

self-reinforcement as a feature of self-management. Self-reinforcement involves students

determining and administering a reinforcer when goals regarding the target behavior are met

(McDougall et al., 2017). These components are not all included in every self-management

intervention. Rather, they are potential tools to be used in a self-management intervention.

Self-management is an effective intervention for students with disabilities when two

conditions are met: students already know how to perform the targeted behavior and the

student’s performance of the targeted behavior is inconsistent (King-Sears, 2008). If the student

does not know how to perform the target behavior, self-management is not appropriate because it

does not teach new behavior but rather draws students’ attention to when behaviors are

occurring. Therefore, the student still will not know how to perform the behavior and will not

show improvement. If the target behavior is consistent, self-management is unnecessary and will

not benefit the child.

Some people might be led to believe that self-management is occurring any time a

student appears to be behaving properly. After all, they know what they are supposed to be doing

and are behaving accordingly. However, simply behaving properly is not self-management. Self-
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management requires students to actively think about their behavior and assess whether or not

they are behaving accordingly. A student who happens to stay on-task is not self-managing if he

or she is not actively thinking about the behavior to assess if he or she is on task.

One reason teachers should use self-management with students is because it has been

shown to be effective in reducing disruptive behavior, leading to the potential for more

instructional time and increased learning for all students. Self-management has also been shown

to help students with social skills and academic skills and to increase responsibility (Thompson,

2014). As students engage in self-managing, they become responsible for their behavior. They

learn to self-regulate in a way that can be generalized to other areas of life. The impact self-

management can have on responsibility gives students increased independence. An additional

benefit of this practice is that self-management is relatively easy to use, efficient, and adaptable

for both general and special education classroom teachers, making implementation of the

practice reasonable (Korinek & deFur, 2016).

To implement self-management, baseline data must first be collected. Following data

collection, the teacher, possibly in tandem with the student, must determine the target behavior

and the goal for the intervention (Schulze, 2016). Then, students are trained in the practice. In

one method, this is done during small-group instruction in the special education classroom

(King-Sears, 2008). This training involves explaining the target behavior to the child, presenting

both examples and non-examples, modeling the steps for the child, and engaging the student in

practice (King-Sears, 2008). In a study conducted by King-Sears (2008), a boy with a cognitive

disability was given a cassette tape that played a tone. He was trained to monitor his behavior by

asking himself “How well am I working” when he heard the tone. After being thoroughly

trained, he monitored and recorded his behavior in the classroom whenever he heard the tone,
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which sounded every minute for 20 consecutive minutes. Research conducted by Hansen, Wills,

Kamps, & Greenwood (2014) followed a similar training procedure for three students with

serious emotional and behavioral disorders. In another study, training was conducted for small

groups by counselors (Thompson, 2014). Training in this study involved learning about nine

SEL skills and creating individualized goals after reflecting on their own classroom behavior.

Each morning, the students met with a counselor and were reminded of their goal. Students

recorded their progress every 30 minutes. On Fridays, students met with the counselor to chart

progress and review and revise goals. Although training can be done under different frameworks

and in different ways, training should always be directed toward the students’ needs and should

involve explicit instruction and guided practice. While the practice is being implemented by the

student in the classroom, teachers should occasionally monitor student behavior themselves to

ensure the accuracy of the student-collected data. If the data collected does not show growth,

adjustments need to be made to the intervention. Eventually, the interventions should be faded

out. For example, the timer can be set to longer and longer periods of time until it is removed

completely.

Point 1

Self-management is often used to decrease disruptive behavior in the classroom and

increase student learning. By decreasing disruptive behavior, self-management helps increase the

learning of all students. Teachers spend less time addressing behavioral concerns and more time

teaching. Students are not distracted by their disruptive peers. Busacca et al. (2015) note that

self-management has been shown to increase appropriate behavior in enough studies to be

classified as evidence-based while self-management has not yet been shown to decrease problem

behaviors in enough studies to be classified as evidence-based. That being said, multiple studies
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have supported the idea that self-management is effective at decreasing problem behaviors

(Busacca et al., 2015). However, Busacca et al. (2015) also determined that studies of self-

management suggest that three outcome categories (appropriate behavior increase, problem

behavior decrease, and combined increase/decrease) may all be equally effective.

Research conducted by Hanson et al. (2014) also suggests that self-management is

effective in decreasing disruptive behavior. Hanson et al. (2014) studied the effect Functional

Behavior Assessments (FBA) have on self-management. Their research suggests that FBAs

make self-management more effective. In fact, in their research the function-based self-

management intervention resulted in notable decreases in problem behavior for all three

participants (Hanson et al., 2014). Students who participated in the Self-management Training

and Regulation Strategy (STARS) intervention in the study conducted by Thompson (2014) also

demonstrated decreases in disruptive behavior.

Point 2

Self-management promotes responsibility and independence because it is a student-

centered intervention. By promoting responsibility and independence, it can enable inclusion.

Students are accountable for monitoring and controlling their own behavior. Responsibility and

independence are important for students to acquire as they continue to grow. Students with

disabilities need to acquire responsibility and independence in order to advocate for themselves.

Beginning to work on responsibility and independence can occur with even young children. It is

a worthy and important goal within education.

According to McDougall et al. (2017), self-management facilitates inclusion by

“reducing students’ reliance on teachers and external controls and increasing students’ self-

regulation, engagement, and independence”. When students learn to self-monitor, self-evaluate,

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and self-reinforce, they no longer rely on the teacher to perform the target behavior. Rather, the

student performs the target behavior on their own even after the intervention has been faded out.

The student becomes more independent as they begin to self-regulate and act appropriately on

their own. Students can even begin to generalize the strategies they have learned and begin to

self-manage other areas of their lives where improvement would be beneficial, furthering their

responsibility for their actions and their independence in learning. The skills and dispositions

acquired through self-management make inclusion a more realistic possibility because students

will be more able to support themselves in the general education classroom.

King-Sears (2008) suggests that the most valuable aspect of self-management is the

transferal of responsibility from adults to children. She believes that this is true in school, home,

and work settings. This shift in responsibility is so valuable because it reduces or eliminates the

need for teachers, parents, or employers to oversee the student’s behavior. Furthermore, King-

Sears (2008) suggests that students with disabilities should be taught self-management

techniques whenever possible to decrease dependence on adults and peers and increase self-

reliance. This not only reduces the responsibility of the teacher but also helps students to become

independent and able to function without relying on others. When students are more independent

and less time and attention is needed for teacher redirection or help from other adults, inclusion

becomes more feasible. King-Sears (2008) addresses the benefits self-management can have on

inclusion in non-school settings as well when employers are mentioned. Because self-

management can be generalized to other areas, learning self-management skills in school can not

only allow for inclusion in schools but can also promote inclusion in the workplace and in

society as a whole.

Implications for Practice

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Teachers should use self-management in their classrooms to promote target behaviors

and eliminate undesirable behaviors. One implication of the research is that practitioners must

design self-management interventions with a specific student in mind (Schulze, 2016). Special

educators should consider Individualized Education Plan (IEP) goals, the age of the child, the

child’s skills, and the child’s interests when designing a plan for self-management. If the practice

is not matched to the child’s unique needs and abilities, it will not be effective or appropriate.

Individualizing the plan should include information from a functional behavior assessment

(FBA) (Hansen et al., 2014). This increases the teacher’s understanding of the child and their

behaviors. It allows teachers to design an intervention that will appeal to the student and meet

their needs.

Another implication for practitioners involves giving students independence and trusting

them to monitor themselves (King-Sears, 2008). If students are not trusted to monitor

themselves, they will not develop the independence that is a major benefit of this practice. The

learning environment will be less comfortable for the student. Children know when adults trust

them. Furthermore, if the teacher feels the need to constantly monitor a student’s self-

management, the practice will not effectively produce increased teaching time. Student learning

will not increase as it will if students are monitoring themselves with only occasional teacher

monitoring to ensure data accuracy (King-Sears, 2008).

A third implication for practitioners is the need to discuss the intervention with the

student and ensure that the student sees the benefits and reasons for self-management (Korinek &

deFur, 2016). Such discussion helps students to see why they are engaging in the techniques that

are taught to them. Discussion promotes student thinking about self-management and helps

students to consider when and how to apply the skills they are learning. In this way, it fosters
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appropriate use and understanding of the intervention, generalization, self-advocacy, and

independence (Korinek & deFur, 2016).

Future Directions for Research

Further research should focus on the importance of individualizing a self-management

plan. Current research suggests a wide variety of components that may be included in a self-

management intervention but fails to suggest how teachers should choose which aspects may be

most beneficial for their students. Although individualization does constrain researchers as no

recommendations will fit the needs of every student, research can study general trends and give

teachers suggestions for what may work with a specific population of students or how teachers

can go about refining self-management systems to the needs of their students.

Research should also compare the effects of self-management between children with

disabilities and their typically developing peers. Is self-management more effective with children

with disabilities? If so, what possible reasons may account for this difference? Can changes to

how self-management interventions are implemented be made that further benefit all students,

especially students with disabilities? Researching these questions will allow teachers to better

meet the needs of all of their students.

Conclusion

Self-management is a practice that practitioners can use to support the learning of all

students. It not only benefits those receiving the intervention, but the whole class as well. Self-

management is effective at decreasing disruptive behavior, providing more time and a better

environment for learning to occur. This practice also promotes independence and responsibility,

allowing for greater inclusion in classrooms as students require less assistance to perform tasks

and behave appropriately. Students with special needs can be helped through self-management.
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Academic, behavioral, and social goals can be meet. Self-management provides students with

disabilities the advantage of functioning with less adult support, allowing them to learn and grow

more effectively. The skills they gain will help not only in school, but throughout their lives.

Self-management gives students with disabilities a freedom they might not otherwise have.
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students demonstrating problem behavior in regular classrooms: Evidence review of

single-case design research. Journal of Behavioral Education, 24(4), 373–401.

Hansen, B.D., Wills, H. P., Kamps, D. M., & Greenwood, C. R. (2014). The effects of function-

based self-management interventions on student behavior. Journal of Emotional and

Behavioral Disorders, 22(3), 149-159.

King-Sears, M. E. (2008). Using teacher and researcher data to evaluate the effects of self-

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Korinek, L., & deFur, S. H. (2016). Supporting student self-regulation to access the general

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McDougall, D., Heine, R. C., Wiley, L. A., Sheehay, M. D., Sakanashi, K. K., Cook, B. G., &

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Schulze, M. A. (2016). Self-management strategies to support students with ASD. Teaching

Exceptional Children, 48(5), 225-231.

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