Stabilized Stainless Steel TP 321, memiliki Melting Point 1398 C – 1446 C, dimana terdapat rumus untuk

memprediksi terjadinya Creep terhadap suatu material. ( ASM Fatigue and Fracture Understanding )

Dimana di dapat nilai 0.49 x Tm ( Suhu melting ) = 0.49 x 1398 = 685 C

Sedangkan untuk material Center Pipe Reaktor hanya mendapat suhu operating 544 C, jadi kerusakan
pada center pipe bukan merupakan akibat Creep.

Engineering creep is measured by applying a constant load on a tensile specimen at a constant

temperature and measuring the strain, or extension, of the specimen as a function of time. A schematic of
a test setup for a creep test is shown in Fig. 1. Creep tests may be run for as short as several months to as
long as up to 10 years. Because a creep test is usually conducted at a constant load rather than a constant
stress, as the specimen elongates and the cross-sectional area decreases, the applied stress increases
with time.
Creep-Life Prediction
A frequent problem encountered in alloy design is that it may be desirable
to use a new alloy in a high-temperature structure and the alloy is so
new that there is not sufficient data to substantiate its long-term creep resistance.
Therefore, it is necessary to extrapolate higher-temperature data
to much longer times at lower temperatures. The creep test is accelerated
by raising the temperature, and the time difference is accounted for by
using the activation energy, assuming that it is the same at all temperatures.
Data are required at a range of temperatures and stresses. To extrapolate
the data to the required times, a considerable amount of effort
has been expended in developing empirical prediction methods. One of
the most widely used is the Larson-Miller parameter, P:
PTtC
Q
R
= (ln + ) = (Eq 5)
where T is the absolute temperature, t is the time to rupture in hours, Q is
the activation energy for creep, R is the universal gas constant, and C is
the Larson-Miller constant, which typically has a value in the range of 30
of 65. A value of 46 is often used for metals when a specific value is not
determined.
Dasar Teori

Fatgue Failure

It has been recognized that a metal subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress will fail at a stress
much lower than that required to cause failure on a single application of load. Failures occurring under
conditions of dynamic loading are called fatigue failure.

Fatigue failure is characterized by three stages

 Crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration ( near stress raisers )

 Crack propagation
 Final fracture, rapid crack propagation after crack reaches critical size

The total number of cycles to failure is the sum of cycles at the first and the second stages :

Nf = Ni + Np

Nf = Number of cycles to failure

Ni = Number of cycles for crack initiation

Np = Number of cycles for crack propagation

High cycle fatigue ( low loads ) : Ni is relatively high. With increasing stress level, Ni decrease and Np
dominates.

Crack initiation : quality of surface and sites of stress concentration ( microcracks, scratches, interior
corner, dislocation steps, etc )

Crack propagation

Factor that affect fatigue life

 Magnitude of stress
 Quality of the surfaces
Solutions :
 Polish surface
 Introduce compressive stresses ( compensate for applied tensile stresses ) into surfaces
layer
 Case hardening : steel – create C or N rich outer layer by atomic diffusion from surfaces
Harder outer layer introduces compressive stresses
 Optimize geometry
Avoid internal corners, notches etc.
 Thermal fatigue, thermal cycling causes expansion and contraction, hence thermal stress
Solutions :
 Change design
 Use materials with low thermal expansion coefficient
  Corrosion fatigue. Chemical reactions induce pits which act as stress raisers. Corrosion also
enhances crack propagation.
Solution :
 Decrease corrosiveness of medium
 Add protective surface coating
 Add residual compressive stresses

S-N Curves

The result of fatigue tests usually are ploted as maximum stress, minimum stress, or stress amplitude to
number of cycles, N , to failure using a logarithmic scale for the number of cycles. Stress is plotted on
either a linear logarithmic scale. The resulting plot of datais an S-N Curve. Three typical S-N curve are
shown figure

The number of cycles of stress that a metal can endure before failure increses with decreasing stress.
For some enineeering materials such as steel and titanium, the S-N Curve becomes horizontal at a
certain limiting stress. Below this limiting stress, known as the fatigue limit or endurance limit, the
material can endure an infinite number of cycles without failures. ( ASM Handbook Vol 8, mechanical
testing and evaluation )

Typical S-N Curve for constant amplitude and sinusoidal loading

Dasar Teori

Creep

Time-dependent deformation due to constant load at high temperature ( > 0.4 Tm )

Example : Turbine blades, steam generators

Creep-rupture Test
Creep Stress and Temperature effects

With increasing stress or temperature

 The instantaneous strain increase

 The steady-state creep rate decrease
 The time to rupture decrease

𝛔8 > 𝛔7 > 𝛔6 > 𝛔5

T8 > T7 > T6 > T5
Creep : Stress and Temperature Effects
Stress/Temperature dependence of the steady-state creep rate can be described
Steady-state creep rate , the most importance cree parameters in term of theorytical
analysis the steady creep rate

Qc = activation energy for creep

K7 = constant
n = stress exponent for creep
Stages of Creep
 Primary Creep. During primary creep, the specimen undergoes an initial elongation (εo), and
then the creep rate (ε˙ = dε/dt) rapidly decreases with time. Primary creep, also known as transient creep,
represents a stage of adjustment in the metal during which rapid, thermally activated plastic strain occurs.
The competing processes of strain hardening and recovery eventually lead to a somewhat stable
dislocation configuration. Primary creep occurs in the first few moments after initial strain and decreases
in rate as crystallographic imperfections within the metal undergo realignment. This realignment leads to
secondary creep.

Secondary Creep. Following primary creep is the region of secondary creep, where the creep
rate is nominally constant at a minimum rate, generally known as the minimum creep rate, as shown in
Fig. 2. Secondary creep, also known as steady-state creep, occurs when there is a balance between the
competing processes of strain hardening and recovery. Secondary creep often occupies the major portion
of the duration of the creep test, and the strain rate in this region for many creep-resistant materials is
sufficiently constant to be considered as a steady-state creep rate. For these materials, the minimum creep
rate is a steady-state value that can be empirically related to rupture life and is widely used in engineering
analyses. During creep, significant microstructural changes occur on all levels. On the atomic scale,
dislocations are created and forced to move through the material. This leads to work hardening as the
dislocation density increases and the dislocations encounter barriers to their motion. At low
temperatures, an ever-diminishing creep rate results. However, if the temperature is sufficiently high,
dislocations can rearrange and annihilate themselves through recovery. During creep deformation, the
material also is progressively degraded or damaged as the amount of creep strain increases
over time.

Tertiary creep is a region of drastically increasing strain rate with rapid extension to fracture. Tertiary
creep is dominated by a number of weakening metallurgical instabilities, such as localized necking,
corrosion, intercrystalline fracture, microvoid formation, precipitation of brittle secondphase
particles, and dissolution of second phases that originally contributed to strengthening of the alloy. In
addition, recrystallization of the strainhardened grains can destroy the balance between the material
hardening and softening processes. As opposed to constant-load tests, constant-stress
tests do not often show tertiary behavior. During service or during creep testing, tertiary creep may be
accelerated by a reduction in cross-sectional area resulting from cracking or necking. Environmental
effects, such as oxidation, that reduce the cross section may also initiate tertiary creep or increase the
tertiary creep rate. In many commercial creep-resistant alloys, tertiary creep is apparently caused by
inherent deformation processes and occurs at creep strains of 0.5% or less. In designing components for
service at elevated temperatures, the steady-state creep rate is usually the significant design parameter.
However, the duration of tertiary creep is also important, because it constitutes a safety factor that may
allow detection of a failing component before catastrophic fracture.

Eo = instantaneous deformation, mainly elastic

Primary/transient creep
Secondary/ steady-state creep
Tertiary/time to rupture, rapidly accelerating strain rate up to failure : formation of internal cracks, voids,
grain boundary separation necking etc
MECHANISMS OF CREEP
Different mechanisms act in different material and under different loading conditions :
 Stress-assisted vacancy diffusion
 Grain boundary diffusion
 Grain boundary sliding
 Dislocation motion
Different mechanism -> different n, Qc
Ada gambarnya

Alloys for High Temperature

( Turbines in jet engines, hypersonic airplanes, nuclear reactors, etc )

Creep minimized in materials with

 High melting temperature
 High elastic modulus
 Large grain size
( inhibits grain boundary sliding )
Following materials are especially resilient to creep :
 Stainless steel
 Refractory metals ( containing elements of high melting point, like Nb, Mo, W, Ta )
 Superalloys ( Co, Ni based : solid solution hardening and secondary phases )