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LABORATORY MANUAL
PHY107
ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY
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Table of Contents

Sr. No. Experiment Name Page No

1 To determine the wavelength of sodium light by diffraction grating spectrometer 3-6

2 To determine the hall voltage and hall coefficient using hall effect 7-10

3 To verify the newton's law of cooling of different materials and different liquid 11-13

4 To verify the expression for the resolving power of a telescope (circular aperture) 14-17

5 To determine the dielectric constant of solid by resonance method 18-20

6 To investigate the intensity of light coming through two crossed Polaroids and to verify the 21-23
malus's law

7 Determination of the velocity of Ultrasonic using Ultrasonic interferometer, 24-26

also find the compressibility of the given liquid

8 To measure the divergence of a given laser source 27-29

9 To find the wavelength of sodium light by measuring the diameter of newton rings 30 -34

10 To find the value of Planck's constant and photoelectric work function of the material of the 35-37
cathode using a photoelectric cell
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EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: To determine the wavelength of sodium light using a plane diffraction grating.
EQUIPMENTS TO BE USED: A spectrometer, a spirit level, a sodium lamp, an eye-piece, a
diffraction grating with clamping arrangement etc.

Learning Objectives:

1. The students will understand the concept of diffraction; Fresnel as well a Fraunhofer.
2. The students will learn about fringe width, diffraction patterns and diffraction gratings.
3. The students will have the idea of absent spectra.

Procedure:

1. Setting: Adjust the position of the eye-piece of the telescope so that cross-wires are
clearly visible. Focus the telescope on a d istant object and set it for parallel rays.
Level the spectrometer by the leveling screws and then the prism table with the help
of a spirit level.
2. Fix the grating stand on the circular table with two screws in the holes drilled on one
of the lines parallel to the line joining two of the screws meant for the purpose, say P
and Q. The face of the stand to which the clamps are attached should be at the centre
of the table. Take out the grating carefully from the box, holding it from the edge
and without touching its surface, fix it very carefully to the frame with its ruled
surface towards the telescope.
3. Optical leveling of the grating table. Rotate the table so that the plane of the
grating is approximately inclined at an angle of 450 to the axis of the collimator.
Rotate the telescope to receive the reflected light from the grating surface. Rotate the
table carrying the grating so that the plane of the grating is approximately
perpendicular to the axis of the collimator. Look for the first order spectrum on one
side of the direct image of the slit. Turn the telescope so that vertical cross-wire
coincides with the first order diffracted image. If this image is not symmetrical with
respect to the horizontal cross-wire, adjust it with the help of one of the screws. In
this position the grating lines are parallel to the axis of the spectrometer. Now turn
the telescope to the other side so that the vertical cross-wire again coincides with the
first order diffracted image. If the adjustments are carefully done then the diffracted
images of the slit will be symmetrical with respect to the horizontal cross-wire in all
positions.
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4. Setting the grating normal to the incident light. Place the telescope in line with the
collimator so that the vertical cross-wire falls exactly in the centre of the image of
the slit. Note the scale reading. Add 90 to the reading and place the telescope at this
reading to set it perpendicular to the axis of the collimator. Clamp it in this position.
Rotate the grating table till the plane face of the grating is facing both the collimator
and the telescope. Look through the telescope and turn the table very slowly till the
centre of the slit falls exactly on the vertical cross-wire. In this position the plane of
the grating is inclined at an angle of 450 to the incident light. Note the reading. Turn
the table through 450 from this position so that the plane of the grating is normal to
the incident light with its plane face towards the collimator. The grating is now set
normal to the incident light with its rules surface away from the collimator. Clamp
the table in this position.
5. Place the eye in front of the collimator and move it gradually towards the telescope
till the first order diffracted image is visible. Bring the telescope in this position and
observe the image through it. Clamp the telescope in this position. If the resolving
power of the grating is sufficiently high two distinct narrow lines corresponding to
the wavelength 5890Å and 5896Å will lie side by s ide in the field of view.
Ordinarily the two lines will appear as one in the first order spectrum. Turn the
tangent screw of the telescope till the vertical cross-wire coincides with the centre of
the image of the slit. Note the reading of the scale on both the verniers. Similarly
observe the first order spectrum on t he other side of the direct image and note the
reading on both the verniers.
6. Similarly note the reading of the verniers by s etting the telescope on the second
order diffracted image on either side of the direct light.
7. Repeat the above observation three times.
8. Note the number of lines per inch as marked on the grating and replace it carefully
in the box with ruled surface upwards.
OBSERVATIONS. Vernier Constant =
Number of lines per inch on the grating N=
Therefore, Grating element (a+b) = 2.54/ N = cm
Direct reading of telescope =
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S. No. Order of Vernier Telescope reading Angle of Diffraction

spectrum
Left Direct Right Left Right Mean

1 1st Order V1
V2
2

3 Ɵ1

1 2nd Order V1
V2
2

3
Ɵ2

Wavelength of sodium light as calculated from

1st Order spectrum λ= (a+b) Sin Ɵ1 = cm
2nd Order spectrum λ= (a+b) Sin Ɵ2/ 2 = cm
Mean Wavelength λ = cm = m

PRECAUTIONS.
1. The grating should be held from the edges and the rules surface should not be
touched.
2. The telescope should be focused on the brightest image of the slit while seeing
the reflected image.
3. The ruled surface should face away from the collimator.
4. The light should fall on the whole of the grating surface.
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Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration Number:

Aim: To determine the wavelength of sodium light using a plane diffraction grating.
OBSERVATIONS:
S. No. Order of Vernier Telescope reading Angle of Diffraction
spectrum
Left Direct Right Left Right Mean

1 1st Order V1
V2
2

3 Ɵ1

1 2nd Order V1
V2
2

3
Ɵ2

Calculations:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained
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EXPERIMENT-2

AIM: - To study Hall-effect by using hall probe. (Germanium crystal).

Equipment Requirement: -Hall probe, Gauss probe, Gauss meter, electromagnet, constant
current power supply, digital voltmeter.

Material used: Ge crystal

Learning objectives:
1. To understand the concept of hall effect in materials
2. To learn to measure magnetic field produced by electromagnets
3. To learn how hall effect can be applied to know type of semiconductor

Theory: - When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor, a

voltage is developed in a specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the
magnetic field. This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect. The voltage is so produced is
called hall voltage. When the charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the
direction of flow produces a mutually perpendicular force on the charges. Consequently the
electrons and holes get separated by opposite forces and produce an electric field. , there by
setting up a potential difference between the ends of specimen. This is called hall potential.

Outline of Procedure:-
1. Place the specimen at the centre between the pole pieces and exactly perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
2. Place the hall probe at the centre between the pole pieces, parallel to the semiconductor
sample and note the magnetic flux density from the guess meter keeping the current constant
through electromagnet.
3. Before taking the reading from the gauss meter ensure that gauss meter is showing zero
value. For this put the probe away the electromagnet and switch on the gauss meter and adjust
zero.
4. Do not change the current in the electromagnet for the first observation.
5. Vary the current in small increment. Note the current and the hall voltage.
6. For the 2nd observation keep the current constant through the specimen and vary the
current through electromagnet and note the hall voltage.
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7. Plot the graph between the hall voltage and the current through electromagnet.
Observations:
Current through the electromagnet = A(Constant)
Magnetic field (as measured by the Gaussmeter) =

Current through the specimen = mA(Constant)

Voltmeter reading Hall

Current through with magneti without magneti
S. ‟ Voltage,
No Electromagnet I ‟
field,V H‟ field,V H V= VH -
( in )
VH
1

Scope of Result: - The graph between the VH and I, VH and I‟ is the straight line.

Parameters & Plots: -

The current density J = I / A

I=nEvA

The hall coefficient is given RH = VH b / IB,

where b = thickness of the specimen, VH = Hall Voltage, I = Current through the specimen, B =
Magnetic Field

The hall coefficient …………………m3 /C

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Caution:-

1. The hall probe should be placed at the centre of the electromagnet.

2. The specimen should be placed at the centre of the electromagnet.

3. Zero should be ensured in the gauss meter before placing the hall probe between the centre of
electromagnet.

Learning outcomes : to be written by the student

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Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration Number:

Experiment: - To study Hall-effect by using hall probe. (Germanium crystal).

Observations:
Current through the electromagnet = A(Constant)
Magnetic field (as measured by the Gaussmeter)
=

Current through the specimen = mA(Constant)

Voltmeter reading Hall

Current through with magneti without magneti
S. Voltage,
No Electromagnet I‟ ‟
field,VH ‟
field,VH V= VH -
( in )
VH
1

Scope of Result: -

Parameters & Plots: -

The hall coefficient …………………m3 /C

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained
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EXPERIMENT-3
AIM: To study the relationship between temperature of a body and time as it cools by
radiating heat.

Equipment Required: Calorimeter, stirrer, thermometer, hot liquid (aprox.900C), stop watch.
Learning Objectives:
1. To learn how the temperature varies w.r.t. time.

2. To learn about the heat lost and gain by the system.

3. To understand the limitations of the experiment set-up and devise

a method to overcome those limitations.

Outline of the Procedure: In this experiment, note down the temperature of a hot liquid w.r.t. time
and plot a graph for it. The cooling curve verifies the Newton’s law of cooling.

1. In the calorimeter put hot water.

2. Note down the temperature of the liquid by the given thermometer.

3. Moment you note down the first reading of the hot water start the stop watch.
4. And thereafter note down the temperature at an interval of 5 minutes.
5. Repeat the step 4 until the temperature of the water comes down to 60 0C.
(i) Note down all the corresponding temperature readings with time.
(ii) Plot the graph taking time along X-axis and temperature along Y axis.

Sr.No. Time Temperature

Scope of the Result:

1. In this process you will learn how heat exchange from a body to the surrounding with the
difference of temperature between the body and the surrounding.
2. The plotted curve will verify the Newton’s law of cooling:
dQ/dt ∞ dT
Where Q is the Heat energy of the liquid.
dT= T2 - T1
T1- temperature of the surrounding ,T2- temperature of the liquid
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Plots & Parameters:

Draw graph between time t and temperature T gives a curve which is falling
sharply at the beginning but with time its gradient becomes less.
Cautions:
1. The temperature of the liquid and the surrounding should be taken properly.
2. The time of noting down the readings should be taken carefully.
3. The liquid should be stirred thoroughly so that the temperature of the liquid
is same at the particular instant of taking reading.
4. The stop-watch should be started just when you take the first reading.

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Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration Number:

Experiment: To study the relationship between temperature of a body and time

as it cools by radiating heat.
Observations:
(i) Note down all the corresponding temperature readings with
time.
(ii) Plot the graph taking time along X-axis and temperature along Y axis.

Sr.No. Time Temperature

Result and discussion:

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 excellent) Marks obtained Max. Marks
1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained

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Experiment-4
AIM: To Determination of the Resolving Power of a Telescope.

Apparatus: A telescope, monochromatic source of light, variable rectangular slit,

travelling microscope and measuring tape

Theory and Formula Used:

The theoretical and practical resolving powers are given by
Theoretical resolving power = λ/a
and practical resolving power = d/D
Where λ = mean wavelength of light employed,
a = width of the rectangular slit for just resolution of two objects,
d = separation between two object and
D = distance of the objects from the objective of the telescope.
Hence λ /a = d/D

Rayleigh's criterion of resolution .According to Rayleigh's criterion, two

equally bright sources can be just resolved by any optical system when
their distance apart is such that in the diffraction pattern, the
maximum due to one falls on the minimum due to the other.
DIAGRAM:-

Procedure:
1. Focus the telescope for clear image far14from the telescope.
2. Keep the incandescent bulb (in lieu of sodium lamp we have used
incandescent bulb to reduce the cost) in the front of slit pattern
3. Mount the telescope on a stand such that its axis lies horizontal and
the rectangular lines in first row marked on pattern board on stand
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which are vertical. Place the two stands at a suitable distance (say
about 2 meters) fig.
4. Illuminate the object with source of light. Now open the slit with the
help of micrometer screw and move the telescope in the horizontal
direction such that the images of two vertical sources are in the field of
view of the eyepiece.
5. Gradually reduce the width of the slit till the two images just cease to
appear as two. Note down the reading of the micrometer. Again close
the slit completely and note down the micrometer reading. The
difference of the two readings gives the width of the slit (a) just
sufficient to resolve the two images.
6. Width (d) of white or black rectangular strips in the first row marked
on pattern board is one mm.
7. Measure the distance between the object and the slit with the help of
inch tape which gives D.
8. The experiment is repeated for different values of D.

Observations: Mean value of mm. d=0.5, 1, 2.5 mm

L.C. of screw = 0.01 mm
Slit Reading Width
of the
When Slit is Slit when Images
S. d Closed Cease Slit Distance
No. mm D mms.
M.S. VS Total M.S. VS Total a = (X
X Y – Y)

1. 0.5
2. 1.0
3. 0.5

Calculation:
D = distance of the objects from the objective of the telescope.
Theoretical resolving power = λ/a
and practical resolving power = d/D
Where λ = mm.
a = width of the rectangular slit for just resolution of two
objects,
d = 2.5, 1.0, 0.5 mms
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Hence λ /a = d/D

Result:
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The theoretical and practical resolving powers of the telescope are

shown in the table.
Theoretical and Practical Resolving Powers:

Distance d Theoretical (λ/a) Practical (d/D)

mm mm Resolving Power Resolving Power
2.5
1.0
0.5

Precautions and Sources of Error :

(i) The axis of telescope should be horizontal.
(ii) The rectangular object drawn on the pattern board should be vertical.
(iii) Backlash error in the micrometer screw should be avoided.
(iv) The plane of the slit should be parallel to the objects.
(v) The minimum width of slit for resolution should be adjusted very
carefully.
The distance D should be measured from the slit of the telescope to the
pattern board.

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Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration

Number:

Experiment : - To Determination of the Resolving Power of a

Telescope.

Observations: Mean value of d=0.5 mm, 1mm, 2.5 mm

L.C. of screw = 0.01 mm
Slit Reading Width
of the
When Slit is Slit when Images
S. d Closed Cease Slit Distance
No. mm D mms.
M.S. VS Total M.S. VS Total a = (X
X Y – Y)

1. 2.5
2. 1.0
3. 0.5

Calculation:

Result:
The theoretical and practical resolving powers of the telescope are
shown in the table.
Theoretical and Practical Resolving Powers:
Distance d Theoretical (λ/a) Practical (d/D)
mm mm Resolving Power Resolving Power
2.5
1.0
0.5
To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 excellent) Marks obtained Max. Marks
1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained

17
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EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM: To determine the dielectric constant of a solid by resonance method.
EQUIPMENTS TO BE USED: A variable radio-frequency calibrated oscillator with
variable output power, a calibrated variable capacitor with capacitance from 50 to 1000
pF, a ci rcular parallel plate capacitor whose dielectric can be removed (or inserted)
without changing the distance between the plates, a sensitive V.T. V.M or an A.C.
millivoltmeter, an inductive coil of a few turns of 18 S.W.G. enameled copper wire
having a diameter of about 1.5 cm.

Learning Objectives:
1. The students will understand the concept of atomic dipole moment.
2. The students will learn about Claussius-Mossoti equation.
3. The students will have the idea of polarisability.
Procedure:
1. Switch on the R.F. oscillator. Set it at the lowest frequency. Vary the value of the
graduated variable capacitor C and note the resonance. Now, set the oscillator on
the highest frequency, again vary C and note the resonance. This shows that
resonance will take place for the whole range of the oscillator from the lowest to
highest value.
2. Disconnect the capacitor C’. Set the oscillator at a convenient frequency say f=
ω/2π. Vary C and note the value of C for which the V.T.V.M. gives the
maximum voltage i.e., if we increase the C beyond this value, the voltage begins
to decrease. This is the value at resonance. Note the value of C. Let it be C1, then
ω = 1/ 2π√ LC1…………(a)
3. Now include the unknown capacitance C’ (with dielectric disc in it) and having a
capacitance say CD. Repeat the experiment by va rying C to again obtain
maximum voltage or resonance. Let the reading of the variable capacitor now be
C2, then ω = 1/ 2π√
L(CD+C2)………………………………………………………………………..(b)
4. Now carefully remove the dielectric disc from the capacitor C’ without changing
the distance between the plates. Repeat the experiment again by va rying C to
obtain maximum voltage or resonance. Let the reading of the variable capacitor
now be C3, then ω18 = 1/ 2π√ L(CA+C3)
………………………………………………………(c) where CA is the
capacitance of the capacitor C’ with air as dielectric. From (a) and (b), we have
1/ 2π√ LC1 = 1/ 2π√ L(CD+C2)
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or CD + C2 = C1 or CD = C1 - C2

From (a) and (c), we have 1/ 2π√ LC1 = 1/ 2π√ L(CA+C3)

or CA + C3 = C1 or CA = C1 - C3

Therefore, Dielectric Constant k = CD/ CA = C1 - C2/ C1 - C3

5. Repeat the experiment by setting the variable R.F. oscillator at two more
different frequencies.
Observations and Record
Frequency of Value of variable capacitor at resonance when
oscillator f alone C1 With dielectric With air capacitor C3
capacitor C2
1
2
3

Dielectric Constant k = C1 - C2/ C1 - C3

(1)
(2)
(3)
Mean k =
Precautions.
1. Resonance should be checked for whole frequency range by noting the resonance
for the lowest as well as the highest frequency of the R.F. oscillator.
2. Resonance must be sharp.
3. The dielectric disc must fit tightly into the capacitor and should be removed
carefully without disturbing the capacitor.

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Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration Number:

Aim: To determine the dielectric constant of a solid by resonance method.

Observations and Record

Frequency of Value of variable capacitor at resonance when
oscillator f alone C1 With dielectric With air capacitor C3
capacitor C2
1
2
3

Calculations:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained

20
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EXPERIMENT NO. 6
AIM: To investigate the amount of light coming through two crossed polaroids and to
verify Malus law

EQUIPMENTS TO BE USED: He-Ne laser, polarizer, analyzer, detector, power

meters, optical bench.

Learning Objectives:
1. The students will understand the concept of polarized and unpolarised light.
2. The students will learn about the position of the axis of the analyzer (θ) with
respect to the axis of polarizer and the optic polarization intensity (I).
3. The students will verify the Malus Law, I = I0 Cos2Ɵ

Procedure.
1. Light from laser source is focused on t o a pin hole by lens – 1 and the pin hole is
placed at the focus of lens -2. Thus, a parallel extended beam falls on the polarizer.
2. Polariser and analyzer are suitably placed in this expanded beam.
3. The power meter and detector are fitted to the light energy emerging from the second
polarizer (called analyzer). Analyser is rotated in steps of 100 from the position of
transmission direction and optic polarization of power meter is read for all orientations
between 00 and 1800.
4. Now rotate the analyzer to get the maximum intensity I0.

Observations.
Maximum Intensity I0 =
S. No. Analyser Rotation Ɵ Power Meter I0 Cos2Ɵ
(degree) Reading

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CALCULATIONS:
The validity of Malus law can be verified by plotting a graph between θ and I
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Precautions.
1. Beam should be along the axis of Polaroid.
2. Good quality laser beam should be used.
3. Power supply should be continuous.
4. There should be dark room for this experiment.
5. No obstacle should lie in the path of beam.

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Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration Number:

Aim: To investigate the amount of light coming through two crossed polaroids and to
verify Malus law
Observations
S. No. Analyser Rotation Ɵ Power Meter I0 Cos2Ɵ
(degree) Reading

Calculations:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained

23
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EXPERIMENT-7
Aim: Determination of the velocity of Ultrasonic using Ultrasonic interferometer. Also
find the compressibility of the given liquid

Equipment to be used
Ultrasonic interferometer (High frequency generator and measuring cell with
micrometer and quartz crystal), Experimental liquid

Learning objectives :
1. Students will be able to learn about standing waves in liquid column
2. To provide had on experience of handling ultrasonic interferometer
3. To enhance their knowledge of production of ultrasonic waves.
4. To understand the dependence of velocity in different medium.

Procedure:
1. Unscrew the knurled cap of the cell and lift it away from double walled
construction of the cell.
2. In the middle portion of it pour experimental liquid and screw the knurled cap.
Wipe out excess liquid overflowing from the cell.
3. Insert the cell in the socket and clamp it with the help of a screw provided on its
side. High frequency generator is connected to the cell using co-axial cables.
4. Move the micrometer slowly in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction till
the anode current on the ammeter on the high frequency generator shows a
maximum or a minimum. Note the readings of micrometer.
5. Take readings of a few consecutive maximum or minimum. The difference
between two consecutive readings will give λ/2. Once the wavelength (λ) is
known the velocity of ultrasonic wave in the liquid can be calculated.

Observations and Calculation:

Order of Micrometer reading for 2λ=(Xn+4∼Xn)

Mamima (n) Maximum (mm)
PSR (mm) HSD PSR+(HSD × LC) mm

3
24

5
25

To find the least count of the micrometer

Number of rotations given to the screw head (N) =
Distance covered on the pitch scale (S) =
Pitch of the screw = S/N =
Total head scale divisions =
Least count (LC) = Pitch of the screw / Total head scale divisions =
Total reading (TR) = PSR + (HSD × LC)
Order of the maximum current
Micrometer reading(R1) mm
Order of the maximum current
Micrometer reading(R2) mm
Mean λ=

ALCULATIONS:
Frequency of the ultrasonic wave (f) =
Wavelength of the ultrasonic wave (λ) =
Velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the given liquid (v) = λ × f
Compressibility β=1/ρv2
 26

Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration Number

Aim: Determination of the velocity of Ultrasonic using Ultrasonic interferometer. Also

find the compressibility of the given liquid

Order Micrometer reading for maximum 2λ=(Xn+4∼Xn) (mm)

of
Mamima PSR+(HSD × LC) mm
PSR (mm) HSD
(n)
1

Attach Graph
Calculation:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained
27

EXPERIMENT-8

Aim : To measure the divergence of a given laser source

Equipments to be used: A laser source, laser power supply, optical bench, a laser stand,
a screen, a millimeter graph paper and a meter rod.

Learning Objectives:

1. The student will know that beam divergence is the derivative of the beam radius
with respect to the axial position
2. The students will be able to understand unique properties of laser beam such as
directionality, coherence, intensity etc. as compare to ordinary light source.
3. To give hand on e xperience to students on laser handling and measuring its
diameter.
4. Students will be able to learn causes of laser beam divergence.

Procedure:

1. Arrange the laser source on a laser stand at one end of the optical bench.

2. Place a screen in front of laser source at a distance “Z”. Measure this distance with meter
rod.

3. Paste a m.m. graph on the screen. A bright spot of laser light will be formed on the graph
paper pasted on the screen. Draw the boundary of spot using pencil.

4. Measure the size of the spot by counting the m.m squares covered in it. Take measurement
both in horizontal and vertical directions .Let it be S1.

5. Now, move the screen away from the laser source at a distance “Z + D”. Again, measure this
distance. Also, measure the size of the spot at this position of screen. Let the size is S2.

6. Now, move the screen away from the laser source through a further distance “D”.Therefore,
the distance of the source from the screen will become “Z +2D”.

7. Measure the size of the spot at this position of screen. Let the size is S3.

8. Take 3 sets by changing D.

9. Put the values of S1, S2, S3 and D in the formula of divergence and calculate it.
28

Observations

No. Distance(cms) Spot Size

vertical horizontal Mean Divergence θ

D S(cms)

1 Z= S1,=

Z+D= D= S2=

Z+2D= S3=

2 Z= S1,=

Z+D= D= S2=

Z+2D= S3=

3 Z= S1,=

Z+D= D= S2=

Z+2D= S3=

Calculation :

Measure the values of S1, S2 ,S3 and D .Find divergence θ using following relation

Θ=[ S12 +S22 - 2S32]1/2

√2 D

Precautions:

1. The laser tube axis should be horizontal

2. The diameter of the spot should be measured in two directions at right angles .
 29

Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration

Number:

Aim : To measure the divergence of a given laser source

Observation:

No. Distance(cms) Spot Size

vertical horizontal Mean Divergence θ

D S(cms)

1 Z= S1,=

Z+D= D= S2=

Z+2D= S3=

2 Z= S1,=

Z+D= D= S2=

Z+2D= S3=

3 Z= S1,=

Z+D= D= S2=

Z+2D= S3=

Calculation:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained
30

EXPERIMENT NO. 9
AIM: To find the wavelength of sodium light by measuring the diameter of Newton’s
rings.
EQUIPMENTS TO BE USED: A travelling microscope, a sodium lamp, Newton’s
rings apparatus consisting of an optically plane glass plate and a convex lens of about
100 centimeter focal length placed in a box having an optically plane glass plate inclined
at an optically plane glass plate inclined at an angle of 450, a spherometer, a convex lens
of short focal length etc.

Learning Objectives:

1. The students will learn about circular interference fringes.

2. The students will develop the understanding of phase change at reflection.

3. The students will understand the concept of thin films.

4. The skill of handing the apparatus will also be inculcated in the student.

Procedure:

1. Level the microscope table and set the microscope tube in a vertical position.
Find the vernier constant of the horizontal scale.
2. Clean the surface the glass plate P, the lens N and the glass plate G. Place them
in position as shown in Fig.1. Place the arrangement in front of a sodium lamp so
that the height of the centre of the glass plate G is the same as that of the centre
of the sodium lamp. Place a screen in between having a hole of about one inch
square in it at the same height. Place the convex lens in between and adjust its
position so that a parallel beam of light is made to fall on the glass plate G
inclined at an angle of 450.
3. Adjust the position of the microscope so that it lies vertically above the centre of
the lens N. Focus the microscope, so that alternate dark and bright rings are
clearly visible.
4. Adjust the position of the microscope till the point of inter-section of the cross-
wires coincides with the centre of the ring system and one of the cross-wires is
perpendicular to the horizontal scale.
5. Slide the microscope to the left till the cross-wire lies tangentially at the centre of
the 20th dark ring. The position of the cross-wire when the microscope is focused
31

on the 10th dark ring is shown in Fig.2. Note the reading on the vernier scale of
the microscope. Slide the microscope backward with the help of the slow motion
screw and note the readings when the cross-wire lies tangentially at the centre of
the 16th, 12th, 8th and 4th dark rings respectively.
Keep on sliding the microscope to the right and note the reading when the ross-
wire again lies tangentially at the centre of the 4th, 8th, 12th, 16th and 20th dark
rings respectively.
6. After reaching the 20th ring slide the microscope backwards and again note the
readings corresponding to the same rings on the right and then on the left of the
centre of the ring system.
7. Remove the lens N and find the radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in
contact with the glass plate P accurately using a spherometer.

OBSERVATIONS: Vernier constant = cm

Ring Microscope Diameter Microscope Diameter Mean Diameter
No. reading reading
Left Right Left Right cm m

20

16

12

Pitch of the spherometer screw = mm

Number of divisions on circular scale =
Least Count = mm
Distance between the two legs = 1……….2……….3……..
Mean l = cm
No. Spherometer reading on h
Convex Surface Plane Surface
32

Mean h = cm
Radius of curvature of convex surface R = l2/6h + h/2
= cm = m
Therefore, wavelength λ = Dn2 – Dm2 / 4 (n-m)R
Find the value of λ by taking the various combinations of n and m as for
example, (20, 12), (16, 8), (12, 4).
λ= 1. 2. 3.
Mean wavelength of sodium light λ = m

PRECAUTIONS.
1. The lens and the glass plate should be cleaned.
2. A lens of large radius of curvature, preferably plano-convex, should be used.
3. The point of intersection of the cross-wires should coincide with the centre of
the ring system.
4. The micrometer screw should always be moved in the same direction to
avoid error due to back-lash.
5. The radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact with the glass
plate should be measured accurately.
6. The amount of light from the source should be adjusted for maximum
visibility. Too much light increases the general illumination and decreases
the contrast between bright and dark fringes.
33

Fig.1

Fig.2
 34

Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration Number:

Aim: To find the wavelength of sodium light by measuring the diameter of Newton’s
rings.

OBSERVATIONS:
Ring Microscope Diameter Microscope Diameter Mean Diameter
No. reading reading
Left Right Left Right cm m

20

16

12

No. Spherometer reading on h

Convex Surface Plane Surface
1

Calculations:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained
35

EXPERIMENT-10
Aim : To find the value of Planck's constant and photoelectric work function of the
material of the cathode using a photo-electric cell

Equipment Required: A photocell,Power supply, ballistic galvanometer, Ammeter,

Filters of different colours, A voltmeter

Learning Objectives:

1. Studnets will be able to learn about dependence of photoelectric current on frequency and
intensity of light.
2. To make them understand working of photo-electric cell
3. To provide hand on experience on handling photo-electric cell and measuring
photoelectric current.
4. To study variation of stopping potential with frequency of light and hence to extract
information from graph.

Procedure:

1. Draw a diagram showing scheme of connections

2. Make the connections as given in the diagram. Arrange the Mercury lamp; filter,
shutter and photocell on the uprights so that they are in same straight line. Also set the
ballistic galvanometer so that its coil is free to move.

3. Adjust the lamp and scale arrangement of the ballistic galvanometer and bring the
spot at the zero mark on the scale. Also adjust the knob of the potential divider so that
the voltmeter reading is zero when there is no light falling on photo cell.

3. Switch ON the mercury lamp and place the voilet filter(least wavelength, highest
frequency) in front of the photocell. Adjust the distance on the scale of the optical
bench to get a reasonable deflection on the galvanometer scale.

4. Go on increasing the negative potential applied to the anode of the photocell slowly
so that the deflection on the galvanometer scale just becomes zero. The voltmeter
reading is recorded.

5. Repeat the experiment by placing different filters i.e. blue, green, yellow and red
colors and find the corresponding stopping potentials.

Observations:

No. Filter colour Wavelength Stopping

from standard Frequency (ν) Potential V0
table
(Volts)

1 Violet -8
4050×10 cm
36

2 Blue -8
4360×10 cm

3 Green -8
5460×10 cm
-8
4 Yellow 5780×10 cm
-8
5 Red 6910×10 cm

Calculations: Plot stopping potential against frequency taking stopping

potential along Y-axis and frequency along X-axis and find the slope
and intercept of the graph.

Parameters and Plots: h=e tan(angle) =--j/sec

Photoelectric w ×OA

Measure threshold frequency from graph (OA)

/
Calculate slope from graph to find ∆V0 ∆ν

Stopping potential

O A

Frequency

Precautions:
1. While adjusting the galvanometer reading at zero mark and voltmeter reading at 0
volt, no light should fall on photo cell.
2. The distance between the mercury and the photo cell should be kept constant during
the experiment.
 37

Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration Number

Aim : To find the value of Planck's constant and photoelectric work function of the
material of the cathode using a photo-electric cell

Observation :
No. Filter colour Wavelength Stopping
from standard Frequency (ν) Potential V0
table
(Volts)

1 Violet -8
4050×10 cm
2 Blue -8
4360×10 cm
3 Green -8
5460×10 cm
-8
4 Yellow 5780×10 cm
-8
5 Red 6910×10 cm

Attach Graph

Calculation:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

1 Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus.
2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20
3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and Cleanliness 10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained
38