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Designing Planar Magnetics Dixon
Designing Planar Magnetics Dixon
ABSTRACT
Planar magnetic devices offer several advantages over their conventional counterparts. This paper dis-
cusses the magnetic fields within the planar structure and their effects on the distribution of high fre-
quency currents in the windings. Strategies for optimizing planar design are presented, and illustrated
with design examples. Circuit topologies best suited for high frequency applications are discussed.
4-1
Inductance is simply an electrical circuit con-
cept which enables the circuit designer to predict
and quantify the effects of magnetically stored
energy in the electrical circuit.
Applying the basic principles of magnetic
field behavior (discussed in earlier seminars) to
planar magnetic structures enables us to optimize
the design and predict the magnitude of parasitic
circuit elements such as leakage inductance. The
magnetic field also is the dominant influence on
the distribution of high frequency AC current in Fig. 2. Cross-section of equipotentials and flux
the windings, thereby determining AC winding lines within a planar transformer (one-half of
losses. transformer shown).
A. Review of Magnetic Field Fundamentals DC and AC current distributions within the
Rules governing magnetic field behavior are windings usually differ significantly. At high fre-
summarized in Appendix I. quencies, the magnetic field arranges itself so as
Every magnetic field has two components: to minimize the rate of energy transfer between
Magnetic force, F, (magnetic potential), and the electrical circuit and the field. The field
magnetic flux, Ф. Magnetic force is directly pro- “pulls” the opposing currents to the conductor
portional to current (Ampere’s Law). In fact, in surfaces closest to each other, as shown in Fig. 2.,
the SI system of units, magnetic force, F, directly thereby minimizing the volume of the field
equals current – units of magnetic force are ex- (skin/proximity effect). Also, the currents spread
pressed in Amperes. Thus, 1 Ampere of current across the opposing conductor surfaces so as to
flowing in a conductor inevitably results in 1 minimize energy density.
Ampere of magnetic force. However, at low frequencies, the rate of en-
Magnetic force can be described as a series of ergy transfer between the circuit and the mag-
equipotential surfaces. The spacing of these sur- netic field is very small. The rate of energy trans-
faces defines a force gradient – a magnetic poten- fer into the conductor resistance is greater. There-
tial gradient. The magnitude of this gradient at fore, DC and low frequency currents distribute
any location is called field intensity, H. uniformly throughout the conductors so as to
Fig. 2. shows the leakage inductance in the minimize I2R loss.
left half of a planar transformer structure. (In or-
der to provide clarity of illustration, only three III. THE “TRUE” TRANSFORMER
primary turns are used, and spacing between pri- Transformers in switching power supplies are
mary and secondary is greatly exaggerated.) The used primarily in buck-derived topologies (for-
light dash lines show the edge view of the mag- ward converter, full bridge, half bridge, etc.) In a
netic force equipotentials between primary and transformer, energy storage is usually undesir-
secondary windings. The light solid lines repre- able, but unavoidable – appearing in the trans-
sent flux. The equipotential surfaces can be former equivalent circuit as parasitic leakage in-
thought of as elastic membranes which terminate ductance and magnetizing inductance. (Flyback
on current flow and are “anchored” on the oppos- transformers are misnamed – they are actually
ing currents which produce the field. coupled inductors. Energy storage is essential to
their function.)
In a “true” transformer (Fig. 2.), opposing
currents flow simultaneously in primary and sec-
ondary windings. The Ampere-turns in the sec-
ondary winding, resulting from load current, are
canceled by equal and opposite Ampere-turns
4-2
flowing in the primary. A small additional unop- ries leakage inductances, (LLP, LLS). Each time
posed magnetizing current also flows in the the power switch turns off, energy stored in the
windings. This magnetizing current provides the leakage inductance usually ends up dissipated in
small magnetic force necessary to push flux snubbers or clamps, thus degrading power supply
through the very low reluctance of the high per- efficiency.
meability magnetic core. The closed loops of this Fig. 4. shows the electrical equivalent circuit
magnetizing flux link the primary and secondary of the transformer, including the magnetizing in-
windings to each other, thus providing the cou- ductance and parasitic leakage inductance appor-
pling which is essential for transformer operation tioned to primary and secondary windings. The
(shown in Fig. 3.). Magnetizing flux and its asso- “ideal transformer” is used to account for the ac-
ciated magnetizing current change as a function tual turns ratio and primary-secondary isolation.
of Volt-seconds per turn applied to the windings Leakage inductances are usually so small com-
(Faraday's Law) independently of load current. pared to the magnetizing inductance value that
Magnetizing inductance appears in the trans- they can be combined, with negligible error, into
former equivalent electrical circuit as a shunt a single leakage inductance value in an equiva-
element. lent “L” network. Magnetizing inductance can be
Much of the energy stored in the magnetizing assigned to either the primary or secondary side.
inductance goes into hysteresis loss, the rest is LLP LLS
usually dissipated in snubbers or clamps. If the
core were ideal – with infinite permeability – the
magnetizing inductance value would be infinite,
and thus have no effect on circuit performance. Ideal
Primary LM Secondary
XFMR
4-4
As shown in Fig. 6a., when the primary
IV. INDUCTORS AND FLYBACK power switch turns off, the 3 A-t primary current
TRANSFORMERS transfers to the secondary which then has 3 A in
In a true transformer, inductance is undesir- its single turn. (The transitions are not instanta-
able. In an inductor or flyback “transformer” neous because of leakage inductance.) The pri-
(which is really an inductor with multiple wind- mary and secondary Ampere-turns combine se-
ings), inductive energy storage is not only desir- quentially to produce a continuous 3 Ampere
able, it is essential. However, very little energy field within the centerleg gap – the gap field –
can be stored within the high permeability mag- which is mostly DC. The inductance value is
netic core material, and most of the energy that is large, so the ripple component of the combined
stored in the core is unrecoverable, ending up as Ampere-turns is small. In the same proportion,
core loss or dissipated in snubbers or clamps. In the AC field component is small compared to the
order to efficiently store the energy required in an DC component, so that flux density in the core is
inductor or flyback transformer, a non-magnetic more likely limited by saturation rather than by
“gap” (often an air gap) is placed in series with core loss.
the flux path within the core, usually in the core
centerleg.
In a flyback transformer, primary and secon- I'S ext
I'P ext
dary currents occur sequentially, not simultane-
ously as in a true transformer. Therefore they do
not cancel. Current in the flyback transformer A-t
windings is entirely magnetizing current, with the
associated magnetic force appearing almost en-
tirely across the high reluctance non-magnetic
[a]
gap where the energy is stored. However, in a
manner similar to a true transformer, parasitic
leakage inductance between primary and secon- IPgap, ISgap
dary windings does impede current transfer be- A-t
tween primary and secondary when the power
switch turns on and off.
The field storing the desired energy (in the
gap) is created by the combined Ampere-turns of [b]
the windings. The undesired leakage inductance
field is created by the differential Ampere-turns
between primary and secondary windings. Thus, IP - IS differential
in order to define the magnetic field configura-
tions and the resulting current distributions A-t
within the windings, it is necessary to define the
current components.
The first example is a flyback transformer Fig. 6. Continuous mode flyback waveforms.
operating in the continuous inductor current The current flow and magnetic field distribu-
mode (the combined currents in the windings tions can be difficult to explain and to under-
never dwell at zero). As shown in Fig. 6., the stand. The field expands to fill the entire winding
current in the 3-turn primary is 1 A, with a duty region in order to provide flux continuity across
cycle, D, of 0.33. this region. Although the current alternates from
4-5
one winding to the other, the resulting field is For example, at the time when 1 A is being
relatively constant in the gap and all regions out- applied to the 3-turn primary winding (3 A-t),
side the gap, except in the region between the half of this, 1.5 A-t, is contributed directly from
windings. Here, there is a field component which the primary to the gap field. The remaining pri-
changes direction as current alternates between mary 1.5 A-t initiates one side of the leakage in-
primary and secondary. The energy associated ductance field between the primary and secon-
with this changing field is leakage inductance dary. The other side of the leakage field must be
energy. Its reversal requires energy which im- terminated by minus 1.5 A-t in the secondary
pedes current transfer, just as in the true trans- winding. That minus 1.5 A-t balances out the plus
former discussed previously. 1.5 A-t that the secondary is providing continu-
ously to the gap field, even though at that mo-
ment, the external secondary current is zero.
Later in the switching period, when the exter-
• • • nal secondary current is 3 A and external primary
current is zero, the secondary provides plus 1.5
A-t directly to the gap field, and plus 1.5 A-t to
• • • the leakage inductance field. The primary then
has minus 1.5 A-t to terminate the leakage induc-
tance field which balances its continuous plus 1.5
Fig. 7. Flyback transformer with DC field pattern A-t contribution to the gap field.
through gap (one-half shown). Thus, although the currents applied to the
windings are sequential, each winding contrib-
In order to better understand and to quantify utes continuously its half share of the total mag-
the current flow patterns within the windings and netic force within the gap. These currents driving
the resulting magnetic field distributions, it is the gap field are essentially DC, and distribute
helpful, using superposition, to break the field themselves accordingly within the windings so as
down into several components. to minimize I2R losses.
Remember that every magnetic force equipo- The leakage inductance field (Fig. 6c.) alter-
tential must be terminated by equal and opposite nates its direction between the windings. This
Ampere-turns. The gap field is terminated all leakage inductance field and the currents driving
around its periphery by the currents in the wind- it have a very large AC component, but – as with
ings flowing around the outside of the gap. The the “true” transformer – the leakage inductance
leakage field between the primary and secondary field pulls these opposing AC currents to the
windings requires equal and opposite A-t flowing broad surfaces of the conductors, thereby mini-
simultaneously in these two windings. However, mizing AC losses.
currents are applied sequentially in primary and But the AC component of the gap field pulls
secondary windings, so that the external current the AC component of the combined Ampere-
applied to one or the other of these two windings turns to the narrow edges of the conductors fac-
is always zero. How, then, can the leakage field ing the gap. The result is extremely high AC re-
between the windings be terminated properly? sistance, but because the AC component is small
Because of the symmetry of the windings in the continuous mode, the AC losses may be
with respect to the gap, the primary and secon- acceptable.
dary windings each provide approximately one- Thus, there are several current components
half of the combined Ampere-turns driving the within each winding which are separate and dis-
gap field. As shown in Fig. 6b. and Fig. 7., each tinct, distributed differently and are never zero,
winding supplies half of the combined A-t con- even though they cancel during the times when
tinuously, regardless of duty cycle – even when external currents are zero.
no current is flowing externally in that winding.
4-6
LL As with continuous mode operation, the com-
bined sequential primary and secondary Ampere-
Ideal
turns create the magnetic field in the gap. But
unlike the continuous mode, there is a very large
Primary LGP LGS Secondary AC component of the gap field (Fig. 9b.), and of
the flux within the gap and the core. Because of
the large AC component, flux density is almost
certainly limited by core loss.
Fig. 8. Flyback transformer equivalent circuit.
4-7
As shown in Fig. 9b, the primary and secon- This problem can be avoided by relocating
dary each provide one-half the combined mag- the gap to a position where the magnetic force
netic force, simultaneously, and not sequentially. equipotentials pull the current to the broad sur-
Also, both windings provide the currents to prop- faces of the conductors, rather than to the narrow
erly terminate the leakage inductance field (Fig. edges. Locating a gap in any of the outside sur-
9c.), as with continuous mode operation. The cur- faces of the core will not work, because to create
rents terminating the leakage field are pulled to a field within the gap would then require oppos-
the broad conductor surfaces, minimizing wind- ing conductors outside of the gap, i.e., outside of
ing losses due to the leakage inductance field. the entire core. Where, then, can the gap be
The important difference with continuous placed?
mode operation is that discontinuous operation
results in a very large AC component in the gap B. A Better Gap Location
field. A solution to this problem is to make the
height of the winding window somewhat greater
A. Current is Pulled Toward the Gap than required to contain the winding, as shown in
In a conventional core with helical, cylindri- Fig. 11. The winding should be placed at one ex-
cal windings, the best place to locate the required tremity of the available window height, and the
gap is in the core centerleg. However, in a planar gap placed at the opposite extremity. The field
core, a centerleg gap results in the magnetic force must distribute itself rather uniformly throughout
equipotentials (which pass through the gap from the empty portion of the window, in order to
one side of the winding to the other) “pulling” the minimize stored energy, and to provide the nec-
high frequency AC current toward the narrow essary continuity of the flux lines through this
edges of the conductors facing the gap, as shown region (flux lines can never terminate). Thus, the
in Fig. 10. (Compare this with the DC current and force equipotentials advantageously “pull” the
field distributions in Fig. 7.) This “edge effect” current to the broad conductor surfaces, rather
results in very high AC winding resistance. DC than to the narrow edges.
current components will distribute themselves
according to conductor resistances, because the
magnetic field does not influence DC current dis-
tributions.
4-8
The conductor furthest from the gap (the sec- The core shape shown in Fig. 13. – a modi-
ondary in Fig. 11) can be much thicker than the fied E-E or E-I core shape – is easier for the core
skin depth, reducing DC loss and assisting heat manufacturer to fabricate, but the elongated rec-
removal. But although the high frequency AC tangular centerleg results in increased winding
currents spread across the broad surfaces of the length. However, greater winding breadth is an
conductors rather than the edges – a definite ad- important advantage. Since much of the winding
vantage – the gap field passes through all other is exposed, stray field and EMI are greater.
windings closer to the gap. This requires these
closer windings to be restricted in thickness to
approximately the skin depth, to avoid large AC
losses. Interleaving the windings has the same
advantage as in the “true” transformer (see Fig.
16.) in reducing leakage inductance, but because
of the direction of the gap field, through the
windings, all of the interleaved windings must be
thin except the winding furthest from the gap. bW
4-9
winding. Thus, the flux lines link the leakage in- Flux lines reveal how the energy of the mag-
ductance energy to all the turns of either the up- netic field is coupled to the windings. The flux
per or the lower winding, but none of these flux pattern of Fig. 15 shows that more energy is cou-
lines link the upper and lower windings to each pled to the outer turns than to the inner turns.
other. This is consistent with the fact that the outer turns
are longer, thus encompassing more of the con-
stant energy density leakage inductance field,
therefore contributing more to the leakage induc-
tance value.
Regardless of the manner in which the energy
is coupled, all of the inter-winding energy is cou-
pled to the windings on either side, and all of this
inter-winding energy shows up in the electrical
equivalent circuit as energy stored in the leakage
inductance.
Fig. 14. Leakage field, straight winding portion. To summarize: Regardless of the curvature of
the windings and the configuration of the flux
Fig. 15. shows a similar cross-section of an lines, all of the energy in the leakage inductance
inter-winding region where the turns are curved, field is coupled to either the upper or the lower
such as when encircling a round centerleg. (The windings, as shown in Fig. 14. and Fig. 15.
curvature cannot be seen because it is in a plane Regardless of curvature, if the windings are
normal to the view plane.) The flux lines shown equally spaced, energy density is uniform in the
represent the flux in an arc segment – like look- inter-winding region, and can be calculated from
ing at the edge view of a piece of pie. the Ampere-turns distributed across the winding
breadth. Total leakage inductance energy can
then be calculated from energy density multiplied
by total inter-winding volume.
4-10
X. CALCULATING AND MINIMIZING XI. WINDING CONSIDERATIONS
LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE The windings can easily be the greatest de-
Applying the few simple rules of magnetic sign challenge in a high frequency planar trans-
field behavior, the configuration and magnitude former. Reference [2] should be consulted to ob-
of the leakage inductance field between windings tain the necessary understanding for design of the
is easily calculated. windings.
According to Ampere’s Law, the total mag- High-frequency current is restricted to the
netic force across the inter-winding region (the conductor surface, to a depth referred to as skin
leakage inductance field) is equal to the load- depth or penetration depth. Skin depth in Oxygen
related Ampere-turns flowing in the windings. If Free High Conductivity (OFHC) copper at 100ºC
the windings are spaced uniformly across the is 0.1 mm at 600 kHz, and varies inversely with
winding breadth, the field intensity, H, indicated the square root of the frequency. With single-
by the spacing between equipotential surfaces, is layer windings, current flows only on the surface
constant throughout the inter-winding region. directly facing the opposing winding – current
Field intensity, H, equals F divided by winding does not flow on the outer surface. To carry the
breadth, bW. Hence, required current, the conductor must be as wide
as possible because of the limited skin depth. The
F NI
H= = (1) available winding breadth, bW, is extremely im-
bW bW portant.
The permeability in this "nonmagnetic" re- The design should strive for the minimum
gion between the windings is constant (μ0 = number of turns in the windings. Since the num-
4π·10-7), hence the flux density, B, is also con- ber of turns must be an integral number, for low
stant (B = μH). voltage outputs it is often necessary to settle for a
In any region where permeability is constant, single whole secondary turn, even though the
energy density equals ½BH. Thus, the energy calculated ideal would be a fraction of a turn.
density, E/v, throughout the leakage inductance Current in the windings always has an AC
field between windings is fairly constant. component, sometimes a DC component as well.
If a single layer can not carry the desired AC cur-
2
rent because of limited skin depth, making the
E = 1 BH = 1 μ H 2 = 1 μ ⎛⎜ NI ⎞⎟
v 2 2
0 0
2 ⎝ bW ⎠
conductor thicker won’t reduce the AC resistance
Joules/m3 but will reduce DC resistance. Multiple thin lay-
(2) ers in parallel won’t reduce AC resistance – only
Total energy, E, can then be calculated by the layer closest to the opposing winding will
multiplying energy density times the total volume carry all of the AC component.
of the inter-winding region. If a winding consists of multiple layers in se-
The leakage inductance value, seen from the ries, the thickness of each layer must be consid-
perspective of any winding, can then be calcu- erably less than the skin depth. Otherwise, each
lated: layer will have high currents flowing in opposite
directions on the two surfaces of each conductor,
1 2 and AC losses skyrocket. Thus, multiple series
E= LI ; ∴ LL = 2 E I 2 (3)
2 layers cannot be made thicker to improve DC re-
sistance without causing astronomical AC resis-
where I is the current in the referenced wind-
tance. Reference [2] explains this phenomenon.
ing. Leakage inductance is minimized by increas-
ing winding breadth bW, minimizing the number
of turns, spacing windings as close as possible,
reducing the length of turns (a round centerleg is
best) and by interleaving the windings.
4-11
Interleaving can be carried to a much greater
A. Interleaving degree in planar devices than with conventional
Ideally, all windings should have a single cores, with resulting benefits. This is because the
layer. A wide winding breadth is essential, as it planar winding structure provides much easier
provides a wide surface area to minimize AC re- access to the windings, simplifying interconnec-
sistance. A single layer can be made much tion between layers.
thicker than the skin depth, without adverse ef- Planar windings can be interconnected in a
fect. This does not further reduce AC resistance, variety of ways to provide great flexibility. For
but it does provide lower DC resistance and bet- example, in the winding structure of Fig. 16.,
ter heat transfer from the interior of the trans- there are six primary and six secondary layers –
former. A wide winding breadth also reduces each layer one turn of copper strip or foil, with
leakage inductance by reducing both field inten- one layer in each section. The primary layers
sity (force gradient) and flux density, resulting in (single turns) can be connected in various series-
a great reduction of energy in the leakage induc- parallel combination to provide 1, 2, 3, or 6 turns.
tance field. The six secondary layers can be connected in the
A planar core actually provides less winding same manner, making possible a wide range of
breadth than a comparable conventional core. turns ratios. Whenever two adjacent primary or
However, the windings can be interleaved. Inter- secondary layers are paralleled, they could be
leaving effectively multiplies the winding replaced by a single turn of twice the thickness.
breadth. Conceptually, a single-layer winding (The section boundary will then be through the
several times wider than the core winding breadth center of this single turn.) If all six primary lay-
is folded accordion-wise to fit within the avail- ers/turns are connected in series, then there must
able core window. For example, Fig. 16. shows a be insulation between the adjacent turns.
winding with a single primary layer and single In another possible variation, individual lay-
secondary layer folded into six winding sec- ers in the interleaved structure could have several
tions[2]. Although there are many layers in the turns spiraling out from the center consisting of
entire structure, each section contains only a sin- plated traces on printed wiring boards. If the pri-
gle primary and a single secondary layer. The mary layers in Fig. 16. each consisted of 5 turns,
magnetic field is zero at each section boundary, connecting the six layers in series will result in
so that the field does not build from one section 30 primary turns. If the 6 secondary single-turn
to another. Each layer can then be as thick as de- layers are then connected in parallel, a 30:1 turns
sired to reduce DC resistance and improve heat ratio is achieved.
transfer. The interleaved winding of Fig. 16. is Referring again to Fig. 16., the leakage induc-
functionally equivalent to having a single wind- tance field between the windings alternates direc-
ing section 6 times wider than the winding tion in adjacent winding sections. Thus, the leak-
breadth available in the core. age flux in Section 1 joins with the flux in Sec-
tion 2 to form the required complete loops. These
flux loops link the leakage inductance energy of
Sections 1 and 2 to those windings of Sections 1
and 2 that are enclosed by the flux loops. Like-
wise, the flux in sections 3 and 4 join together to
form complete loops, as does the flux in Sections
5 and 6.
4-12
Thus, in a winding structure with an even The following factors influence inter-winding
number of sections, flux loops are completed capacitance:
within adjacent sections. Flux does not extend • Dielectric Constant – Use insulating mate-
significantly beyond the extremes of the winding rial with low dielectric constant. Mylar: 3.1,
structure. But with a single winding section (or to Teflon: 2.1. Both are available in 1 mil
a lesser degree, with an odd number of winding (0.025mm) film thickness. The author has no
sections), the flux loops associated with the leak- direct knowledge of the insulating qualities of
age inductance field between the windings must Teflon film. Dielectric Constant has no effect
complete their loops outside of the windings, on leakage inductance or AC winding resis-
usually to the external portions of the core. But tance.
the external paths are long, especially when the • Insulation thickness – Thicker insulation
windings extend outside the core. Considerable reduces capacitance, but proportionately in-
energy then escapes, creating radiated EMI. creases leakage inductance. Insulation thick-
The structure of Fig. 16. could have two pri- ness has no effect on AC resistance
mary layers on the outside rather than two secon- • Number of turns – With single layer wind-
dary layers, as shown. But putting the low volt- ings, minimizing turns (by operating the core
age secondary layers on the outside reduces radi- at max. flux density) reduces the total wind-
ated EMI. ing area, hence reduces capacitance. Mini-
mizing turns also minimizes leakage induc-
B. Inter-Winding Capacitance tance and AC resistance.
Interleaving does have one significant ad- • Winding breadth – Increased winding
verse effect – increasing the surface area of the breadth, either directly or by interleaving, in-
windings proportionately increases interwinding creases capacitance but decreases leakage in-
capacitance. This has serious implications in off- ductance and AC resistance of windings.
line applications, by coupling ever-present AC
• Faraday shields, properly employed, reduce
power line noise through to the power supply
inter-winding capacitance problems[3] , but
output. Inter-winding capacitance also injects
this adds considerable complexity to the in-
conducted EMI back onto the power lines by
terleaved winding structure, and the increase
providing a path for switching transients to
of inter-winding volume will cause a propor-
ground [3]. These problems are less significant in
tionate increase in leakage inductance.
applications operating from a low voltage distri-
bution bus which is inherently quieter, and the C. Other Concerns
lower voltages being switched generate less con- Smaller winding breadth makes it difficult to
ducted EMI. achieve the creepage and clearance distances
Planar transformers have the reputation of mandated for safety in off-line applications (Ref-
having greater inter-winding capacitance than erence 4). With small cores in low power applica-
conventional transformers. This is only because tions, creepage and clearance distances may take
interleaving is usually carried to a much greater up the entire available winding breadth, leaving
degree in planar structures than with conven- no room for the winding. One solution to this
tional transformers. If both transformer types problem is to use a pre-impregnated sheet bonded
were designed with similar core sizes, and with to the PWB substrate. This eliminates creepage
winding breadth/interleaving giving the same AC and clearance between primary and secondary. (a
resistances and leakage inductances, the inter- pre-impregnated sheet consists of a mat of rein-
winding capacitances would be quite similar. forcement fibres impregnated with thermoplastic
resin, usually partially polymerized to B-stage.)
4-13
The low leakage inductance achievable in a than a calculation based on the fundamental
well-designed planar transformer can be totally alone. Thus, most of the error is erased.
negated by the inductance of circuit wiring induc- The waveform must be separated into its DC
tance external to the transformer. This is espe- and combined AC components, because the DC
cially important with low-voltage outputs. The resistance can be much lower than the AC resis-
external circuit paths for high frequency currents tance at the fundamental frequency. (For a for-
must be laid out with extreme care, with the ward converter waveform at 50% duty cycle, the
shortest possible paths, wide conductors, and DC component is 0.5 times the peak, and the
minimal loop areas. An open circuit wiring loop combined AC component is also 0.5 times the
stores energy within the loop which corresponds peak current.)
to inductance. Close this loop area by superim- This short-cut method may underestimate
posing conductors as tightly as possible to mini- winding losses by 5-10%, but it’s easier to throw
mize wiring inductance. in a “fudge factor” than to use the rigorous
method of loss calculation. Bear in mind that the
D. High Frequency AC Current error is very small compared with the perhaps
In switching power supply applications, 50% or more uncertainty of the thermal resis-
transformer current waveforms are rich in har- tance when calculating temperature rise.
monic content. While these harmonics (including Many of the above points will be illustrated
the high-order harmonics associated with the fast in the design examples which follow.
edges) might be of concern regarding EMI, they
seldom contribute significantly to winding losses. XII. PRINTED WIRING BOARD COPPER
To be absolutely accurate when calculating PLATING
winding losses, it is necessary to calculate the Make sure the plating vendor uses a process
amplitude of each harmonic, square it, and multi- which produces high conductivity – equivalent to
ply be the AC resistance calculated for each har- OFHC copper. Table I shows the resistance of
monic frequency, then add the losses calculated various thicknesses of copper, expressed in
for the fundamental and each harmonic. This is a milliOhms per square. Sheet copper of various
tedious process, although it can be facilitated thicknesses can be scaled from the values given
through computer software. in the table.
With very narrow pulse widths, the funda- Amps/mm Trace Width in Table I is a start-
mental amplitude is small, and the loss contribu- ing point for estimating current handling capabil-
tion due to harmonics is significant. But this is ity. Skin depth frequency is the frequency at
usually not the worst case. The worst case for AC which the conductor thickness equals the skin
losses is generally near 50% duty cycle, where depth.
the fundamental is maximum, but the harmonics
are little changed from their values at narrow TABLE I. PWB TRACE RESISTANCE
pulse widths. Copper mΩ mΩ A/mm Skin
At 50% duty cycle, the 3rd harmonic contribu- Weight Thickness per per Trace Depth
tion to AC loss is approximately 15% of the fun- (Oz.) (mils/mm) Sq. Sq. Width Freq.
(25ºC) (100ºC) (kHz)
damental contribution. The higher order harmon-
ics are much less significant – their rms currents 1 1.4 / 0.035 0.5 0.6 0.25 5700
squared fall off much more rapidly than the AC 2 2.8 / 0.07 0.25 0.3 0.5 1300
resistance rises. The total error of ignoring the 3 4.2 / 0.1 0.16 0.2 0.75 625
harmonic contribution might be 20% vs. using
4 5.6 / 0.14 0.12 0.14 1.0 320
the fundamental alone. But if the total rms AC
current of the square wave (including the funda-
mental and harmonics) is squared and multiplied
by the AC resistance at the fundamental fre-
quency, the calculated loss is significantly greater
4-14
Ohms per square is a convenient way of cal- When the transformer design for buck-
culating resistance of PWB traces, or of any con- derived topologies results in the core being un-
ductor in sheet form. For example, if a trace is 15 derutilized, with flux swing only a fraction of
mm wide and 75 mm long, it has a length of what it could be, an option worth considering is
75/15 = 5 squares. If the copper thickness is to operate the same exact design at a lower fre-
0.1 mm, with a resistance of 0.16 mΩ per square, quency. This will increase flux swing, but reduce
the trace resistance is 5×0.16 = 80 mΩ. Dimen- switching losses, reduce AC winding losses, and
sional units are irrelevant, as long as the same reduce circuit losses due to leakage inductance
units are used for length and width.[5] and magnetizing inductance. If the output filter
By remembering that 0.1 mm copper (3 oz) capacitor is electrolytic, with impedance dictated
has 0.16 mΩ per square, this value can be scaled by ESR, it will be no larger at the lower fre-
for any copper thickness. quency. In buck-derived topologies, the filter in-
Minimum 15 mil (0.4 mm) trace width and 15 ductor becomes larger, but in flyback circuits
mil (0.4 mm) spacing are practical values for there appear to be only advantages with operation
thick electroplated traces. at a lower frequency where the larger flux swings
associated with the integral number of turns ap-
XIII. DESIGN STRATEGY proach the limits imposed by core loss or satura-
When a magnetic core is underutilized, it will tion.
be larger and more costly than it should be for the Also, a different set of problems become
intended application. A core is fully utilized dominant with high frequency operation – espe-
when it is designed to operate in its application at cially with low output voltages – casting a differ-
maximum flux density, and with the windings ent light on topological preferences. Optimum
operating at maximum current density (not nec- flux density becomes difficult to achieve, and
essarily at the same point of operation). A good skin effect imposes severe limitations on wind-
strategy for achieving this full utilization goal is ings.
to begin by calculating – using Faraday’s Law –
the minimum number of turns in the winding that XIV. DESIGN EXAMPLES
will result in operating the core at maximum flux Rather than showing the design process for a
density (limited by either core loss or saturation). transformer intended for a specific application, a
Unfortunately, the trends toward high fre- planar ER25 core is selected as a demonstration
quency operation and lower power supply output vehicle. The capabilities and limitations of this
voltages makes this goal impossible to achieve in core will be shown in transformer designs operat-
most applications, especially at higher power lev- ing at 500 kHz transformer frequency. Through
els. This is because, as a practical matter, wind- these demonstrations, the design approach be-
ings must have an integral number of turns, and comes apparent.
because, due to skin effect limitations, it is diffi- The ER25 Core, shown in shown in Fig. 17.
cult to obtain sufficient conductor surface area to is an industry standard core set available from
carry the required high frequency currents (other several manufacturers, in a variety of ferrite core
than by interleaving). Very often, the core mag- materials. Its external size is 25×15×8 mm
netic cross-section area and winding breadth are (1.0 ×0.6×0.32 in).
mismatched for the intended application – the
core area is greater than necessary for a single
turn low voltage secondary, yet the winding
breadth of that core is too narrow to provide the
copper surface necessary to carry the high fre-
quency current, and either a larger core or inter-
leaved windings are required.
4-15
loss limit is 150 mW/cm3 (equivalent to
150 kW/m3). For the ER25 core, with a core vol-
ume of 2 cm3, total core loss at that limit is 0.3
W.
The flux density values given on the core loss
curves are peak sinusoidal values. Double these
peak values to obtain the corresponding peak-to-
peak value, ∆B. If the flux density units are given
in Gauss, multiply by 10–4 to convert to Tesla
(calculations use SI units).
4-17
Following the guidelines of Table I, the 5 mm Not only is the loss reduced, but – this is im-
wide 4oz. copper trace should be able to carry portant – the additional copper helps remove heat
5 Arms, corresponding to IO = 7 A. AC and DC from the interior of the transformer. Load current
current components are each 3.5A. can be raised to possibly 10 A, depending on the
DC loss is 3.52 x 1.2 mΩ = 14 mW external thermal environment.
The winding window is still greatly underuti-
Since the thickness is very near the skin lized – 1.1 mm is used out of the available
depth, AC loss is approximately the same: 3.3 mm.
14 mW.
The primary has exactly the same structure as E. Interleaving Has Great Benefit
the secondary, except instead of one turn, there Interleaving involves duplicating the above
are 6 turns spiraling out from the center across single layer structure, arranging the layers either
the 5 mm available for the winding. Spacing be- P-S-S-P, or better, S-P-P-S. This structure divides
tween turns is 0.4 mm. The primary traces have the winding into two winding sections, each sec-
the same thickness as the secondary, Ampere- tion with one layer primary and one layer secon-
turns are the same, current density and skin depth dary (each layer has two paralleled traces). Ex-
are the same as in the secondary trace. Thus, AC ternally, all primary layers are paralleled, and all
and DC losses in the primary are equal to the secondary layers are paralleled. AC resistance is
secondary losses. Total winding loss, AC and halved to 0.6 mΩ, DC resistance is 0.3 mΩ. With
DC, primary and secondary, is approximately 7 A load for each section, 14 A total output cur-
56 mW rent, total winding loss is doubled to 84 mW. If
The above structure, limited by single layer the load current is raised to 20 A, winding loss
windings with thickness limited to skin depth, doubles again to 168 mW,
greatly underutilizes available winding space. Total winding height (thickness) is now
Two 4-oz copper traces (0.14 mm each) on a 2.1 mm out of 3.3 mm available.
5 mil (0.125 mm) PWB plus 2 layers of 1mil my-
lar top and bottom sum to a total thickness of An additional important benefit of this first level
0.5 mm out of the available 3.3 mm winding of interleaving is that leakage inductance is
window height. halved, (although inter-winding capacitance is
doubled).
D. Double the Windings
Because the windings are single layer, it is
F. Copper Strip Secondary
possible to make them thicker without adverse With the secondary layers on top and bottom
effect. AC resistance, limited by skin depth, re- of the winding structure, further great improve-
mains unchanged but DC resistance is reduced. ment can be achieved by making them thicker,
When multiple traces are connected in parallel, utilizing the additional space available in the
their behavior is identical to a solid layer of equal window. For example, each of the two secondary
total thickness. layers could be made from 1 mm copper stamp-
The secondary can be made up of two 4 oz. ings. AC resistance, defined by skin depth, would
traces, paralleled, on each side of a 5 mil PWB, not be reduced, but DC secondary loss is almost
the primary built the same way, separated by eliminated. Total winding loss at 20 A output
3 mil B-stage pre-impregnated sheet, with two current is 145 mW. More importantly, the thick
layers of 1 mil mylar top and bottom, for a total copper secondaries are very effective in remov-
thickness of 1.1 mm. DC resistance is cut in half ing heat from the transformer interior. It is not
to 0.6 mΩ and DC loss is halved. Because of lim- unreasonable to extend the output current capa-
ited skin depth, AC loss remains the same. The bility to 25 A, given a suitable thermal environ-
total winding loss is reduced to 42 mW. ment. The winding structure is shown in Fig. 19.
4-18
Winding losses calculated above are maxi- But the penalty for extensive interleaving is a
mum, occurring at minimum VIN, and 0.47 proportional increase of inter-winding capaci-
maximum duty cycle. Losses at nominal VIN are tance, which couples input noise and primary-
less. side switching transients to the output. If the need
for low inter-winding capacitance outweighs the
Layer Thickness, mm need for reduced AC resistance and leakage in-
Mylar, 2x1mil 0.05 ductance, it is necessary to use several spiraled
Copper 1.0 turns in each layer so as to achieve the required
B-stage Adhesive .076 number of turns with fewer interleaved layers.
Plated copper, 4oz. 0.14 Connecting to the center of the spiral: In
Printed Wiring Board 0.125 the previous design example, how is the connec-
Plated copper, 4oz. 0.14 tion made from the external circuit to the inner
Mylar, 1 mil .025 end of the 6-turn spiral primary winding? The
Plated copper, 4oz. 0.14 simple answer is to bring additional conductors
Printed Wiring Board 0.125 from the inner ends of the spiral winding to the
Plated copper, 4oz. 0.14 outside. But this requires more layers of copper
B-stage Adhesive .076 and insulation, making the total winding thicker
Copper 1.0 than desired.
Mylar, 2x1mil 0.05 Another, more elegant solution is as follows:
Total Winding Height 3.1 mm Instead of a 6-turn spiral (4 traces, in 2 layers, 2
winding sections, all paralleled), make two iden-
Fig. 19. Transformer winding structure. tical layers (each with 2 traces) of 3 turns each,
Core loss depends only on Volt-µsec per turn each turn twice the width of the original 6-turn
and frequency. For the buck derived topologies, spiral. Locate the inner ends of these 3-turn spi-
V-µs are constant in steady-state operation – in- rals centrally, so that when one of the two layers
dependent of input voltage and load current. is flipped over, its spiral inner end is directly over
If greater output current capability is re- the inner end of the other winding layer. Fig. 19.
quired, interleaving the windings can be carried shows these two layers side-by-side (although
further, to include one primary layer and one sec- they will actually be superimposed). All of the
ondary layer in each section. Each layer can then traces at the center of the spirals can then be in-
be made considerably thicker than the skin depth terconnected through vias.
without penalty, reducing DC loss and facilitating
heat removal. Primary and secondary layers can
be connected in series for higher voltage or in
parallel for higher current, as desired.
For example, the interleaved structure of Fig.
16. could be employed in the previous design ex-
ample. The six single-turn secondary layers could
be externally paralleled, and the six single turn
primary layers externally series connected, result-
ing in a 6:1 turns ratio. Leakage inductance and
AC resistance are dramatically reduced. The 6 Fig. 20. Series-connected 3-turn spiral windings.
winding sections shown in Fig. 16. produce the
same result as having a single section with six
times the winding breadth as the core actually
provides.
4-19
The result is a six-turn series connected pri-
mary, with 3 turns in each of two layers. The two XV. HALF-BRIDGE TOPOLOGY
series-connected layers are in two different wind- The push-pull buck-derived topologies such
ing sections (which is essential for proper func- as the half-bridge, full-bridge, and push-pull cen-
tioning). The outside ends of the series connected ter-tap have one-half the secondary V-µs as the
primary layers are at different corners, facilitating forward converter, for the same output voltage.
connection to the external circuit. No additional For the same core loss, the ER25 core with single
connection to the center of the spriral windings is turn secondary could provide up to 8 V output in
required. a push-pull circuit. However, push-pull circuits
have twice the high frequency AC current in the
G. Mounting the Transformer windings as the forward converter for the same
Instead of mounting the planar transformer DC output current. At low frequencies this is not
upon, or against, the external circuit board, it is a problem – the push-pull circuits would have
best to mount it through a cutout in the board. half as many secondary turns of thicker wire,
This facilitates interconnection between the one-fourth the resistance, and could therefore
windings and the external board, and makes handle twice the current. But when the secondary
much more core surface area available for cool- is at the minimum of one turn, the push-pull cir-
ing. Ultimately, the current handling capability of cuits, using the same core, are limited to the same
any transformer design depends upon how effec- AC secondary current as the forward converter,
tively its thermal environment removes heat, to resulting in half the DC output current capability.
keep temperature rise within acceptable limits. So, at high frequency, the push-pull topologies
The ER25 core, using 3F35 material has the are disadvantaged, and their greater power han-
V-µs capability to operate at 500 kHz with a dling capability is not achievable. This problem
3.3 V output. The 2.5 V design as implemented can be resolved through interleaving.
above (perhaps optimized by using five primary If a push-pull topology is used to obtain
turns instead of six) can deliver the same current higher output voltage capability than the forward
at 3.3 V. Thus, greater power output capability is converter with a single turn, single layer secon-
achieved by more fully utilizing the core. dary, the half-bridge is the best choice. Center-
The single-ended forward converter topology tap windings significantly reduce current-
is attractive because of its simplicity. However, handling capability and should be avoided. This
using the ER25 core at 500 kHz with a single is because the center-tap configuration puts addi-
turn secondary, the forward converter is limited tional layers within the winding structure. At a
to an output voltage below 3.9 V. Above that time when one side of the center-tap winding is
voltage, a core with greater area, Ae, is necessary conducting, the other side has zero external cur-
to obtain the required V-µs capability, or requires rent. Nevertheless, the non-conducting portion
multiple series-connected secondary layers in an acts as a passive layer within the winding struc-
appropriately interleaved winding structure. ture. Unless it is very thin, it will have equal and
opposite currents flowing on its two surfaces, re-
sulting in significant loss, even when not con-
ducting external current[2]. With an interleaved
structure, center-tap windings must therefore be
limited in thickness to the skin depth, or each
side of the center-tap winding must be in its own
winding section, making for a bulkier winding.
While the half-bridge avoids using a center-
tap primary, avoiding a center-tap secondary re-
quires bridge rectification, which benefits trans-
former design, but hurts circuit efficiency.
4-20
XVI. CURRENT DOUBLER SECONDARY XVII. SUMMARY
The topological combination which provides Planar transformers have many advantages
the best transformer utilization is the bridge or over their conventional counterparts – lower pro-
half-bridge primary with current doubler secon- file, better heat removal, fewer turns, ease of in-
dary[6]. As shown in Fig. 21., the current doubler terleaving, smaller leakage inductance, lower
requires two (smaller) filter inductors, but has a winding resistance, and good reproducibility.
single-winding secondary and uses only two rec- Understanding magnetic field principles and
tifiers, thus avoiding the rectifier losses of full- behavior is essential for achieving optimized
bridge rectification. For the same output voltage, transformer design.
secondary V-µs per turn are the same as the for- The planar structure is advantageous in a
ward converter and twice that of the center-tap “true” transformer because the AC magnetic field
secondary. Like the forward converter, rms AC “pulls” the AC current to the broad conductor
secondary current equals one-half of output cur- surfaces.
rent, IO, but unlike the forward converter, DC The planar structure is disadvantageous in a
secondary and primary currents are zero discontinuous flyback transformer because the
The forward converter transformer design ac- AC field through the gap pulls AC current to the
complished earlier in this paper could be used narrow edges of the conductors facing the gap.
without change in the same application but with Use a single layer in all windings. Single lay-
full-bridge primary and current doubler secon- ers permit windings to be much thicker than skin
dary. It would have the same rms AC primary depth, minimizing DC resistance and facilitating
and secondary currents as the forward converter, heat removal.
but zero DC primary and secondary current com- If more than one layer is required, interleave
ponents. Without DC losses, output current could the windings, which effectively results in single
be pushed to greater levels. layers in each winding section. This greatly re-
Current doubler output ripple frequency is duces AC resistance and leakage inductance, but
twice the transformer frequency – twice the out- increases inter-winding capacitance.
put frequency of the forward converter. This en- Consider using a full/half bridge primary with
ables smaller filter inductor values and enhances current doubler secondary topology.
the possibility of replacing an electrolytic output
filter capacitor with a smaller and less expensive
ceramic capacitor.
IT D1 IO' IO
+
IL1 V1 + +
+
CO VO
L1
T1 VT
L2
IL2
V2 +
D2
4-21
REFERENCES
4-22
Appendix
Magnetic Field Characteristics
4-23