1350 Alternating Current

Chapter

24
Alternating Current
Alternating Quantities (i or V)  = Angular frequency in rad/sec,  = Frequency in Hz and T
= time period
(1) An alternating quantity (current i or voltage V) is one
(i) The time taken to complete one cycle of variations is called
whose magnitude changes continuously with time between zero
the periodic time or time period.
and a maximum value and whose direction reverses periodically.
(ii) Alternating quantity is positive for half the cycle and
(2) Some graphical representation for alternating quantities negative for the rest half. Hence average value of alternating
i or V i or V quantity (i or V) over a complete cycle is zero.
+ + (iii) The value of alternating quantity is zero or maximum 2
t t times every second. The direction also changes 2 times every
– – second.
(iv) Generally sinusoidal waveform is used as alternating
Sinusoidal Triangular
current/voltage.
T
i or V i or V (v) At t = from the beginning, i or V reaches to their
+ + 4
maximum value.
t t
– Important Values of Alternating Quantities
Rectangular ac super imposed on dc (1) Peak value (i0 or V0) : The maximum value of alternating
Fig. 24.1 quantity (i or V) is defined as peak value or amplitude.

(3) Equation for i and V : Alternating current or voltage (2) Mean square value ( V 2 or i 2 ) : The average of square
varying as sine function can be written as
of instantaneous values in one cycle is called mean square value. It
2 is always positive for one complete cycle. e.g.
i = i0 sint = i0 sin 2 t = i0sin t
T 1 T V02 i2
2
V2 =
T 
0
V 2 dt =
2
or i2 = 0
2
and V = V0 sin t = V0 sin 2t = V0 sin t
T (3) Root mean square (r.m.s.) value : Root of mean of
where i and V are V0 or i0
Positive square of voltage or current in an ac circuit for one complete cycle
i or V
Instantaneous values of + half cycle is called r.m.s. value. It is denoted by Vrms or irms
current and voltage,  2
T

 i dt
2
i0 and V0 are peak 0 t or 
T/4 i12 + i22 + ... i0
irms = = i2 = =
0
values of current and – = 0.707 i0 = 70.7% i0
T/2 T

 dt
Negative n 2
voltage half cycle 0
T
Fig. 24.2
 Alternating Current 1351
T /2


V0
Similarly Vrms = = 0 .707 V0 = 70 .7 % of V0 i dt
0 2i0
2 iav = = = 0 .637 i0 = 63 .7 % of i0,
T /2

 1 
0
dt
 sin ( t) =  cos ( t) = 2 
2 2

  2 V0
Similarly Vav = = 0 .637 V0 = 63 .7 % of V0.

(i) The r.m.s. value of alternating current is also called virtual
value or effective value. (5) Peak to peak value : It is equal to the sum of the
magnitudes of positive and negative peak values
(ii) In general when values of voltage or current for
alternating circuits are given, these are r.m.s. value.  Peak to peak value = V0 + V0 = 2V0

(iii) ac ammeter and voltmeter are always measure r.m.s.
value. Values printed on ac circuits are r.m.s. values.
(iv) In our houses ac is supplied at 220 V, which is the r.m.s.
value of voltage. It's peak value is 2  200 = 311 V .
(v) r.m.s. value of ac is equal to that value of dc, which when
passed through a resistance for a given time will produce the same
amount of heat as produced by the alternating current when
passed through the same resistance for same time.
(4) Mean or Average value (iav or Vav) : The average value of
alternating quantity for one complete cycle is zero.
The average value of ac over half cycle (t = 0 to T/2)
Table 24.1 : Some important values
= 2 2 Vrms = 2.828 Vrms
(6) Form factor and peak factor : The ratio of r.m.s. value of
ac to it's average during half cycle is defined as form factor. The
ratio of peak value and r.m.s. value is called peak factor
Phase
Physical quantity which represents both the instantaneous
value and direction of alternating quantity at any instant is called
it's phase. It's a dimensionless quantity and it's unit is radian.
If an alternating quantity is expressed as X = X 0 sin( t   0 )
then the argument of sin( t +  ) is called it's phase. Where  t =
instantaneous phase (changes with time) and 0 = initial phase
(constant w.r.t. time)

Nature of Wave form r.m.s. average Form factor Peak factor

wave form value value r.m.s. value Peak value
Rf = Rp =
Average value r.m.s. value

Sinusoidal i or V
+
 2 i0 2 
0 i0 = 1 . 11 2 = 1.41
2  2 2
–

Half wave
rectified
i0 i0 
= 1 . 57 2
2  2

Full wave
i or V
rectified
+ + i0 2i0 
2
2  2 2
 2

Square or
i or V
Rectangular
+
i0 i0 1 1

–
 1352 Alternating Current
(1) Phase difference (Phase constant) : The difference Capacitive reactance (XC) : Offered by capacitive circuit
between the phases of currents and voltage is called phase 1 1
XC = = for dc XC = .
difference. If alternating voltage and current are given by C 2C
V = V0 sin( t + 1 ) and i = i0 sin( t +  2 ) then phase difference  V0 Vrms
(3) Admittance (Y) : Z= = Reciprocal of
= 1 – 2 (relative to current) or  =  2 − 1 (relative to voltage) i0 irms
 1
(2) Time difference : If phase difference between alternating impedance is known as admittance  Y = . It’s unit is mho
 Z
current and voltage is  then time difference between them is
T (4) Susceptance (S) : the reciprocal of reactance is defined as
given as T.D. =   1
2 susceptance  S = . It is of two type
 X
(3) Phasor diagram : A diagram representing alternating
current and alternating voltage (of same frequency) as vectors 1 1
(i) inductive susceptance S L = = and
(phasors) with the phase angle between them is called a phasor X L 2 L
diagram. 1
(ii) Capacitive susceptance, S C = =  C = 2 C .
XC
While drawing phasor diagram for a pure element (e.g. R, L or
C) either of the current or voltage can be plotted along X-axis. Power in ac Circuits
But when phasor diagram for a combination of elements is In dc circuits power is given by P = Vi. But in ac circuits, since
drawn then quantity which remains constant for the combination there is some phase angle between voltage and current, therefore
must be plotted along X-axis so we observe that power is defined as the product of voltage and that component of
(i) In series circuits current has to be plotted along X-axis. the current which is in phase with the voltage.

(ii) In parallel circuits voltage has to be plotted along X-axis. Thus P = V i cos  ; where V and i are r.m.s. value of voltage
and current.
Measurement of Alternating Quantities
(1) Instantaneous power : Suppose in a circuit V = V0 sin  t
Alternating current shows heating effect only, hence meters
and i = i0 sin( t +  ) then Pinstantane ous = Vi = V0 i0 sin  t sin( t +  )
used for measuring ac are based on heating effect and are called
hot wire meters (Hot wire ammeter and hot wire voltmeter) (2) Average power (True power) : The average of
instantaneous power in an ac circuit over a full cycle is called
Table 24.2 : Measurement of ac and dc
average power. It's unit is watt i.e.
ac measurement dc measurement V0 i0 1 V2 R
Pav = Vrmsirms cos  = . cos  = V0 i0 cos  = irms
2
R = rms2
(1) All ac meters read r.m.s. (1) All dc meters read average 2 2 2 Z
value. value
(2) All ac meters are based on (2) All dc meters are based on
(3) Apparent or virtual power : The product of apparent
heating effect of current. magnetic effect of current voltage and apparent current in an electric circuit is called
V i
(3) Deflection in hot wire (3) Deflection in dc meters apparent power. This is always positive Papp = Vrms irms = 0 0
meters
2
 i
Power Factor
  irms
2

(1) It may be defined as cosine of the angle of lag or lead

(i.e. cos )
(2) It is also defined as the ratio of resistance and
(Linear scale) R
impedance (i.e. )
(non-linear scale) Z
True power W kW
(3) The ratio = = = cos 
Impedance, Reactance, Admittance and Susceptance Apparent power VA kVA

(1) Impedance (Z) : The opposition offered by ac circuits to Resistive Circuit (R-Circuit)
the flow of ac through it is defined it's impedance. It’s unit is (1) Current : i = i0 sin  t
R
ohm().
(2) Reactance (X) : The opposition offered by inductor or
V0 i
(2) Peak current : i0 =
capacitor or both to the flow of ac through it is defined as R
reactance. It is of following two type (3) Phase difference between
(i) Inductive reactance (XL) : Offered by inductive circuit voltage and current :  = 0o V = V0 sint
X L = L = 2L  dc = 0 so for dc, XL = 0. Fig. 24.3
(4) Power factor : cos  = 1
 Alternating Current 1353
V0 i0 or
(5) Power : P = Vrms irms =
2
(6) Time difference : T.D. = 0
(7) Phasor diagram : Both are in same phase Resistive, Inductive Circuit (RL-Circuit)
V i R L

VR = iR , VL V
Fig. 24.4
VR VL
i VL = iXL
Inductive Circuit (L-Circuit) 

L VR i
 
(1) Current : i = i0 sin   t −  V = V0 sin  t
 2
Fig. 24.9
i
(2) Peak current :
(1) Applied voltage : V = V R2 + V L2
V0 V V0
i0 = = 0 =
XL L 2 L (2) Impedance : Z = R 2 + X L2 = R 2 +  2 L2 = R 2 + 4 2 2 L2
V = V0 sin  t
(3) Phase difference between
Fig. 24.5
(3) Current : i = i0 sin ( t −  )

voltage and current  = 90 o (or + ) V0 V0 V0
2 (4) Peak current i0 = = =
Z R + 2
X L2 R + 4  2 2 L2
2

(4) Power factor : cos  = 0

XL L
(5) Power : P = 0 (5) Phase difference :  = tan −1 = tan −1
R R
T
(6) Time difference : T.D. = (6) Power factor : cos  =
R
4
R + X L2
2


(7) Phasor diagram : Voltage leads the current by (7) Leading quantity : Voltage
2
V V
Resistive, Capacitive Circuit (RC-Circuit)
90o
90o or
R C
i i VR
VR = iR,
 i
Fig. 24.6 VR VC VC = iXC
Capacitive Circuit (C-Circuit) i VC V

  C
(1) Current : i = i0 sin   t + 
 2 V = V0 sin  t
Fig. 24.10
(2) Peak current : i
(1) Applied voltage : V = V R2 + VC2
V0
i0 = = V0 C = V0 (2 C ) 2
XC  1 
V = V0 sin  t (2) Impedance : Z = R 2 + X C2 = R 2 +  
 C 
(3) Phase difference between Fig. 24.7
(3) Current : i = i0 sin ( t +  )

voltage and current :  = 90 (or − o
)
V0 V0 V0
2 (4) Peak current : i0 = = =
Z R + 2
X C2 R2 +
1
(4) Power factor : cos  = 0 4  C 2
2 2

(5) Power : P = 0 XC 1
(5) Phase difference :  = tan −1 = tan −1
R CR
T
(6) Time difference : TD = R
4 (6) Power factor : cos  =
R + X C2
2
(7) Phasor diagram : Current leads the voltage by /2
(7) Leading quantity : Current
i
i
90o

V 90o
V
Fig. 24.8
 1354 Alternating Current
Inductive, Capacitive Circuit (LC-Circuit)  XL = XC . This is the condition of resonance

L C (8) At resonance (series resonant circuit)

VL
(i) XL = XC  Zmin = R i.e. circuit behaves as resistive circuit
V= (VL – VC)
VL VC VL = iXL,
90o
(ii) VL = VC  V = VR i.e. whole applied voltage appeared
i
VC = iXC across the resistance
VC i
(iii) Phase difference :  = 0o  p.f. = cos  = 1
V = V0 sin  t 1
Fig. 24.11 (iv) Power consumption P = Vrms irms = V0 i0
2
(1) Applied voltage : V = VL − VC V0
(v) Current in the circuit is maximum and it is i0 =
(2) Impedance : Z = X L − X C = X R

 (vi) These circuit are used for voltage amplification and as


(3) Current : i = i0 sin   t   selector circuits in wireless telegraphy.
 2
(9) Resonant frequency (Natural frequency)
V0 V0 V0
(4) Peak current : i0 = = =
Z X L − XC 1 1 1 rad
 L− At resonance X L = X C   0 L =  0 =
C 0 C LC sec
(5) Phase difference :  = 90o 1
 0 = Hz (or cps)
(6) Power factor : cos  = 0 2 LC

(7) Leading quantity : Either voltage or current (Resonant frequency doesn't depend upon the resistance of
the circuit)
Series RLC-Circuit
(10) Half power frequencies and band width : The
R L C frequencies at which the power in the circuit is half of the
VL
V maximum power (The power at resonance), are called half power
(VL – VC)
VR VL VC frequencies.
i i
 (i) The current in the circuit at half power frequencies (HPF) is
VR i 1
V = V0 sint VC or 0.707 or 70.7% of maximum current (current at
Phasor diagram 2
VR = iR, VL = iXL, VC = iXC
resonance). Pmax
Fig. 24.12
Pmax
V0 P =
(1) Equation of current : i = i0 sin( t   ) ; where i0 = P 2
Z
(2) Equation of voltage : From phasor diagram
1 0 2 
V= VR2 + (VL − VC ) 2 Fig. 24.13
(ii) There are two half power frequencies
(3) Impedance of the circuit :
(a) 1 → called lower half power frequency. At this
2
 1  frequency the circuit is capacitive.
Z = R + (X L − X C ) = R +  L −
2 2
 2

 C 
(b)  2 → called upper half power frequency. It is greater
(4) Phase difference : From phasor diagram than  0 . At this frequency the circuit is inductive.
1 1
 L− 2 L − (iii) Band width () : The difference of half power frequencies
VL − VC X − XC C 2 C
tan  = = L = =  1 and  2 is called band width () and  = 2 − 1 . For series
VR R R R
R
(5) If net reactance is inductive : Circuit behaves as LR resonant circuit it can be proved  =  
L
circuit
(11) Quality factor (Q-factor) of series resonant circuit
(6) If net reactance is capacitive : Circuit behave as CR
circuit (i) The characteristic of a series resonant circuit is
determined by the quality factor (Q - factor) of the circuit.
(7) If net reactance is zero : Means X = X L − X C = 0
 Alternating Current 1355
(ii) It defines sharpness of i -  curve at resonance when Q - V
(iii) Z max = =R
factor is large, the sharpness of resonance curve is more and vice- iR
versa.
(iv)  = 0  p.f. = cos = 1 = maximum
(iii) Q - factor also defined as follows
1
Max. energy stored (v) Resonant frequency   =
Q - factor = 2  2 LC
Energy dissipatio n
(4) Parallel LC circuits : If inductor has resistance (R) and it
2 Max. energy stored Resonant frequency 
=  = = 0 is connected in parallel with capacitor as shown
T Mean power dissipated Band width 
(i) At resonance R L
V V  L 1
(iv) Q - factor = L or C = 0 or
VR VR R  0 CR C

1 L i
 Q - factor =
R C
V = V0 sint
i R=0 Fig. 24.17
Q - factor = Infinity 1 L
(a) Z max = =
Y min CR
R = Very low
Q- factor = Large V0 CR
R = low
(b) Current through the circuit is minimum and imin =
L
Q- factor = Normal
1 1
R = High (c) S L = S C  =  X =
Q- factor = Low XL XC
0 
1 R 2 rad
Resonance curve (d) Resonant frequency 0 = − 2 or
LC L sec
Fig. 24.14
Parallel RLC Circuits 1 1 R2 L
0 = − 2 Hz (Condition for parallel resonance is R  )
2 LC L C
V0
iR = = V0 G 1 1
R i iR iL iC (e) Quality factor of the circuit = . . In the
V = V0 sint

1 CR R2
V0 R L C −
iL = = V0 S L LC L2
XL
state of resonance the quality factor of the circuit is equivalent to
V0 the current amplification of the circuit.
iC = = V0 S C Fig. 24.15
XC
(ii) If inductance has no resistance : If R = 0 then circuit
(1) Current and phase difference : From phasor diagram becomes parallel LC circuit as shown
L i
current i = iR2 + (iC − iL ) 2 and phase iC iC
i
difference C
(iC − iL ) (S − S L ) 
 = tan −1 = tan −1 C  V
iR G iR
iR V iL
iL V = V0 sint

Fig. 24.16 Fig. 24.18

(2) Admittance (Y) of the circuit : From equation of current V V

Condition of resonance : iC = iL  =
2 2
XC XL
V0 V  V V 
=  0  +  0 − 0   X C = X L . At resonance current i in the circuit is zero and
Z  
R  L
X X C 
1
impedance is infinite. Resonant frequency :  0 = Hz
 1
2 2 LC
1 
2
1 1
 = Y =   +  −  = G 2 + (S L − S C ) 2

Z R  X L X C  Wattless Current
In an ac circuit R = 0  cos = 0 so Pav = 0 i.e. in resistance
(3) Resonance : At resonance (i) iC = iL  imin = iR
less circuit the power consumed is zero. Such a circuit is called the
V V wattless circuit and the current flowing is called the wattless
(ii) =  S C = S L  S = 0
XC XL current.
 1356 Alternating Current
or  If ac is produced by a generator having a large number of
The component of current which does not contribute to the poles then it's frequency
average power dissipation is called wattless current Number of poles  rotation per second P n
 = =
(i) The average of wattless component over one cycle is zero 2 2

(ii) Amplitude of wattless current = i0 sin Where P is the number of poles; n is the rotational
frequency of the coil.
i0
and r.m.s. value of wattless current = irms sin  = sin  .  Alternating current in electric wires, bulbs etc. flows 50
2
times in one direction and 50 times in the opposite direction in
V
i cos 1 second. Since in one cycle the current becomes zero twice,
hence a bulb lights up 100 times and is off 100 times in one
second (50 cycles) but due to persistence of vision, it appears

i lighted continuously.
 ac is more dangerous than dc.
i sin
 The rate of change of ac is minimum at that instant when
Fig. 24.19 they are near their peak values.
It is quadrature (90o) with voltage.  ac equipments such as electric motors, are more durable
Choke Coil and convenient compared to dc equipments.

Choke coil (or ballast) is a device having high inductance and  Skin Effect
negligible resistance. It is used to control current in ac circuits and A direct current flows uniformly throughout the cross-section
is used in fluorescent tubes. The power loss in a circuit containing of the conductor. An alternating current, on the other hand,
choke coil is least. flows
Iron core mainly along the surface of the conductor.
This effect is known as skin effect. the 
reason is that when alternating current
flows through a conductor, the flux changes Iac = 0
Starter
in the inner part of the conductor are
Coil of Cu wire Choke higher. Therefore the inductance of the
coil inner part is higher than that of the outer
L, R part. Higher the frequency of alternating
Application of choke coil
Choke coil current, more is the skin effect.
Fig. 24.20
The depth upto which ac current flows through a wire is
(1) It consist of a Cu coil wound over a soft iron laminated core. called skin depth ().
(2) Thick Cu wire is used to reduce the resistance (R) of the circuit.
(3) Soft iron is used to improve inductance (L) of the circuit.
(4) The inductive reactance or effective opposition of the
choke coil is given by XL =  L = 2 L
(5) For an ideal choke coil r = 0, no electric energy is wasted
i.e. average power P = 0. Alternating Current, Voltage and Power
(6) In actual practice choke coil is equivalent to a R – L circuit.
1. The power is transmitted from a power house on high
(7) Choke coil for different frequencies are made by using voltage ac because [CPMT 1984, 85]
different substances in their core. (a) Electric current travels faster at higher volts
For low frequency L should be large thus iron core choke coil (b) It is more economical due to less power wastage
is used. For high frequency ac circuit, L should be small, so air (c) It is difficult to generate power at low voltage
cored choke coil is used. (d) Chances of stealing transmission lines are minimized