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Behaviour of retrofitted steel structures using cost effective retrofitting

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Article  in  Journal of Constructional Steel Research · January 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.12.026

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 Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Constructional Steel Research

Behaviour of retrofitted steel structures using cost effective

retrofitting techniques
Olivia Mirza a,⁎, Sukanta Kumer Shill b, Fidelis Mashiri a, Daniel Schroot c
a
Department of School of Computing, Engineering & Mathematics, University of Western Sydney, Australia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur 1700, Bangladesh
c
School of Computing, Engineering & Mathematics, University of Western Sydney, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Steel structures today are edging towards the end of their design life. Recently, the frequency and magnitude of
Received 31 August 2016 loadings are becoming significantly greater in comparison to the initial design loads at the time of construction.
Received in revised form 15 December 2016 Deterioration from prolonged exposure to environmental conditions including weathering and climate change,
Accepted 31 December 2016
as well as the effects of human error, also influence the design life of these older steel structures. The research
Available online 4 January 2017
focuses on developing a comparison between the fatigue performance of 120 years old and new equivalent
Keywords:
steel structures. The fatigue resistance of both the old riveted and new welded steel structures is evaluated by in-
Steel bridge girder vestigating and analysing the stresses at critical locations within the structures. Retrofitting techniques are ap-
Fatigue failure plied to both the old and new structures and analyzed in terms of their capacity to increase resistance to
Retrofitting technique fatigue failure and extend the design life of steel structures. The research is conducted by performing both exper-
imental study and finite element analysis. The experimental research analyses the performance of an old riveted
structure, as well as a new equivalent prefabricated hot rolled section, to determine areas which are highly sus-
ceptible to fatigue failure. The numerical analysis using the finite element package ABAQUS is conducted to model
both the old and new girder. Retrofitting proposals are introduced into the FE model both with and without the
fatigue induced cracking to investigate improvements in the fatigue performance of the old and new girders, as
well as techniques of repairing existing damage. The retrofitting techniques are cost effective and practical in en-
gineering today to improve the performance and loading capacities to enhance the design life of steel structures.
The retrofitting techniques are innovative, cost effective and practical in engineering today to improve the per-
formance and loading capacities to enhance the design life of steel structures. An overall conclusion determines
the extent of increasing design life, enhancing profitable engineering and focus on sustainability, in comparative
terms of either retrofitting an old structure or replacing it with a new steel structure.
Crown Copyright © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, riveted steel construc-
tion increased in popularity as a result of rapid development of the
transport system. Further developments and reliance on transport, in-
creased the frequency of loading and effects of fatigue on these struc-
tures [1]. These riveted structures typically have a design life of
100 years, and are therefore reaching the end of this period and becom-
ing more susceptible to fatigue based failure. Kuhn et al. [1] also identi-
fied the popularity of repair and strengthening of these types of
structures in order to prevent fatigue failure and extend the design life
of the structures. Riveted steel structures maintained their popularity
until the middle part of the 20th century, when pre-fabricated steel
structures such as welded and hot rolled sections became the dominant
product for use in the steel construction industry. Even in today's
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: o.mirza@uws.edu.au (O. Mirza).
society, pre-fabricated steel structures are still the preferred choice
of steel product for engineers and designers. These types of struc-
tures have not been around long enough to come close to the
100 year design life, however it has been identified that fatigue
based damage is occurring to these types of steel structures [1].
Due to technological developments and advancements in engineer-
ing knowledge, it can be shown that older bridges are subjected to
increased loading conditions in comparison to the initial design
loads. Steel bridges today are subjected to much larger magnitude
and frequency of loadings compared to those at the time of construc-
tion [2].
Fatigue is a key failure component for steel structures that deter-
mines the structural performance. Repetitive application of various
loadings can cause fatigue damage to continuously accumulate even
though the loads may be well below the structural capacity of the
steel structure. Understanding the effects of fatigue based damage
with particular focus on steel structures such as steel bridges, has
become more important as a result of increased magnitude and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.12.026
0143-974X/Crown Copyright © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50 39

frequency of loadings due to population increases and reliance on and

development of transport infrastructure. Sustained increases in fa-
tigue damage (cracking) may lead to progressive failure of the struc-
ture [3]. Fatigue is complex and not precisely modelled due to the
multitude of factors which control the response to cyclic loading.
Therefore, experimental testing and finite element analysis is gener-
ally conducted to evaluate the fatigue behaviour of the structural
members [4].
Rasidi et al. [5] classified fatigue failure into two types, low cycle fa-
tigue and high cycle fatigue, dependant on the magnitude of the stress/
strain and the number of cycles of the loading. Low cycle fatigue failure
occurs when the structure fails after minimal cycles (a few cycles up to a
few tens of thousands of cycles) under a large loading. High cycle fatigue
failure occurs when the structure fails after a much greater number
(several million) of cycles. The fatigue behaviour and failure of a struc-
tural element is dependent on a number of factors including the magni- Fig. 2. Typical fatigue cracking due to plate with a hole.
tude of the stress, material properties, temperature, surface finishing (Dexter & Ocel [10].)
and the presence of any defects. Rasidi et al. [5] identified two key ex-
amples of defects which would indicate the presence of fatigue failure, 2. Experimental program
a plate element with a hole and a notched plate. These two defects are
associated with areas of higher stress/strain, therefore the cyclic loading Static strength tests were conducted on both the new and old girders
will cause minute cracking to develop and become larger with each in the Western Sydney University (WSU) laboratory. Both girders were
cycle, eventually leading to rupture of the steel section. Fig. 1 shows simply supported with loading at the mid-span. Both girders were
the fatigue cracking due to a plate element with a hole and a notched preloaded to 100 kN, and the load removed in three cycles before
plate. being loaded until failure.
A typical example of fatigue cracking due to a plate element with a
hole is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 shows a small fatigue crack near the 2.1. Installation and test setup
hole, which over time has propagated along the direction of the arrows
over a larger portion of the section. All girders are 6477 mm in length, with stiffening plates as per Fig. 4
The most common approach to the visual representation and analy- (Girder diagram showing dimensions, locations of stiffeners, loading
sis of a fatigue assessment is to plot an S-N curve, where the total cyclic and support system), with the dimensions as shown in Fig. 5. The test
stress (S) is plotted on the y axis, against the number of cycles to failure included the use of the following equipment:
(N) on a logarithmic scale on the x-axis. Rasidi et al. [5] recognised that
an increase in the stress range of the cyclic loading will reduce the fa- 1. 100-t hydraulic press to apply point load at the mid-span of the
tigue life of the steel structure. A typical S-N curve is shown in Fig. 3. girders.
The point at which the S-N curve flattens off is the fatigue limit. Ideally, 2. Roller support systems at each end of the girders.
if the applied loading is in the range of stress below the fatigue limit, the 3. Single and strip strain gauges to measure and record the stresses at
steel element should never be susceptible to fatigue failure. However, in the most critical locations within the girders.
the real situation, bridges are exposed to various condition which 4. Linear Variable Displacement Transducers (LVDT) to measure and
caused fatigue failure, therefore this research herein is looking at the fa- record the deflection data for the girders under load.
tigue behaviour of retrofitted steel structures using cost effective
materials. The ultimate strength test (static load test) was carried out until fail-
ure on one of each of the provided old rivet and new welded steel
girders (Table 1).

2.2. Static strength capacities

The Australian Standard for Steel Structures, AS4100-2012 (SAI [11])

was used to determine the shear capacity, moment capacity and ulti-
mate applied load capacity of the old and new girders. Theoretically,
the 120 year old RMS girder should fail following the application of a
583 kN point load is applied at the mid-span, while to new equivalent
girder should fail following the applied load reaching 690 kN. The static

Fig. 1. Fatigue cracking due to stress concentration in plate with a hole and notched plate.
(Rasidi et al. [5].) Fig. 3. Typical S-N curve showing low cycle and high cycle fatigue and endurance.
40 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 4. Girder diagram showing dimensions, locations of stiffeners, loading and support system.
strength represents a single increasing point load being applied at the
mid-span of the girder until failure occurs.
3. Finite element analysis
Large bridges often have many design attributes, therefore carrying
out an experimental study to determine fatigue damage is difficult. Fi-
nite Element Modeling (FEM) is a suitable method of studying a steel
structure where experimental testing cannot be conducted [6]. ABAQUS
is a finite element analysis software that enables the defining of geo-
metric and material properties, as well as constraint conditions, plastic
deformation and element connections [7]. Hot Spot Stress evaluation
is a technique used to analyse FEM results [8]. Poutiainen et al. [8] iden-
tified three methods for hot spot stress evaluation, focussing on Linear
Surface Extrapolation (LSE), Through Thickness at Weld Toe (TTWT)
and Dong method. Both the new and old girders were reasonably accu-
rately modelled using the finite element modeling software ABAQUS.
The conditions in the experimental test, including boundary conditions,
constraints and load application were simulated within the FE model.
The sensitivity analysis was undertaken by performing different size
mesh. The optimum mesh size was defined through convergence re-
sults. The load vs. deflection performance of the girders is investigated
along with the stress concentration at various critical locations within
the girders.
Three-dimensional eight-node reduced integration brick elements
(C3D8R) are used to model the steel girder and steel plates. Three-di-
mensional twenty-node reduced integration brick elements (C3D20R)
are used to model the bolts. The brick elements give a solution of
Fig. 5. Cross-sections of girder at the mid-span.
comparable accuracy at a better rate of convergence and less computa-
tional time than the other elements.
Based on the results of the hotspot analysis of the stresses in each
girder, fatigue based cracking is introduced into the model. The fatigue
cracks are modelled by inputting a 1 mm wide crack using the cut func-
tion in ABAQUS at the most critical locations within the girders.
The stress strain behaviour of bolts and steel girders is similar. They
behave as linear elastic materials until yielding, followed by plastic be-
haviour. Material is modelled as elasto-plastic material in FE ABAQUS
model. The yield strength of 120 years old steel girder is 220 MPa and
the yield strength of additional plate is 340 MPa. The load and deflection
data for both the 120 year old RMS girder and new equivalent girder was
found by applying a point load in ABAQUS with magnitude well above
the ultimate applied load capacity. This corresponded to a load of
750 kN for the 120 year old RMS girder and 1050 kN for the new equiv-
alent girder. These magnitudes ensure that the post-yield performance of
the girder is thoroughly investigated. Fatigue analysis of the girders is
conducted by assessing the stress at critical points in the girders under
a load magnitude within the fatigue or elastic range of the steel [9].
4. Results and discussions
The 120 year old RMS girder experienced local and distortional
buckling, significant surface rust, as well as missing rivets, holes in the
web. Local buckling occurred in the top flange as a result of compression
at the location of the applied point load, as shown in Fig. 6. Distortional
buckling also occurred as a result of lateral displacement throughout the
application of the point load. Both the flange and web elements
underwent distortional buckling, which is shown in Figs. 7 and 8.
The new equivalent girder also experienced a similar extent of buck-
ling as the 120 year old RMS girder. Local buckling was observed in the
flange due compression caused by the applied point load, while distor-
tional buckling was observed due to twisting from a lack of lateral re-
strain along the length of the girder. The extent and type of buckling is
shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
4.1. 120 year old RMS girder
The girder was simulated in ABAQUS according to the yields stress
(fy) value of 220 MPa obtained from the steel tensile coupon tests con-
Table 1
Section properties for 120 years old RMS girder and new equivalent girder.
Girder capacity 120 years old RMS New equivalent
girder girder
Shear capacity 636.1 kN 1306.9 kN
Moment capacity (major axis 874.5 kN m 1118.6 kN m
bending)
Ultimate applied load capacity 583 kN 690 kN
 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 6. Local buckling in the flange due to compressive load.
ducted. The model was processed in three stages, including the un-
cracked, cracked and retrofitted (both uncracked and cracked) girders.
4.1.1. Uncracked girder
The time-step load and deflection data outputs from ABAQUS were
combined to produce a load vs. deflection curve for the uncracked
120 year old RMS girder, shown in Fig. 11. As the girder was from a
120 year old railway bridge, it was expected that some substantial de-
gree of fatigue based damage had already occurred prior to conducting
the experimental study.
In terms of the ultimate applied load capacity of the girder, the max-
imum load carried by the girder in the FE model was 545 kN, while the
result from the experimental study was 501.1 kN, an increase of 8.1%.
This is again expected due to the FEA not taking into account the service
life history of the girder. The elastic load limit was found to also increase
from 375 kN for the experimental study to 481.5 kN for the FE model, or
by 28.4%. Again, this can be attributed to the unknown service history of
the girder. The girder stiffness during the elastic range of the steel calcu-
lated for the FE model was 31.7 kN/mm, while the stiffness calculated
for the experimental test was only 26.0 kN/mm. The FE model also
showed increased ductility of failure when compared to the experimen-
tal study due to the elasto-plastic material model adopted in FE ABAQUS
model. Reduced ductility in the experimental test reflects prolonged ex-
posure to loading within the service life of the girder which leads to cu-
mulative fatigue damage. The FE model also showed decreased ductility
of failure when compared to the experimental study, which was as ex-
pected due to the earlier signs of progressive failure due to prolonged
exposure to loading within the service life of the girder which leads to
Fig. 7. Distortional buckling in the web.
41
Fig. 8. Distortional buckling in the flange.
cumulative fatigue damage. The plastic load range of the steel was
found to have decreased from 140.1 kN for the experimental study to
63.5 kN for the FE model, or by 45.5%.
The stress distribution output for the uncracked girder is shown in
Fig. 12. The stress is displayed by a colour contour system, with the
scale ranging from blue for areas of low stress, to red for areas of high
stress. Due to the position of the applied loading being at the mid-
span, the focus area for the stress analysis is also at the mid-span,
taken to be the region between the two central stiffening plates. Fig.
12 displays the areas of highest stress as being at the center at the top
section of the girder, where the girder is under maximum compression,
and at the center at the bottom section of the girder, where the girder is
in maximum tension. The areas for maximum compression and tension
are associated with the maximum bending moment being located at the
mid-span, which is as a result of the roller support systems carrying zero
moment at the ends of the girder, and the mid-span load application.
As part of the analysis of the fatigue performance of the girder, the
distribution of the internal stresses at the critical locations where fatigue
cracking will occur, determined to be at the mid-span at the bottom
flange due to large concentration of tensile stress, was investigated.
The magnitude of the applied load was set to the identified elastic
load limit of the girder from the load vs. deflection curve of the FE
model, equal to 481.5 kN. The maximum principal stress values at four
Fig. 9. Local buckling in the flange.
42 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 10. Distortional buckling of the web and flange.
critical points in the bottom flange, as shown in Fig. 13, were found at
varying distances from the mid-span, and the stress vs. distance away
from the crack location was plotted for the four points, as shown in
Fig. 14.
Fig. 14 Displays relative uniformity of the internal stresses across the
entire area of the bottom flange. As expected, a higher value for the
stress is found at the two points on the extreme tensile edge of the
flange, due to an increased distance from the girder's neutral axis and
therefore increased magnitude of tension due to the moment from the
mid-span loading. Also, Fig. 14 displays a constant decrease in the mag-
nitude of the internal stress uniformly across the entire area of the bot-
tom flange as the distance from the mid-span increases. This is due to a
reduction in the magnitude of the moment associated with the loading
conditions and supports as the distance from the mid-span increases. At
the location of the cracking, the value of the internal stress is equal to
the yield stress of 220 MPa, which confirms that the value of the applied
load (481.5 kN) corresponds to the upper limit of the elastic region of
the steel.
4.1.2. Cracked girder
Based on the analysis of the uncracked 120 year old RMS girder, it
was determined that fatigue cracking will propagate from the bottom
flange at the centre location of the girder. The hot spot stress method
was used to determine the potential crack locations under cyclic load-
ing. High cycle fatigue behaviour is related to the elastic response region
Fig. 11. Load vs. deflection curve for 120 year old RMS girder.
Fig. 12. Contour plot of internal stress in uncracked 120 year old RMS girder.
of the load-deflection curves under static loading. This is due to this area
having the highest concentration of tensile stress, which will show the
first signs of fatigue damage. The fatigue cracking is modelled in two
stages, with the initial crack developing in the bottom flange plate
only, and then the crack fully extended through the entire bottom
flange, including the horizontal plate in the equal angle section and ex-
treme lower section of the web, as shown in Fig. 15.
The time-step load and deflection data outputs from ABAQUS for
both stages of fatigue cracking were combined to produce a load vs. de-
flection curve for the cracked 120 year old RMS girder. The load vs. de-
flection curve for both the partially and fully cracked models was
plotted on the same axis as the load vs. deflection curve for the un-
cracked model, shown in Fig. 16. Fig. 16 displays that the uncracked
and partially cracked girders produced similar performance results in
terms of elasticity, ultimate applied load capacity and ductility.
Fig. 16 displays similar performance between the uncracked and
partially cracked 120 year old RMS girders in terms of the ultimate ap-
plied load capacity, with only a small reduction from 545 kN to
535 kN, or by 2% observed. The equal angle section of the girder
connecting the bottom flange plate to the web is still totally intact and
provides confinement to the fatigue crack as well as provides a load
transfer path for the tensile stress to the cracked bottom flange plate.
There is still a large cross-sectional area suitable to carry the tensile
stresses associated with bending under the applied point load. The par-
tially cracked girder was found to have a reduced range of elasticity
compared to the uncracked girder, with the elastic load limit reduced
from 481.5 kN to 375 kN, or by 22.1%. The stiffness of the partially
cracked girder during the elastic range of the steel was calculated to
be 31.3 kN/mm, down from 31.7 kN/mm for the uncracked girder as
identified previously. As the elastic load limit is decreased by a signifi-
cantly greater margin than the ultimate applied load capacity, an in-
crease of the ductility of the failure is achieved. This is further
emphasized by the increase in the plastic load range of the steel, with
the post yield load range increasing from 63.5 kN to 160 kN, or by 152%.
The introduction of fatigue cracking through the entire bottom
flange however, significantly impacted on the performance of the
120 year old RMS girder. The ultimate applied load capacity was re-
duced from 545 kN to 440 kN, or by 19.4%, while the elastic load limit
was reduced from 481.5 kN to 245 kN, or by 40.8%. This indicates a sub-
stantial degradation in the ongoing performance of the girder, as load
magnitudes in the post-elastic range of the steel will lead to permanent
damage to the structure. It also indicates that further fatigue damage
Fig. 13. Critical point locations for analysis of internal stresses in 120 year old RMS girder.
 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 14. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in 120 year old RMS
girder.
will occur at a lower magnitude for the applied load and a reduced num-
ber of cycles when compared to the uncracked and partially cracked
girders. The introduction of fatigue cracking through the entire flange
was also calculated to further reduce the stiffness of the girder through
the elastic range to 29.6 kN/mm. The ductility of the failure is also fur-
ther increased, with the plastic load range of the girder reaching
195 kN, an increase of 307% over the uncracked girder. The stress distri-
butions for the partially cracked and fully cracked 120 year old RMS
girder are shown in Figs. 17 and 18. Fig. 17 shows a similar result in
terms of the stress distribution for the partially cracked girder as the un-
cracked girder, however a small stress increase at the central web-
flange interface is observed along with a stress reduction at the outer
edge of the flange, due to discontinuity within the section as a result
of the introduced cracking in the bottom flange plate and load transfer
through the equal angle section. The stress distribution is observed to
normalise as the distance from the crack location increases along the
girder towards the central stiffening plates.
Fig. 18 however, displays a transfer of the critical stress locations
from the bottom flange upward into the lower section of the web. This
is as expected due to the bottom flange plate and equal angle section
having significantly reduced capacity to carry the large tensile stresses
associated with the mid-span bending moment due to discontinuity as
a result of the introduced cracking, and the cracking no longer being
contained by structural ties to other elements. The lower section of
Fig. 15. Fatigue crack development in 120 year old RMS girder — Stage 1 (L) and Stage 2
(R).
43
Fig. 16. Load vs. deflection curve for cracked 120 year old RMS girder.
the web is also exposed to larger magnitude tensile stresses, with web
buckling contributing to the increased ductility of the failure.
An investigation into the stress distribution at the four critical loca-
tions identified in Fig. 13 was also conducted for the both the partially
cracked and fully cracked 120 year old RMS girder. The magnitude of
the applied point load was set to the elastic load limit of the uncracked
girder, equal to 481.5 kN. The maximum principal stress values at four
critical points in the bottom flange were found at varying distances
from the mid-span, and the stress vs. distance away from the crack loca-
tion was plotted for the four points, as shown in Figs. 19 and 20.
Both Figs. 19 and 20 display non-uniformity of the internal stresses
at the critical points in the bottom flange. As expected, an increase in
total stress is found at the two points at the web-flange interface due
to load transfer through the riveted connection between the two plate
elements and the equal angle section. The outer edge of the bottom
flange experienced a significant decrease in total stress due to the intro-
duced fatigue cracking and an increased distance along the load path
from the web element. As expected, a convergence to the relatively uni-
form stress distribution as observed for the uncracked girder is
displayed as the distance from the crack location increases. This occurs
at a distance of 250 mm from the location of the crack and at a stress
magnitude of approximately 200 MPa for the partially cracked girder
and at a distance of 450 mm from the fatigue crack location and at a
stress magnitude of approximately 200 MPa. These two distances indi-
cate the critical area which requires structural retrofitting to reduce
the influence of the introduced fatigue cracking and re-establish stabil-
ity of the section.
4.1.3. Retrofitted girder
Based on the analysis of the stress distribution in the uncracked and
cracked 120 year old RMS girders, it was determined that the critical re-
gion for retrofitting was in the bottom flange at the center location of
the girder, within 450 mm either side of the mid-span fatigue crack lo-
cation. This is due to this area having the highest concentration of ten-
sion, and the fatigue cracking displaying the largest influence on the
girder. The retrofitting proposal includes an additional plate of
Fig. 17. Contour plot of internal stress in partially cracked 120 year old RMS girder.
44 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50

Fig. 18. Contour plot of internal stress in fully cracked 120 year old RMS girder.

12.6 mm thickness, the same thickness as the existing flange plates, at-
tached to the bottom of the flange by 19 mm diameter Ajax bolts falling
into strength group M8.8, which extends between the two center stiff- Fig. 20. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in 120 year old RMS
girder (fully cracked).
ening plates, a distance of 705 mm either side of the fatigue crack loca-
tion to match the distance between the centre stiffeners. The additional
plate has material properties which match the steel of the new equiva- to cause failure by fatigue. This is significantly important when
lent girder (fy = 340 MPa). The use of rivets to construct the I-section discussing the future design life of the structure. An increased number
prevents the placement of another plate on the top side of the bottom of cycles for a given loading magnitude will correspond to an extension
flange due to not allowing a flat contact surface between plates. The of the allowable service life of the structure before fatigue based failure
bolt layout has been determined by AS4100. The location of the addi- will occur. The stiffness of the girder within the elastic range has also in-
tional plate in the cross-section is as shown in Fig. 21. The bolt layout creased from 31.7 kN/mm for the standard girder to 33.7 kN/mm for the
and extent of the retrofitting plate was modelled in ABAQUS, as retrofitted girder, or by 6.3%. This represents the scale of the reduction
shown in Fig. 22. in total deflection for any given applied load magnitude after the instal-
The time-step load and deflection data outputs from ABAQUS for lation of the retrofitting techniques.
both the model were combined to produce a load vs. deflection curve The load vs. deflection curve for the retrofitted girder also displays
for the retrofitted 120 year old RMS girder. The load vs. deflection an increase in the ductility of the failure modes when compared to the
curve for the retrofitted model was plotted on the same graph as the standard girder. The plastic load range of the girder is increased from
load vs. deflection curve for the standard model, shown in Fig. 23, 63.5 kN for the standard girder to 120 kN, or by 89% for the retrofitted
where both girders are in the uncracked state. girder. This indicates a more progressive mode of failure, rather than
Fig. 23 shows that the retrofitted girder has an increased ultimate the more sudden failure for the standard girder. The ductility is an im-
applied load capacity, as well as an extended elastic range and an in- portant factor to take into account for engineers, as a slow, progressive
creased ductility of the failure mode. The ultimate applied load capacity failure mode can be detected and action taken prior to complete failure,
of the girder increased from 545 kN for the standard girder to 660 kN for which could cause major safety concerns, particularly when considering
the retrofitted girder, or by 21.1%. This represents an increase in the the use of the structure as a public utility, in particular a railway bridge,
overall design capacity of the girder, which will be useful when identi-
fying if an existing bridge structure is capable of carrying a new loading
condition (e.g. a new type of train with increased axle load for a railway
bridge) despite being designed for the typical load cases experienced up
to or greater than 100 years ago.
The upper elastic load limit for the girder is increased from 481.5 kN
for the standard girder to 540 kN for the retrofitted girder, or by 12.0%.
This represents a significant improvement in the fatigue performance of
the girder, as the retrofitted girder can carry the same magnitude of
loading as the standard girder at a lower proportion of the elastic load
limit, and therefore with an increased number of loading cycles required

Fig. 19. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in 120 year old RMS Fig. 21. Retrofitted 120 year old RMS girder cross-section showing retrofitting plate and
girder (partially cracked). bolt location.
 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 22. FE model of retrofitted 120 year old RMS girder showing extent of retrofitting plate
and bolt layout.
where sudden failure could have catastrophic consequences. The stress
distribution for the retrofitted (uncracked) 120 year old RMS girder is
shown in Fig. 24. Fig. 24 shows a relatively uniform stress distribution
in the lower section of the web and bottom flange. There is a large con-
centration of stress in the additional retrofitting plate, as this plate
carries the majority of the tension due to being located at the extreme
tension edge. There are no evident effects on the stress distribution in
the web which could cause local buckling.
The stress distribution for the retrofitted (partially cracked) 120 year
old RMS girder is shown in Fig. 25.
Fig. 25 shows again, a relatively uniform stress distribution in the
bottom flange; however a small area of high stress is identified in the
very lower section at the web-flange interface as a result of the induced
fatigue cracking. There is a large concentration of stress in the additional
retrofitting plate, as this plate carries the majority of the tension due to
being located at the extreme tension edge. There are no evident effects
on the stress distribution in the web which could cause local buckling.
The stress distribution for the retrofitted (fully cracked) 120 year old
RMS girder is shown in Fig. 26. Fig. 26 shows a non-uniform stress dis-
tribution in the lower section of the bottom flange. In close proximity
to the induced fatigue cracking (within100mm either side of the crack
location) a significant decrease in the internal stress is identified at the
outside edge at the top of the bottom flange plate. The stress at the
web-flange contact is significantly increased due to the web-flange con-
nection. A large stress concentration is identified in the very lower sec-
tion of the web as a result of the induced fatigue cracking. There is a
large concentration of stress in the additional retrofitting plate, as this
plate carries the majority of the tension due to being located at the ex-
treme tension edge. There are no evident effects on the stress distribu-
tion in the web which could cause local buckling. In all cases of the
retrofitted girder, there is a noticeable concentration of stress at the lo-
cations near the bolt holes, which is as expected due to reduction in the
cross-section area to carry the tensile stresses as a result of bending.
Fig. 23. Load vs. deflection curve for retrofitted 120 year old RMS girder.
45
Fig. 24. Contour plot of internal stress in retrofitted 120 year old RMS girder (uncracked).
An investigation into the stress distribution at the four critical loca-
tions identified in Fig. 13 was also conducted for the both the uncracked,
partially cracked and fully cracked retrofitted 120 year old RMS girder.
The magnitude of the applied load was set to the elastic load limit of
the uncracked girder, equal to 481.5 kN. The maximum principal stress
values at four critical points in the bottom flange were found at varying
distances from the mid-span, and the stress vs. distance away from the
crack location was plotted for the four points, as shown in Figs. 27, 28
and 29.
The stress distribution curves for all three cases of the retrofitted
120 year old RMS girder present similar results which prove the effec-
tiveness of the retrofitting techniques. The four critical locations in the
bottom flange experience considerably greater uniformity in terms of
stress values when compared to the relative uncracked, partially
cracked and fully cracked girders shown in Figs. 13, 18 and 19. Even
when the fatigue cracking was included in the retrofitted girder
model, the stress distribution remained relatively uniform across the
four locations, due to the confinement and ‘bridging effect’ of the
retrofitting plates. A reduction in stress was however observed across
the top surface of the bottom flange in the fully cracked state. In all
cases, the stress output at any point in the bottom flange was found to
be the yield stress of 220 MPa. At the critical mid-span, the maximum
stress at any point in the bottom flange for the uncracked girder was re-
duced from the yield stress of 220 MPa for the standard girder to
136 MPa, a reduction of 38.2%. The maximum stress at any point in
the bottom flange at the mid-span for the partially cracked girder was
reduced from 270 MPa for the standard girder to 170 MPa, a reduction
of 37.0%. The maximum stress at any point in the bottom flange at the
mid-span for the fully cracked girder was reduced from 411 MPa for
the standard girder to 172 MPa for the retrofitted girder, a reduction
of 58.2%.
As expected, the holes for the retrofitting bolts also impacted on the
stress distribution in the bottom flange. The centres of the bolts were
spaced at 200 mm apart, with the first bolt centre 52.5 mm from the
crack location. Therefore the bolt hole locations correspond to the dis-
tances 52.5 mm, 252.5 mm and 452.5 mm in Figs.s 27, 28 and 29.
These locations correspond to local spikes in the magnitude of the stress
at the critical locations in the bottom flange, which is consistent across
the uncracked, partially cracked and fully cracked cases of the model.
Fig. 25. Contour plot of internal stress in retrofitted 120 year old RMS girder (partially
cracked).
46 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 26. Contour plot of internal stress in retrofitted 120 year old RMS girder (fully
cracked).
The bolt holes however, had a larger impact on the stress at the two
points on the outer edge of the flange, which can be attributed to a re-
duction in net cross-section area at these locations, and prevention of
the direct load transfer due to the placement of the holes. The two
points at the web-flange interface were less affected due to constraint
between the web and flange plate elements by the equal angle section.
The stress increase associated with the bolt hole nearest to the crack lo-
cation (corresponding to the distance 52.5 mm in Figs. 27, 28 and 29)
displays a stress value approaching very close to the yield stress of
220 MPa.
4.2. New equivalent girder
The girder was simulated in ABAQUS according to the yields stress
(fy) value of 340 MPa obtained from the standards. The model was proc-
essed in three stages, including the uncracked, cracked and retrofitted
girders.
4.2.1. Uncracked girder
The time-step load and deflection data outputs from ABAQUS were
combined to produce a load (vertical axis) vs. deflection (horizontal
axis) curve for the uncracked new equivalent girder, which was plotted
on the same axes as the load vs. deflection curve for the experimental
analysis, shown in Fig. 30.
The resulting load vs. deflection curve from the FE model however,
indicates a slightly longer period of elasticity compared to the experi-
mental analysis, as well as a reduced ductility of the failure mode. This
can be explained by the lateral buckling experienced in the experimen-
tal analysis, which is restricted in ABAQUS. The stiffness of the FE model
was calculated as 27.5 kN/mm, while the experimental analysis
displayed a stiffness of 28.4 kN/mm.
The stress distribution output for the uncracked girder is shown in
Fig. 31. The stress distribution displays the locations for the highest
total stress as being at the centre at the top section of the girder,
Fig. 27. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in retrofitted
120 year old RMS girder (uncracked).
Fig. 28. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in retrofitted
120 year old RMS girder (partially cracked).
where the girder is under maximum compression, and at the centre
at the bottom section of the girder, where the girder is under maxi-
mum tension. The areas for maximum tension and compression are
associated with the maximum bending moment being located at
the mid-span, which is as a result of the roller support systems carry-
ing zero moment at the ends of the girder, and the mid-span load
application.
As part of the analysis of the fatigue performance of the girder, the
distribution of the internal stresses at the critical locations where fatigue
cracking will occur, determined to be at the mid-span at the bottom
flange due to large concentration of tensile stress, was investigated.
The magnitude of the point load was set to the identified elastic load
limit of the girder (600.0 kN). The maximum principal stress values at
four critical points in the bottom flange, as shown in Fig. 32, were
found at varying distances from the mid-span, and the stress vs. dis-
tance away from the crack location curve was plotted for the four points,
as shown in Fig. 33.
Fig. 33 indicates uniformity of the internal stresses across the entire
area of the bottom flange. As expected, a higher value for the stress is
found at the two points on the extreme tensile edge of the flange, due
to an increased distance from the girder's neutral axis and therefore in-
creased magnitude of tension due to the moment from the mid-span
loading. As expected, Fig. 33 displays a constant decrease in the magni-
tude of the internal stress uniformly across the entire area of the bottom
flange. This is due to a reduction in the magnitude of the moment asso-
ciated with the loading conditions and support set-up as the distance
from the mid-span increases.
At the location of the cracking, the value of the internal stress is
equal to the yield stress (340 MPa), which confirms the value of the ap-
plied load (600.0 kN) corresponding to the upper limit of the elastic re-
gion of the steel.
Fig. 29. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in retrofitted
120 year old RMS girder (fully cracked).
 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 30. Load vs. deflection curve for new equivalent girder (FEA & Experiment).
4.2.2. Cracked girder
Based on the above analysis of the uncracked new equivalent girder,
it was determined that fatigue cracking is most likely to propagate from
the bottom flange at the centre location of the girder. This area is
highlighted by the red area in the contour plot of internal stress in Fig.
33. This is due to this area having the highest concentration of tensile
stress, which will show the first signs of damage. The fatigue cracking
is modelled in only one stage, with the initial crack developing through
the full extent of the bottom flange, shown in Fig. 34.
The time-step load and deflection data outputs from ABAQUS for the
cracked stage were combined to produce a load vs. deflection curve for
the cracked new equivalent girder. The load vs. deflection curve for the
cracked model was plotted on the same axis as the load vs. deflection
curve for the uncracked model, shown in Fig. 35.
Fig. 35 displays a significant impact on the elasticity and ultimate ap-
plied load capacity of the girder as a result of the introduction of crack-
ing to the model. The ultimate applied load capacity was observed to
decrease from 750 kN for the uncracked girder to 604 kN for the cracked
girder, or by 19.5%. Fig. 35 also shows a reduction of the elastic load limit
of the load from 600 kN for the uncracked girder to 268 kN for the
cracked girder, or by 55.3%. The introduction of fatigue cracking was
also calculated to reduce the stiffness of the girder through the elastic
range to 23.8 kN/mm. The cracked model proved to undergo a more
ductile failure however, with the plastic load range increased from
150 kN for the uncracked girder to 336 kN for the cracked girder, or
by 124%.
The stress distribution output for the cracked girder is shown in Fig.
36. The stress distribution displays an upward shift in the concentration
of the highest tensile stresses into the lower section of the web element.
This is due to the introduced crack which prevents the bottom flange
from carrying the majority of the tensile stress due to disconnection of
the section. As a result, the web element is forced to carry the tensile
stresses which would have previously been carried by the bottom
flange. The stress distribution normalises as the distance from the
crack location increases, due to the bottom flange being connected to
Fig. 31. Contour plot of internal stresses in uncracked new equivalent girder.
47
Fig. 32. Critical point locations for analysis of internal stresses in new equivalent girder.
the remainder of the section by the structural weld, which allows for a
load transfer path for the tensile stress.
The stress distribution also displays non-uniformity of the internal
stress across the width of the bottom flange, with a smaller magnitude
of stress found at the outer edges when compared to the web edge.
This is also seen to normalise as the distance from the crack location in-
creases to become similar to the stress distribution for the uncracked
section.
As part of the analysis of the fatigue performance of the girder, the
distribution of the internal stresses at the same critical locations as iden-
tified previously was investigated. The magnitude of the point load was
again set to the identified upper limit of the elastic region of the girder
(600 kN). The maximum principal stress values at the four critical points
in the bottom flange were found at varying distances from the mid-
span, and the stress vs. distance away from the crack location curve
was plotted for the four points, as shown in Fig. 37.
Fig. 37 indicates non-uniformity of the internal stresses across the
entire area of the bottom flange. As expected, a higher value for the
stress is found at the two points on the internal web edge of the flange,
due to the welded connection transferring some of the tensile stresses
which are now carried by the web. The two points on the outer edge
of the flange experience very low tensile stress in comparison, due to
the introduced crack preventing the flange from carrying the tensile
stress at the mid-span. As expected, Fig. 37 displays a convergence to
a uniform stress distribution across the entire area of the bottom flange
as the distance from the crack location increases. This occurs at a dis-
tance of 300 mm from the location of the crack and at a stress magni-
tude of approximately 260 MPa. This indicates the critical area which
requires structural retrofitting to reduce the influence of the induced fa-
tigue cracking and re-establish stability of the section.
4.2.3. Retrofitted girder
The critical area for the structural retrofitting was found to be
300 mm either side of the mid-span crack location, as identified from
Fig. 37. The retrofitting proposal includes two additional plates of
17.3 mm thickness, the same as the existing flange plate element, at-
tached to the top and bottom of the flange by 19 mm diameter Ajax
bolts of strength group M8.8, which extends between the two centre
Fig. 33. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in new equivalent
girder (uncracked).
48 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 34. Fatigue crack development in new equivalent girder.
stiffening plates. The aim of the two additional plates is to contain the
crack from spreading and inducing further damage by local buckling
under load. The plates will also provide re-connection along the entire
length of the bottom flange and allow it to once again carry the majority
of the tensile stress associated with bending. The additional plates have
material properties which match the steel of the new equivalent girder.
The bolt layout has been determined by AS4100. The location of the ad-
ditional plate in the cross-section is as shown in Fig. 38. The bolt layout
and extent of the retrofitting plate was modelled in ABAQUS, as shown
in Fig. 39.
The time-step load and deflection data outputs from ABAQUS for the
model were combined to produce a load vs. deflection curve for the
retrofitted new equivalent. The load vs. deflection curve for the
retrofitted and standard uncracked versions of the model were plotted
on the same axis, shown in Fig. 40.
Fig. 40 displays the retrofitted girder has an increased ultimate ap-
plied load capacity, from 750 kN for the standard girder to 945 kN for
the retrofitted girder, or by 26.0%. The elastic load limit also increases
from 600 kN for the standard girder to 680 kN for the retrofitted girder,
or by 13.3%. This indicates a significant improvement in fatigue perfor-
mance, as the retrofitted girder can carry the same magnitude of loading
as the standard case, with an increased number of loading cycles re-
quired to cause failure by fatigue. This is significantly important when
discussing the future design life of the structure. An increased number
of cycles for a given loading magnitude will result in an extension of
the allowable service life of the structure before fatigue based failure
Fig. 35. Load vs. deflection curve for cracked new equivalent girder.
Fig. 36. Contour plot of internal stresses in cracked new equivalent girder.
will occur. The girder stiffness through the elastic range is also increased
from 27.5 kN/mm for the standard girder to 32.6 kN/mm for the
retrofitted girder.
The retrofitted girder also experienced greater ductility of the failure
mode when compared with the standard girder, with a plastic load
range increased from 150 kN for the standard girder to 265 kN for the
retrofitted girder, or by 76.7%. This represents a more progressive
mode of failure, rather than the more sudden failure indicated by the
load vs. deflection curve for the standard girder.
This outcome promotes cost-effective engineering and sustainability
by providing an alternative method to replacement of old steel girders
with new parts, which is often expensive, time consuming and inconve-
nient. The proposed method is cost-effective, as it allows construction to
take place whilst the structure remains in service and removes the re-
quirements for infrastructure planners developing temporary alterna-
tive travel paths during the retrofitting process. Construction times are
significantly reduced, and overheads for machinery and equipment
are minimised. Sustainability is achieved through extending the life of
the original structure, rather than simply replacing with new
components.
The load vs. deflection curves for both the uncracked and cracked
models of the retrofitted girder were plotted on the same axis, shown
in Fig. 41. Fig. 41 displays very little difference in terms of the perfor-
mance of the girder with and without the introduced fatigue crack.
This indicates the suitability of the retrofitting proposal to adequately
contain the cracking and maintain the original performance of the gird-
er. The key properties for structural performance, elasticity, stiffness,
ductility and ultimate applied load capacity have all been maintained
at the same level despite the introduction of the cracking.
Therefore the retrofitting proposal is suitable for application both
before and after fatigue cracking is found to have occurred in the girder,
and the same outcomes can be achieved in terms of extending the orig-
inal design life of the girder. The magnitude of the point load was again
set to the identified upper limit of the elastic region of the girder
(600 kN). The maximum principal stress values at the four critical points
Fig. 37. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in new equivalent
girder (cracked).
 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 38. Retrofitted new equivalent girder cross-section showing retrofitting plate and bolt
location.
in the bottom flange were found at varying distances from the mid-
span, and the stress vs. distance away from the crack location curve
was plotted for the four points, as shown in Fig. 42 and Fig. 43 for the re-
spective uncracked and cracked retrofitted girders.
The stress distribution curves for both the uncracked and cracked
retrofitted girders display similar results which prove the effectiveness
of the retrofitting proposal. The four critical locations in the bottom
flange displayed considerably more uniform stress values when com-
pared to the standard cracked girder above. Even when cracking is in-
cluded in the retrofitted girder, the stress distribution is relatively
uniform across the four locations, due to the confinement and ‘bridging
effect’ of the retrofitting plates. The maximum stress at any point in the
bottom flange for the uncracked girders was reduced from the yield
stress of 340 MPa for the standard girder to 166 MPa for the retrofitted
girder, a reduction of 52.9%. The maximum stress at any point in the bot-
tom flange for the cracked girders was reduced from 735 MPa for the
standard girder to 185 MPa, a reduction of 74.8%.
As expected, the holes for the retrofitting bolts also impacted on the
stress distribution in the bottom flange. The centres of the bolt holes
were spaced at 200 mm apart, with the first bolt centre 52.5 mm from
the crack location. Therefore the bolt hole locations correspond to the
distances 52.5 mm, 252.5 mm, 452.5 mm in Figs. 42 and 43. These loca-
tions correspond with local spikes in the magnitude of the stress at the
critical locations in the bottom flange, which is consistent across both
Fig. 39. FE model of retrofitted new equivalent girder showing extent of retrofitting plates
and bolt layout.
49
Fig. 40. Load vs. deflection curve for uncracked standard and retrofitted new equivalent
girder.
the uncracked and cracked versions of the model. The bolt holes howev-
er, impacted mainly on the two points on the outer edge of the flange,
which is due to a reduction in the overall surface area at these points.
The internal web edge was less affected due to load transfer through
the web element.
5. Conclusions and further research
Fatigue based cracking was found to be most critical at the mid-span
at the bottom flange for both 120 years old RMS girder and new equiv-
alent girder, as this is the area with the highest internal stress which is
caused by the mid-span loading and support conditions. In the standard
(uncracked) state, both girders displayed uniform stress distribution
across the entire bottom flange, with the stress magnitude slowly de-
creasing as the distance from the mid-span increased (as we move to-
wards the ends of the girder). Fatigue cracking was introduced into
the models by imparting a 1 mm wide cut through the entire bottom
flange at the mid-span (in two stages for the 120 year old RMS girder
due to two bottom flange plates). The applied load was set to the
point load which corresponded to the point of first yield of the steel,
481.5 kN for the 120 year old RMS girder and 600 kN for the new equiv-
alent girder, also corresponding the upper limit a the elastic region and
fatigue range of the steel. The induced fatigue cracking was found to
cause a significant change to the stress distribution across the bottom
flange, as the internal edges at the web-flange interface experienced
significant increases in total stress over the standard state due to the
load transfer through the web-flange connection, while the external
edges experience a significant reduction in total stress due to disconnec-
tion within the section preventing the transfer of tensile stress.
Fig. 41. Load vs. deflection curve for uncracked and cracked retrofitted new equivalent
girder.
50 O. Mirza et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 131 (2017) 38–50
Fig. 42. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in retrofitted new
equivalent girder (uncracked).
In both girders, stress normalisation occurred at a length of approx-
imately 400 mm from the central crack location. This was adopted as the
critical length for the retrofitting proposal, as the induced fatigue crack-
ing had no effect outside this region due to the load transfer through the
web-flange connection. Therefore the retrofitting was concentrated to
the mid-span section only, between the internal faces of the two central
stiffening plates, a length of 705 mm either side of the crack location.
The retrofitting techniques included the placement of an additional
plate the bottom flange of both girders which matched the thickness
of the existing flange. In the case of the new equivalent girder, an addi-
tional plate was placed above the bottom flange to provide further con-
tainment of the fatigue crack. This was unable to be done in the 120 year
old RMS girder due to the installation of rivets preventing the plate from
being placed on a flat surface. The plates were connected by 19 mm di-
ameter M8.8 Ajax bolts placed in 21 mm diameter holes. The centres of
the bolt holes were aligned at the centre line of the width of the flange,
and with an edge spacing of 52.5 mm from the face of the stiffening
plates at the ends and 52.5 mm from the centre of the crack location
at the mid-span. The in-between region consisted of bolts spaced at
200 mm centres. A total of 16 bolts were used for the retrofitting of
each type of girder.
In both cases and for both girder types, the stress distribution was
found to normalise back to uniformity across the entire area of the bot-
tom flange, thus the retrofitting techniques had eliminated the effect of
the introduced fatigue cracking. As expected, small increases in the
stress magnitude was found at the regions close to the bolt holes,
which can be attributed to a reduction in the cross-section area available
to carry the tensile forces at these locations.
Fig. 43. Stress vs. distance from crack location curve for critical points in retrofitted new
equivalent girder (cracked).
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The proposed retrofitting techniques meet the initial design criteria
of being simple and cost-effective. Installation methods are as simple as
drilling and bolting to the existing structure which can be done during
service. This reduces the impact on society by maintaining access and
functionality of the structure. Time constraints can also be met as the
retrofitting can be undertaken in significantly reduced time frame as re-
placement with new parts. Costs are minimised by removing the re-
quirement for the provision of alternative temporary structures for
access, such as alternative transport routes. Labour, material and equip-
ment costs are also reduced by eliminating large scale construction.
Further research is proposed as an extension of the experimental
study to evaluate the fatigue performance of the two girders
(120 years old RMS and new equivalent). Static fatigue tests to evaluate
stress concentrations and cyclic fatigue tests to determine fatigue life
can be carried out in future studies. This research study has been fo-
cussed on the use of 19 mm diameter M8.8 Ajax bolts as the means of
connection for the a retrofitting plates. Further research could include
investigation into different types of connectors including a range of
bolts.
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