MATH 600, 2nd Examination: Rings and Modules

Solutions and Grading Key

Prof. Jonathan Rosenberg

Monday, November 25, 2013

1. (25 points) Let F be a field, x an indeterminate, and n ≥ 2. Show that the ring R = F [x]/(xn ) is a local
ring but that it has zero-divisors. What is the (unique) maximal ideal of R?
Solution. By the Fourth Isomorphism Theorem, maximal ideals of R correspond bijectively to maximal
ideals of F [x] containing (xn ). Since the element xn in the PID F [x] has (up to associates) only one prime
divisor, namely x, there is only one such maximal ideal, namely (x). So R is local with maximal ideal
xF [x]/(xn ). The image ẋ of x in R is a zero-divisor since x ∈ / (xn ) in F [x] (since n > 1) and thus ẋ 6= 0̇,
but xn ∈ (xn ) so that (ẋ)n = 0̇.
Alternative Solution. We claim R is local with maximal ideal (ẋ), ẋ the image of x ∈ F [x] in R. To prove
this, it suffices to show that anything not in this ideal is a unit in R. Now any element r of R is of the form
r = an−1 (ẋ)n−1 + · · · + a1 ẋ + a0 with aj ∈ F . Not lying in (ẋ) means that a0 6= 0. If this is the case, we
have 

−1 −1 n−1
r = a0 1 + a0 a1 ẋ + · · · + a0 an−1 (ẋ) = a0 (1 + t),

where
t = ẋ a−1 −1 n−2


0 a1 + · · · + a0 an−1 (ẋ)

and (using the usual power series for (1 + t)−1 )

 
r−1 = a−1 0 1 − t + t 2
− · · · + (−1)n−1 n−1
t ,

so r is a unit. The series terminates since (ẋ)n = 0̇ and thus tn = 0, which also shows that R has zero-
divisors.
√ √
2. (25 points) The ring R = Z[ −2] = Z+i 2Z ⊂√C turns out to be a Euclidean domain (and in particular
a PID) with [multiplicative] norm function ϕ(a + ib 2) = a2 + 2b2 . (You can assume this.)

(a) (10 points) Suppose p ∈ Z is a prime number with p ≡ 5 (mod 8). Show that p cannot be of the
form a2 + 2b2 , a, b ∈ Z (by looking at the squares in Z/8Z).

1
 Solution. In the ring Z/8Z with elements 0, 1, · · · , 7, the squares are 0, 1, and 4 (nothing else since
32 = 9 ≡ 1, 42 = 16 ≡ 0, 52 = 25 ≡ 1, 62 = 36 ≡ 4, 72 = 49 ≡ 1). So the elements of the form
a2 + 2b2 are 0, 1, 4 and 0 + 2 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, 4 + 2 = 6. Since 5 is not on this list, a number p that is
≡ 5 (mod 8) cannot be of the form a2 + 2b2 , a, b ∈ Z.

(b) (10 points) Under the same hypothesis as in (a), deduce that p remains irreducible in R.
√ √
Solution. Suppose p is a prime ≡ 5 (mod 8) and p = (a + ib 2)(c + id 2) with a, b, c, d ∈ Z and
neither factor a unit. Then p2 = ϕ(p) = (a2 + 2b2 )(c2 + 2d2 ). Since neither factor was a unit, we
must have a nontrivial factorization of p2 and thus a2 + 2b2 = c2 + 2d2 = p. This contradicts (a).

(c) (5 points) Show on the other hand that the prime number 3 is not irreducible in R.
√ √
Solution. 3 = (1 + i 2)(1 − i 2).

3. (20 points) Show that Q is not free as a Z-module. (Hint: Assume it has a basis and derive a contradiction.
You will want to show that any two non-zero elements are linearly dependent over Z.)
0
Solution. Let a = pq , b = pq0 be non-zero rational numbers, with p, q, p0 , q 0 nonzero integers. We can
pq 0 p0 q
rewrite these over a common denominator as a = qq 0 , b = qq 0 . Then qq 0 a = pq 0 , qq 0 b = p0 q, and
(p0 q 2 q 0 )a = pq 0 p0 q = (pq q)b, so we have a dependence relation (p0 q 2 q 0 )a − (pq 0 2 q)b = 0 with neither
02

coefficient = 0. This shows that any two non-zero elements of Q are linearly dependent over Z. So if Q is
free as a Z-module, it is free on one generator, and is a cyclic group. This is not true, since the multiples of
a single rational number all have bounded denominators. Thus Q is not free as a Z-module.

4. (30 points) Let T ∈ O(2), the group of 2 × 2 matrices T over R such that T −1 = T t (so the inverse
of T is itstranspose). Suppose
 that T has a non-real eigenvalue in C. Deduce that T is similar (over R)
cos θ sin θ
to Tθ = for some 0 < θ < π. If you can’t do this, find some other “canonical form”
− sin θ cos θ
(depending on a parameter θ) to which T is similar. (Hint: The eigenvalues of T and T −1 in C must be
the same [why?]. If there is a non-real eigenvalue, then its complex conjugate must also be an eigenvalue
[why?], so it must be of the form eiθ [why?]. Now deduce the structure of the two-dimensional R[x]-module
associated to T .)
Solution. The characteristic polynomial of T is x2 − (tr T )x + det T , and since T is real, so are tr T
and det T . Thus if there is a non-real root λ to this polynomial, λ̄ is also a root (since the equation is
invariant under complex conjugation). But T t has the same trace and determinant as T , so it has the same
characteristic polynomial. So the eigenvalues λ, λ̄ of T are also the eigenvalues of T −1 , though necessarily
in reverse order, since the eigenvalues of T −1 are also λ−1 and λ̄−1 , and λ = λ−1 would imply λ = ±1
real. Thus we have λ−1 = λ̄, which implies that |λ| = 1 and so λ = eiθ for some real θ. Exchanging λ and
λ̄ if necessary, we can assume λ is in the upper half-plane and 0 < λ < π.
From this we want to show that T is similar to Tθ . Choose an eigenvector v+iw for T in the complexification
of R2 , so that v, w ∈ R2 , and suppose the corresponding eigenvalue is eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ. Note that v and

2
w both have to be non-zero, since T has no eigenvectors in R2 . Then we have



T (v + iw) = (cos θ + i sin θ)(v + iw) = (cos θ)v − (sin θ)w + i (sin θ)v + (cos θ)w ,

and thus
T v = (cos θ)v − (sin θ)w, T w = (sin θ)v + (cos θ)w,
so with respect to the basis v, w, T has the matrix Tθ . Another canonical form (not as good, since it’s
not orthogonal the way T is) is the rational canonical form coming from the characteristic polynomial
x2 − 2(cos θ)x + 1, or  
0 −1
.
1 2 cos θ