TITLE : TENSILE TEST

INTRODUCTION

Tensile test is one of the most fundamental tests for engineering, and
provides valuable information about a material and its associated properties.
These properties can be used for design and analysis of engineering
structures, and for developing new materials that better suit a specified use.
Two different materials were tested; Mild steel and Aluminium. The samples
were cylindrical in cross section, with a reduced gauge section. The reduced
gauge section ensured that the highest stresses occurred within the gauge, and
not near the grips to prevent strain and fracture of the specimen ear or in the
grips. The data was used to calculate various properties of each material,
including the elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength. The data
was then plotted on engineering stress-strain curves to compare the samples.
The data was also plotted on load-elongation graph to compare the samples.
The purpose of this experiment was to gather information about each material
so that important mechanical properties could be determined.
 Figure 1 : Test Piece For Tensile

THEORY

Tensile test is a mechanical test most commonly used on metal. It is

conducted by imposing a series of enhanced standard and measure specimen
elongation occurring for each load applied.

This test can be used to ascertain several mechanical test in design. A

specimen is deformed, usually to fracture with a gradually increasing tensile
load that is applied unaxially along the long axis of a specimen. A “dogbone”
specimen configuration was chosen so that during testing deformation is
confined to the narrow center region and also to reduce the likelihood of
fracture at the end of the experiment.

The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a

constant rate, and to continuously and simultaneously measure the
instantaneous applied load and the resulting elongation. This test typically
takes several minutes to perform and is destructive and usually fractured.

The output of such a tensile test is recorded as load of force versus elongation.
These load deformation characteristics depends on the specimen size. Load
and elongation are normalized to the respective parameters of engineering
stress and engineering strain.
In the case of mild steel, the relationship between load and elongation is
shown in Figure 2 as following :-

Figure 2 : Graph of elongation against load.

Engineering Stress is define by the relationship :

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹
𝜎= =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑂

F – instantaneous load applied

Aₒ - original cross sectional area before any force is applied

Engineering Strain is define according to :

𝐿 − 𝐿0 ∆𝐿
∈ = =
𝐿0 𝐿0
L = Gauge length on load
Lₒ = original gauge length

The following information is usually obtained from the tensile test specimens.
1) Maximum tensile stress, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 :
 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴0

2) Elongation percentage :
𝐿𝐹 − 𝐿0
%𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋 100
𝐿0
LF = Final length before fracture

3) Area percentage reduction :

𝐴𝐹 − 𝐴0
%𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋 100
𝐴0
AF = Specimen diameter before fracture

4) Young Modulus:
It is derived from the early part of the elastic line slope, of the
stress-strain diagram.

5) Yield Point:
It is the stress value corresponding to yielding of mild steel.

6) Yield stress:
It is used and define as the stress produced by a load that is not
propotional in elongation equal to a certain percentage of the gauge
length.

OBJECTIVE

To understand the properties of materials from tensile test on mild steel and
aluminium specimens.

APPARATUS

1) Universal Material Tester

2) Mild Steel Specimen
3) Aluminium Specimen
 Figure 3 : Universal Material Tester

Figure 4 : Aluminium and Mild Steel speciment

PROCEDURE

1) The length and diameter of each sample were measured.The area and initial length
of the sample Were also found using the standard area reduction and elongation
gauges.
2) The sample was installed on the Universal Material Tester.
3) A load was applied according to the specified rate until the sample fractured.
4) The length and the diameter of the end sample were measured. The percentage
reduction in area and length was determined using the gauge reduction in area and
elongation gauge.
5) The theoretical area percentage reduction and elongation percentage with the
gauge reduction in area and elongation analytic value measurement was compared.

RESULT

Type of specimen : Aluminum and Mild Steel

1. Initially, the length and diameter of the specimens was taken as shown in Table
1.1 and Table 1.2 before carrying out the experiment. The average diameter of
Aluminium was 6.257 mm, while the average diameter taken for Mild Steel is 6.23
mm. Both specimen are 30mm in length.

The length and diameter of each sample were measured.The area and initial
TENSION TEST

Material of
the Diameter (mm) Length (mm)
specimens 1 2 3 Average Average
Aluminium 6.26 6.26 6.25 6.257 30
Mild Steel 6.16 6.00 5.97 6.04 30

Table 1 : The diameter and length of Aluminium and Mild

2. After the test was carried out, the length and diameter of the end of the sample
was measured to calculate the Percentage Reduction in Area and Length. The
comparison for Aluminium was shown in Table 3 while for Mild Steel was shown in
Table 2.
.
 Table 2 : Comparison between theoretical and experimental value of aluminium

Value area percentage of reduction, (%) Value elongation percentage , (%)

Theory Experiment Percentage Error Theory Experiment Percentage
Error

Table 3 : Comparison between theoretical and experimental value of mild steel

Value area percentage of reduction, (%) Value elongation percentage , (%)

Theory Experiment Percentage Theory Experiment Percentage
Error Error

|Theoretical Value – Experimental Value|

Percentage Error = x 100%
The𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
3.The analytic value measurement produced from the experiment was shown in
Table 4 and Table 5.

Table 4 : Reading and information for Aluminum.

Elongation, L Force, F (kN) Elongation Stress, 𝜎 Strain, 𝜀

(mm) Percentage, EPS (%) (MPa)
 Table 5 : Reading and information for Mild Steel

Elongation, L Force, F (kN) Elongation Stress, 𝜎 Strain, 𝜀

(mm) Percentage, EPS (%) (MPa)
4. The information produced was then projected into graph 1.1 to determine the
Yield Strength, Maximum Tensile Stress, Yield Stress(0.2%) and Young’s Modulus of
Elasticity.
 Force-Elongation Curve of Aluminium and Mild
Steel Specimens
18
16
14
12
Force, F (kN)

10
8 Aluminium
6 Mild Steel
4
2
0
-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Elongation, L (mm)

Graph 1.1 : Stress vs. Strain Graph between Aluminium and Mild Steel

5. The information produced was then projected into graph 1.2 is to determine the
Elongation until fracture point of the two materials. It can be deduced that Mild
Steel has a higher ductility and Aluminium is more brittle when the graph shows that
Mild Steel experience a greater value of Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and more
elongation upon fracture.

Stress-Strain Curve of Aluminium and Mild Steel

Specimens
600

500

400
Stress, 𝜎 (MPa)

300
Aluminium
200
Mild Steel
100

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-100
Strain, 𝜀

Graph 1.2 : Load vs. Elongation graph of Aluminium and Mild Steel.
DISCUSSION :
1. From the graph 1.1 , Stress vs. Strain between Aluminium and Mild
Steel, the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) for Aluminium is 344.50 and the
Ultimate Tensile Strength for Mild Steel is 551.08 MPa . .
2. From graph 1.2 , it can be deduced that Mild Steel has a higher ductility
and Aluminium is more brittle when the graph shows that Mild Steel
experience a greater value of Ultimate Tensile Strength then Mild Steel due
to the higher toughness or energy to failure because of greater yield
deformation. The Mild Steel take more elongation upon fracture then the
Aluminium.
3. The theoretical area percentage reduction of Aluminium is 60.00%
while the experimental value measurement is 103.64% with 72.73%
percentage different .Then the theoretical area percentage reduction of Mild
Steel is 60.00% while the experimental value is 96.66% with 61.1%
percentage different. The different in values for area percentage for area
percentage reduction and elongation percentage is due to some analytical
error.

4. There were differences between the theoretical and analytical value of

Elongation Percentage, and area reduction percentage that we obtained from
the experiment. The differences were caused by a few factor :

 Although the data were recorded by the computer but we need to spin the
handle manually. This may cause the inconsistent of the speed of turning the
handle. Thus error may occur and there will be some differences between the
analytical and theoretical values.
 Frame stiffness will cause the differences as well. System compliance
incorporates the mechanical compliance, or system slack, that exists in the
testing frame, the load cell and the accessories, and has a significant implication
on the total stiffness of the system. A testing system with low stiffness used in
this type of compression application on springs will consistently yield lower peak
load results than a similar system with a higher stiffness.
 The specimens may not be gripped properly as we gripped the specimens
manually. The specimens may not break in the centre area which we initially
measured and recorded. Then we may not able to get the accurate data for this
experiment.

 In order to obtained a minimum percentage error some precaution step need to

take :
 Use the pure specimens so that type of material contains in a specimens are
same.
 Use digital measurement apparatus to record the accurate reading of the
specimens
 Clean the specimens earlier before start the experiment and make sure to check
the specimens in a good condition in order to get accurate result.

CONCLUSION :
 Tensile test are used to determine the maximum load can applied to the
specimens to undergo the elastic and plastic deformation until the fracture
part. Also we can fine the modulus of elasticity of the specimens, percentage
area reduction and the elongation percentage beside known the stress and the
strain of the specimens. Its very useful to applied in the industry. Beside carbon
contain in a specimen disturb the fracture and the process.

REFERENCES :
1.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/strength_of_materials.
2. Donald R. Askeland, Pradeep P. Fulay, Wendelin J. Wright-The Science and
Engineering of Materials, Sixth Edition -CL-Engineering (2010)
3.Engineering Lab Manual Textbook, USM for EML211/2.
4.A Textbook of Strength of Materials by Dr.R.K.Bansai
TITLE : TORSION TEST

THEORY

General equation that describes the behaviour of a round material in torsion is:
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
= =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟
T – Torque (N.m)
J – Polar moment of inertia (𝑚𝑚4 )

G – Modulus of rigidity(N/𝑚𝑚2 )
𝜃 – Rotation angle (radian)
L – Sample length (mm)

𝜏 – Shear stress on radius, r (N/m𝑚2 )

 Torque

Angle of twist
graph

Figure 2 : Graph Torque against Angle of Twist Graph.

Figure 2 shows the relationship between torque and angle of twist of a metal in
torsion. In elastic and plastic range, the stress on the surface of the material is
proportional to d3 and torque (T). Actual relation of the surface stress with d and T is
dependent on the characteristics, stress strain of the materials.
In curvature elastic range, the relationship can be expressed as:
16𝑇
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑 3
𝜃𝑑
While the surface strain is 2𝐿
 Torsion Testing Machine
Torsion testing machine that is used is SMK I made by Techquipment MK 11. The
load is applied by hand through a reduction gear box 60:1. Torque exerted on mild
steel rod will result in the movement and the movement of mild steel rod relative to
the deflection of the arm will be measured by the linear metre capacity connected to
a digital torque metre. Angle of twist can be obtained from three sources. For
accurate measurement in the range of elasticity, A protractor with 0.1◦ small scale is
attached to the input shaft gearbox. Another small scale protractor 1◦ is also
attached to the output shaft gearbox and can be used to take readings in the plastic
range. A counter device is also fitted to the gearbox input shaft reads the amount of
rotation (1 rev = 6◦)
Pair of hexagonal socket is used to hold the sample at both ends. Accurate
measurements of the angle of twist can be made using the SM2 Torsiometer which
can be fitted on the sample material. By knowing the angle of twist, strain can be
measured. Deflection armed is returned to its original position after loads is applied,
by using level handle and, dial indicator. Torque meter and the torsion test machine
can be calibrated using the calibration arm by applying known calibration weight on
the shaft torque.

OBJECTIVE
To conduct a torsion test on a mild steel and brass sample to determine the shear
modulus at the proportional limit and the modulus of rigidity

APPARATUS

1) Torsion Test Machine

2) Torque meter
3) Micrometer
4) Protractor
 Figure 1 : Techquipment SMI MK II Torsion Test Machine

Figure: Brass and Mild Steel speciment

PROCEDURE

Torque meter and the torsion test machine was checked for consistency by
conducting a calibration. Calibration was done by installing calibration arm and
imposes a load of 5kg to the calibration arm. Due to the calibration arm is 500mm,
the meter reading is 24.50 ± 0.5 Nm
1) The length and diameter of the test sample was measured.
2) The sample was fit in torsion tester machine.
3) The wheel is turned in 1 complete clockwise direction that will turn the input shaft
approximately 6 degree.
4) The reading on the dial gauge is returned to 0 by turning the handwheel level.
5) The torque reading shown by the torque meter and the angle of twist were
recorded.
6) The above procedure was repeated until the specimen in the plastic range. After
the yield point, the angle of 12 degree was added on each additional rate for mild
steel and 60 degree for brass.

RESULT

1. Initially, the length and diameter of Mild Steel and Brass was taken as shown in
Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 before carrying out the experiment. The average diameter
of Mild Steel was 6.11mm, while the average diameter taken for Brass is 6.27mm.
Both specimen specimen are 75mm in length.

Material of
the Diameter (mm) Length (mm)
specimens 1 2 3 Average Average
Mild Steel 6.27 6.15 5.90 6.11 75
Brass 6.05 6.39 6.27 6.27 75

Table 1.1 : Reading diameter and length of Mild Steel and Brass

2.After the test was carried out, the shear stress and modulus of rigidity was
calculated. The comparison for brass and mild steel was shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 : Different value from theoretical and experimental value.

Specime Category Theoretical value Experimental value Percentage

n (Mpa) (Mpa) Error ( % )

Brass Shear stress ,

ԏmax

Modulus of
rigidity ,G

Mild Shear stress ,

steel ԏmax

Modulus of
rigidity , G
 |Theoretical Value – Experimental Value|
Percentage Error = x 100%
The𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

a) Percentage error for Brass :

Shear stress , ԏmax :

500  196
Percentage Error = x 100% = 60.8%
500

Modulus of rigidity ,G :

40000  1290
Percentage Error = x100% = 96.78%
40000
b) Percentage error for Mild Steel
Shear stress , ԏmax :

700  234
Percentage Error = x 100% = 66.57%
700
Modulus of rigidity ,G :

80000  19478
Percentage Error = x 100% = 75.65%
80000

CALCULATION

For Brass :
Convert angle (°) to angle (rad) as below :
 angle (°) × 𝜋
Angle , 𝜃 (rad) =
180
6 × 𝜋
Angle , 𝜃 (rad) = = 0.105 rad
180
16𝑇
Shear stress , ԏmax =
𝜋𝑑 3

16  9.1
=

 6.18 103 
3

=196.35 MPa

For Mild Steel :

Convert angle (°) to angle (rad) as below :
angle (°) × 𝜋
Angle , 𝜃 (rad) =
180
6 × 𝜋
Angle , 𝜃 (𝑟𝑎𝑑) = = 0.105 rad
180
16𝑇
Shear stress, , ԏmax =
𝜋𝑑 3

16  9.2
=

 5.85 103 
3

= 234.04MPa
 2. The analytic value measurement produced from the experiment was shown
in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 .

Table 3.1 : The reading for mild steel

Angle of Twist Angle of Twist Torque, T (Nm) Shear Stress, τ Shear Strain, γ
(°) (rad) (MPa)
0 0.000000 0.0 0.000000 0.000000
6 0.10472 5.6 0
12 0.20944 8.0 115690901.8
18 0.314159 8.3 165272716.9
24 0.418879 8.1 171470443.8
30 0.523599 8.1 167338625.9
36 0.628319 8.1 167338625.9
96 1.67552 8.1 167338625.9
156 2.72271 8.1 167338625.9
216 3.76991 8.1 167338625.9
276 4.81711 8.3 167338625.9
336 5.86431 8.3 171470443.8
396 6.9115 8.0 171470443.8
456 7.9587 8.2 165272716.9
516 9.0059 8.2 169404534.8
576 10.0531 8.8 169404534.8
636 11.1003 8.8 181799988.6
696 12.1475 8.0 181799988.6
 Table 3.2 : The reading for brass

Angle of Twist Angle of Twist Torque, T (Nm) Shear Stress, τ Shear Strain, γ
(°) (rad) (MPa)
0 0.000000 0 0.00000 0.000000
6 0.10472 3.2 66109086.76
12 0.20944 4.0 82636358.45
18 0.314159 4.9 101229539.1
24 0.418879 5.5 113624992.9
30 0.523599 5.8 119822719.7
36 0.628319 6.0 123954537.7
42 0.733038 6.2 128086355.6
48 0.837758 6.5 134284082.5
54 0.942478 6.8 140481809.4
60 1.047198 7.1 146679536.2
66 1.151917 7.3 150811354.2
72 1.256637 7.4 152877263.1
 78 1.361357 7.6 157009081
84 1.466077 7.6 157009081
90 1.570796 7.6 157009081
102 1.780236 7.8 161140899
114 1.989675 7.8 161140899
126 2.199115 7.9 163206807.9
138 2.408554 8.0 165272716.9
150 2.617994 8.0 165272716.9
162 2.827433 8.0 165272716.9
174 3.036872 8.0 165272716.9

3. The information produced was then projected into graph 1.1 to determine
the torque and the angle twist. Based on the experiment value of torque of
mild steel is lower than brass.
 Graph of Torque against Angle of Twist of Mild Steel
and Brass Specimens
10
9
8
7
Torque, T (Nm)

6
5
Mild Steel
4
Brass
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Angle of Twist (rad)

Graph 1.1 Torque against angle of twist (rad) of Brass and Mild Steel.
4. The information produced was then projected into graph 1.2 to determine
the shear stress at proportional limit and the modulus of rigidity. Based on
the experiment value of shear stress of brass is lower than mild steel. This
may concern of carbon contains in the specimens where carbon contains in
mild steel is higher than aluminum and brass. While the value modulus of
rigidity, G for brass is higher than aluminum. All of this consider based on
type of material contains in a specimen.

Graph of Shear Stress against Shear Strain of Mild Steel

and Brass Specimens
250

200
Shear Stress, τ (MPa)

150

Mild Steel
100
Brass

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Shear Strain, γ

Graph 1.2 Shear Stress against Shear Strain of Brass and Mild Stee1.
DISCUSSION

1) From graph 1.1the shear stress at proportional limit of brass is 196 MPa while
the actual value is 500 MPa with a percentage error of 60.8%. The shear
stress at proportional limit for mild steel obtained from the experiment is 234
MPa and the theoretical value is 700 Mpa with the percentage error of
66.57%. The different value of the shear stress at proportional limit of the
specimens due to analytical error.
2) The modulus of rigidity of mild steel in the experiment is 1290 MPa while the
actual value is 40000 MPa with a percentage error of 96.78%. The modulus of
rigidity of brass obtained from the experiment is19478MPa but the actual
value is 80000MPa with a percentage error of 75.65%.
3) The difference between the theoretical values and experimental values may
be due to some factors such as :
i) The specimens may have imperfection condition such as corrosion
ii) Calibration error of the instruments
iii) Parallax error when setting the dial gauge back to zero
 iv) Non consistent angular velocity on the torsion machine
4) For mild steel, 6 degree is already suitable to be used in elastic region but 30
degree is more suitable than 12 degree in the plastic region. For brass, 6
degree and 60 degree used in elastic and plastic region respectively are
suitable.
5) We can know the yield point has reached or not for brass and mild steel
when the torque meter shows a constant reading.
6) Several precaution steps need to take before carry out the experiment :
i. Check the specimens in a good condition in order to get accurate result.
ii. Calibrate the specimens before carry out the experiment.
iii. Make sure the eyes is perpendicular to the scalar reading and get the
average reading to get an accurate result.
iv. Use a good condition specimens that will produced a better result.

CONCLUSION
- The shear stress at proportional limit for brass and mild steel are 190.47 MPa
and 92.41MPa respectively from the experiment
- The modulus of rigidity for mild steel and brass are 18.54 MPa and 36.63 MPa
- From the experiment, mild steel is stiffer than brass
References:
- Engineering Lab Manual Textbook, USM for EML211/2.
- Materials Science and Engineering. Ninth Edition. W.D. Callister
- Donald R. Askeland, Pradeep P. Fulay, Wendelin J. Wright-The Science and
Engineering of Materials, Sixth Edition -CL-Engineering (2010)
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/strength_of_materials.