CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter comprises the review of studies related to the agriculture, agriculture trade
across the globe, impact of WTO on agriculture sector of different economies including
India, and the reforms or changes occurred in agriculture over the period due to the
changes in technology and globalization of the economies. The major gaps found from the
studies have been discussed at last based on which the objectives of the study have been
framed.

2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies (2018) conducted a study to
examine the reciprocity dictum in European Union (EU) agricultural food trade at the
International level. The report proclaimed the substantial proof regarding the growth and
progress related to regulatory rapprochement at the worldwide level. It was suggested that
many major initiatives such as scientific cooperation among all the segments, harmonizing
the control mechanisms, risk assessment authorities, time to time awareness, updations and
warning signals could enable the growth and progress in the trade relationships, reduction
in the transactional costs as well as the asymmetries in the information related to the
agricultural trade.

Satish et al., (2017) have ascertained India’s export policy aspects and made suggestive
remarks to enhance the benefits from it. India had proved to be the fastest growing
economy in the world by raising it export volume, introducing the substantial innovative
initiatives as well as relaxation in the policy regimes to provide platforms to the potential
producers in the world. There had been many fluctuations in the economy, which led to
imbalance in the development of all the sectors of the economy. The study emphasized on
the revival of trade related initiatives for enabling the nation get the long term benefits in
the International market.

Anjum and Khan (2017) investigated the changing patterns of agricultural exports in India
under world Trade organization agreement. The research found the accomplishment of
specialization in the export of agricultural products in the pre WTO era where as no such
initiative in terms of expertise has been taken up after the WTO period. WTO had been
found to have negative influence on the agricultural exports of cashews, tea, coffee, oil
meals and marine products where as positive impact on share of spices, fruits, vegetables
and rice in Indian economy. Such initiatives had been able to get specialization in the fields
of agricultural exports as well as get the competitive advantage in the long run.

Rajamohan and Venthamanikam (2017) conducted a study to examine the export potential
of agricultural commodity in India. The study revealed the higher levels of agricultural
exports as compare to the imports, which depicted its strength and hard work to carve its
niche in the International market. There had been major increase in the commodity prices
since 2002 due to global transformations, transparent approach, trading platforms and
innovativeness in the economy. The study also depicted the gargantuan change in the
demand patterns of the individuals as well as ways of production in the market to meet
those needs. However, the study had also drawn the attention towards disparities in the
production of agricultural goods.

Mishra and Agrawal (2017) have examined the effect of World Trade Organization
agreement on the agricultural practices as well as trade in context to Indian economy. The
study highlighted the major challenges encountered by the emerging nations with the
Agreement on Agriculture in terms of tariff barriers, socio-political instability, drastic
transformation and technological innovations at the fast pace etc. It had also been found
that transparency in the trade patterns, increasing share of exports from the emerging
nations to the global trade as well as adequate dissemination of agricultural production
across regions as the major structural changes proposed by the AoA agreement. Hence, it is
clearly suggested that provisions under the agreement must be precisely designed.

Department of Commerce (2016-17) in its annual report revealed the trends and patterns
related to growth and development of trade practices. The report depicted the growth in the
principal commodities such as cereals, leather footwear, fresh fruits and vegetables, plastic
raw materials, wool and newspaper. Petroleum exports have shown a declining trend from
2016 onwards. Besides this, the report has supported the government intervention in the
arena of ‘Digital India’ and ‘Skills India Initiatives’ and e-commerce exports enabling the
long term benefits to all the segments of the society. Service sector has been emerging as
the prominent sector in terms of its major contribution in the Gross Domestic Product of
the economy.

Chung et al. (2016) conducted a study to examine the free trade two-way arrangement of
hand tool industry between China and Taiwan. The study was conducted over twenty-four
six-digit products from HS 820210 to HS 820590 between 2000 and 2012. The research
found the revealed comparative advantages (RCA) on the part of Taiwan implying the lack
of compete reception of highly competitive Taiwanese hand tool equipments and
components when indulged in early harvest list with Taiwan. Besides this, the study
highlighted the lack of initiative on the part of Government to reveal the export value of
every product exported through the ECFA (Economic Cooperation Framework
Agreement) policy regime.
Bhagwat and Maravi (2016) investigated the influence of WTO regime on the agricultural
practices in India from FY 1990-91 to FY 2015-16. The WTO agreement had been found
as the serendipity in the growth as well as development in the agricultural practices. The
study found the positive impact of the agreement leading to generation of employment
opportunities to about 70% of the population in the nation. The raise level of infrastructural
investments like irrigation, electricity and storage facility had enabled the nation to
increase the production of wheat, Non-basmati Rice as bumper crops in FY 2014-15
making India 4th largest exporter of principal products across the globe.
Economics (2016) have depicted the outcome of foreign trade appraisal for the one FY
2015-16. The study had revealed the significant role played by the foreign trade in the
economic development of the entire nation. India had emerged as the major beneficiary of
reduction in oil prices. The nation had been regarded as the most favorable environment
for the trade practices at the global level. The study depicted the reduction in the net trade
of services, fall in the inflow of financial services, decrease in the import bill and decrease
in the imports of petroleum crude. The positive drift had enabled the nation to outperform
the major advancing nations round the globe.

Jagadambe (2016) had analyzed the export competitiveness of Indian agro-based products
along with the ASEAN nations. The study revealed the increase in the graph of export
intensity of the economy in the agricultural trade with respect to ASEAN nations rather the
rest of the globe. The study acknowledged the gradual decline in the comparative
advantage in the export of agricultural products. Therefore, it was suggested that the
government must promote direct policy for the promotion of products with comparative
advantage in the exports. There must be increase in the constant initiatives on the part of
Indian exporters to export more of rice, fruits, tea and meat to these nations.

Sertoglu and Dogan (2016) analyzed the major determinants of Agricultural trade, and the
association between agricultural trade performance and real exchange rate in Turkey from
1994 to 2012. There are many factors like ratio of export and import prices in context to
the agricultural goods, real income of the nation as well as the producer prices, which
influence the agricultural trade balance. The study depicted the significantly high but
negative influence of real exchange rate, agricultural producer prices and real gross
domestic output on agricultural trade balances in Turkey. The study suggested the adoption
of proper policy regime, updation of the technology as well as reduction in the
manufacturer prices so as to increase the productivity and gain trade surplus in the nation.
Department of Commerce (2015-16) depicted the different trends and prospects related to
growth in the developed as well as developing nations. The report has revealed the gradual
growth of international trade, lower level of income growth, changes in the structure of
trade and fluctuations in the composition of world income. The study elucidated the major
challenges such as inadequate global connectivity, entangled administrative pre-requisites
as well as delays at the customs, which has led to a long term instability in the flawless
participation of producers across the globe, especially in the emerging nations. The study
emphasized on creating a feasible environment, transparent system, effective dispute
settlement mechanism to create wider opportunities for the producers.

Kavitha and Reddy (2015) ascertained the commodity derivatives trading in Indian market
and its impact on the development of nation. The study witnessed a huge turmoil in the last
few years. Many reforms have been introduced by the Government in the commodity
market in terms of pricing policy and price risk management, which had acted as
stimulators for the revitalization of future commodities. The study depicted the huge
dependency of Indian population on the agricultural practices and derivative market had
been regarded as the foundation of the divergent goods and services. The study stressed on
the use of modern commodity exchanges and reformation of the commodity market.

Rani (2015) examined the association between the WTO agreement and patterns of
economic growth in context of India. International trade has been regarded as a mechanism
to create trade relationships among the nations around the world. The study depicted the
imperative role played by agriculture sector in the generation of employment opportunities
for the nationwide population. The study also found the WTO export rate as well as
production rate of agriculture segment as imperative parts in the economy. The agricultural
sector was also found significant in terms of catalyzing agent of raising level of capital
formation in agricultural infrastructure in terms of warehouse and cold storage facilities as
well as provision of irrigation facilities.

Ansari and Khan (2015) examined the direction, potential, patterns and trends related to
India’s Agricultural trade potential in the post-WTO period. The research foregrounded
India’s competitive advantage over the export of meat, rice, oilseed, wheat, tea and coffee.
Lack of public participation, inadequate transportation facilities as well as lack of credit
facilities had been found as the major challenges before the nation. The study emphasized
on encouraging the production of the commodities where India has comparative
competitive advantage. Some commodity specific and infrastructural development
programs, export-oriented farming, adequate credit facilities for budding farmers must be
initiated for increasing the volume of export goods.

Greenville (2015) examined and documented the various aspects related to agricultural
trade policy. The study revealed the existence of umpteen development and opportunities
in the agricultural markets with the introduction of Doha round of negotiations in
2001.Liberalisation in the agricultural sector had been acted as a significant mechanism for
the continuity in upliftment in food security, rural development as well as sectoral growth.
The changes in the proportion of population, stupendous growth in the population, raise in
the level of public income as well as changes in the agricultural production has led to
severe transformations in framing the entire world into the several agro-based markets.

Karmacharya and Maskay (2015) depicted the poverty implications of India’s agricultural
trade policy reform under WTO agreements in Nepal from 1966 to 2001. The study
highlighted the importance of agricultural practices as the sole provider to livelihood to the
majority of Nepal’s population. The study also depicted the trade competitiveness on the
part of Nepalese population to have significant impact on the alleviation of poverty. It was
also found that WTO commitments as well as expected commitments had been a major
cause in the improvement of market access in agricultural practices across the entire
nation. Hence, it was suggested that all the efforts must be taken so as to increase the
volume of exports in the international market.

Banga and Sekhar (2015) examined the impact of public stockholding in Indian market
over its trade in the International market. It was found that the WTO agreements have led
to the possibility of utilization of Indian stock of food grains for dumping in the African
markets. There was no evidence of artificial dumping in the domestic market to influence
the trade practices of other advancing nations in the long run. The study suggested that
India should include proper exportable profits to distort the global trade.

Singh (2014) analyzed the transformations in the Indian economy before and after the
advent of WTO regime. The study highlighted the increase in proliferation of trade volume
in India and the major challenges encountered by the Indian economy with the imposition
of WTO agreement in terms of global trade and relationships, quick revival of agricultural
practices, International competition and pace up with the dynamic environment. The study
also stated the negative impact of agriculture sector on International trade due to growing
population, matter of food security and performance of the agricultural sector. Hence, the
study depicted the strategic change in nations’ Gross Domestic Product as well as on its
trade post the WTO agreement for the long term survival in the market.

Ranga and Sharma (2014) analyzed the association between WTO agreement and the
performance of agriculture sector in India. The study highlighted that WTO had not posed
any challenge before the nation in terms of removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers. The
research mentioned the need of diversified, modern, technical and competitive
methodology, constant vigilance as well as effective knowledge reading the multiple
market aspects. The adoption and effective execution of regulations and strategies would
certainly ensure the settlement of brawls, provide adequate safeguards and mechanisms to
provide security and predictability of future prospects as well as patterns related to trade.
Hence, it was suggested that government should actively play its part for enhancing and
balancing the market fluctuations.

Kour and Bhau (2013) in their study investigated the effect of WTO agreement on
agricultural sector in India between 1990 and 2004. India had joined other nations to form
a group called G-20, which had led to the reduction in trade tariffs, alleviation of trade-
distorting domestic support and export subsidies to the agricultural practices by the
advanced nations. The research had also highlighted the major challenges faced by the
advancing nation in terms of climatic change, imbalance in the economy, political
instability and global fluctuations. Hence, the study emphasized that the advanced nations
should provide fair and just framework to the advancing nations so that they could be able
to bloom with the changing world.

Edward et al., (2013) analyzed the price discovery process and volatility spillover of Chilly
spot and future prospects in the production market. The study was conducted between
April 2006 and March 2013 in Karnataka, India. The study highlighted the gradual growth
in the export of chilies from FY 2006-07 to 2011-2012, except in 2008-09. Moreover, the
study found the stupendous growth in the export of chilies from FY 2009-10 to FY 2010-
2011. The research also found that future chili prices had led to the spot prices in the
market. Hence, the study suggested the co-existence future prospects and the spot chili
prices for the long run to ensure the market stability of the sector.

Hoda and Gulati (2013) have made assessment related to India’s agricultural trade policy
and sustainable development from 1950 to 2012. The study revealed the establishment of
nation as the food surplus economy with the growth in the agricultural practices as well as
success of trade policy. India has worked industriously in execution of policies and
strategies for the export promotion, import substitution as well as a balance in the import
and export of products over the globe. It was also found in the study that mushrooming
population had been acting as the major challenge in the way to meet the rising demand of
the population. Hence, it was suggested that government must take adequate steps to
revitalize the policy measures, create awareness among the people as well as ensure the
sustainability of the production with regard to food grains.

Laha and Sinha (2013) conducted a study of price risk management and future market
across raw jute markets in India. Price risk management has been reckoned as the most
important economic function performed by the future market. Hedging had been found
playing a significant role in influencing the movement of spot and future prospects in the
markets in terms of creating balance in terms of management regarding profits as well as
losses. It was also depicted that risk management had been acting as the indicator of
optimum utilization of knowledge by the future markets. Besides, the study foregrounded
the same extent of fluctuations in the spot as well as future markets.

Nabi and Dhami (2013) have analyzed India’s Agriculture export performance during Pre
and Post World Trade Organization Regime with reference to developing nations. The
study depicted the special status and additional time given by WTO to the advancing
nations enabling them to comply with the conditions of the agreement despite the
confrontation from the advanced nations. The study also highlighted the lack of will on the
part of advancing nations to keep pace with the fresh collaborations due to inappropriate
benefits provided by the WTO agreement. Hence, the research emphasized that collective
negotiation is must for emerging nations to prevent their interests.
UNCTAD (2013) the impact of international trade practices on the poor people in context
to their empowerment, equity, productivity and sustenance in India. The report highlighted
the dual impact of global trade practices on the sustenance of the poor strata in terms of
capturing the wider scale of market economy, introduction of new technologies,
enhancement of productivity leading to growth and development of the nations where as
generation of complexities etc. There had been positive impact of export practices on
raising the level of import substitution, increase in the wage rates of unskilled labor and
increase in the employment opportunities in the economy.

Johnson (2012) highlighted the challenges encountered by United States in Hemp

production in terms of competition from other International suppliers, strict rules, policy
regime concerned with drug policies, concern regarding the outcomes of United States
commercial production of hemp. The study depicted negative impact of hemp production
on lives of public in terms of health of public, profane image of government before public,
high level of Tetrahydrocannabinol marijuana as well as complicating Drug Enforcement
Administration vigilance. However, it was also found that commercial hemp industry
would enable the United States growers to grow it as economic feasible and viable crop.
Mukherjee and Mukherjee (2012) analyzed the trends and drivers of India’s export
performance in the International market. Exports have always played a major role in the
growth and development of the entire nation with the passage of time. The research
highlighted the significant share of India’s aggregate exports i.e. gems, jewelry, cotton,
electronic goods in the International market during the last few years. Hence, efforts
should be made for upgrading the modes of production to enhance the capability of the
nations in the fields where it has comparative advantage as compare to others to strengthen
its worldwide rank as the exporter in the global market. Hence, the study stressed on the
need to ensure the strict compliance with the market measuring yards to enhance the
nation’s ability to cope with the changing demands of the environment.

Timothy et al. (2012) in their study examined the effect of foreign trade on the economic
growth and situations of Jorden. The study highlighted the gradual but marvelous growth
of the nation on the basis of numerous reasons such as persistency of regional imbalance as
well as a lot of trade agreements with other nations apart from Arab nations. The study also
elucidated the rising graph of export in the fields of Phosphates and Potash for expanding
the purview of contemporary manufacturing exports. Besides this, the research also
depicted the declining graph of food export due to mushrooming population in the local
areas.

Rahman et al., (2012) analyzed the different trends, trading patterns and determinants
related to agricultural trade between Bangladesh and India from 1989 to 2007. The study
depicted the increase in degree of trade openness in jute and jute products with the advent
of New Economic Policy after 1991. There had been a significant increase in the
Bangladesh’s imports of agricultural commodities like wheat, rice and onion from India.
The study also found the significant change in the trade patterns due to change in policy
regimes, tariffs and trade facilitation measures.

EXIM Bank (2012) mentioned the three-fold rise in the aggregate merchandise trade of
Indian economy from US$ 252 in 2006 to US$ 794 in 2012. The study revealed UAE,
China, Singapore and USA as India’s biggest export markets where as Saudi Arabia,
China, Switzerland and UAE as the biggest import markets. The study stated the
stupendous increase in the nation’s exports and imports as well as hike in the Trade-GDP
ratio between 30.26% in 2006 to 42.95% in 2012. Besides this, the study foregrounded
Gems and Jewelry, pharma as well as petroleum products as the major export items and
Gold, Silver, Electronic as well as Petroleum goods as the import items.

Banga and Das (2012) analyzed the impact of liberalization on the trade practices in India
between 1992 and 2012 during the post New Economic Policy regime. The study revealed
the growth of India with the introduction of economic reforms. The reforms in the
International trade have provided direction and foundation to the numerous relationships
among the nations, promotion of efficacy, removal of excessive obligations, reduction in
bias and encouragement in the employment-oriented industrialization. The report also
depicted the gradual increase in the foreign direct investment and creation of a competitive
market to provide long term opportunities to the manufacturers as well as accelerated the
domestic demand of goods and services. The emergence and establishment of Information
and Communication Technologies have also enabled the nation to grow by leaps and
bounds on the verge of advanced economies.

Hsu et al., (2011) proclaimed the establishment of many Taiwanese hand tool
manufacturers in Kunshan, China on the basis of management strategy of international
specialization between Taiwan and China as a panacea to low price competitive
environment in Chinese original equipment manufacturing industry. The study revealed the
steps of foundational strategies of the production pattern in terms of development and
production of high-quality and high value added products, production of low-end products
in China and their sale in domestic as well as International market, assembling the semi-
finished products in Taiwan and selling them in global market. The study also highlighted
stupendous growth in the Taiwanese business as well as establishment of China as the
biggest hand tool intermediate products importer for Taiwan.

Kannan and Sundaram (2011) highlighted the various trends as well patterns of agricultural
growth in India. The study revealed the significant transformations in the cropping pattern
in India in production of commercial crops as well as food grains from 1967-68 to 2007-
08. The researchers also depicted the decline in production of cereals during FY 1970-71
to FY 2007-08. It was also found that the use of modern technology, crop varieties,
irrigation facilities, enhanced capital formation, adequate rainfall and improvement in the
fertilizers, weedicides and ways of working had been the prominent factors to accelerate
the production of crops.

Sheshagiri et al., (2011) examined the prospects and performance of agriculture sector on
the foundation of World Trade Organization (WTO) agreement. The agreement marked the
introduction of reduction in the trade tariffs and provision of subsidies in the merging
nations. The study highlighted the growth of products in the agriculture sector and
generation of employment opportunities to the existing manufacturers and the new
producers. The study proposed the need of revamping the agricultural policies, enhancing
the technical efficacy, making changes in the incentive structure of the agricultural sector
as well as proper allocation of agricultural resources for the swift diversification of the
agricultural sector.

Sen and Paul (2010) conducted a study to analyze the future prospects related to
agricultural goods in general and food products in particular. The study highlighted the
provision of new opportunities to the manufacturers and traders in the equity market. The
stock market had been reckoned as the foundation, which influenced the investments in the
commodity markets as well as the led to the hike in spot prices. The research also
foregrounded the fall in the stock market in 2008 that took a gargantuan initiative of
balancing the entire market with the flow of funds through portfolio investment to the
commodity market.
Tantri and Deshpande (2010) analyzed the impact of Agricultural agreement and
Agricultural Policy in Karnataka, India under the aegis of World Trade Organization. The
study highlighted the increase in agricultural export in Karnataka from Rs. 1910 crore to
Rs. 2439 between 1998-99 and 2002-03. The study emphasized that there should be
proliferation in the span of segments under World Trade Organization right from Industrial
sector, software, gems, jewelry, textile as well as raw materials. Moreover, there should be
the need of a nodal agency at the State level to analyze the existing patterns of State
participation in the global trade keeping in view the welfare of the public as well as
development of the nation.

Bhalla and Singh (2009) analyzed the performance of transformed agriculture and
cropping patterns from 1962-65 to 2003-06 into six segments in context to the inception,
maturing as well as post reforms of Green Revolution in the north-western regional states.
The study depicted the adoption of new technology, promotional growth in agricultural
output, crop diversification from coarse cereals to more valuable oilseed crops in central
India as well as rice and wheat in eastern as well as north-western areas. The study also
suggested that there must be a comprehensive analysis of the prominent reasons regarding
failure of economic liberalization to enhance the state of agriculture.

Mallick (2009) examined the structural transformations as well as the economic structure
in context to Indian economy. The study depicted that long term and short term trends in
private segment at sub-sectoral, aggregate and sectoral levels as their contribution towards
the growth of private capital formation during the period of agricultural reforms. The study
also highlighted the increase in the capital formation in private sector as well as decrease in
public sector with the introduction of economic reforms. The industrial sector had been
recognized as the prominent sector of private investment along with service sector and
agricultural sector. Apart from it, real estate, ownership of dwellings and business services
had been found as the major sector supported by private investment during the reforms.

Chaisse et al., (2009) conducted a study to ascertain the major determinants of strategic
shift of India’s preferential trade arrangements. The study depicted the numerous strategies
initiated by India for development of integrate trade and investment framework in several
other nations. These initiatives, pacts and trade arrangements had been found significant
and imperative for the overall growth of the nation and gain competitive advantage in the
long run. The study also depicted inability on the part of the nation to abnegate the
multilateral trade with European Union and United States as they had been the major
source of Foreign Direct Investment inflow.

Swain (2009) made an assessment related to nature and enormity of the trade externalities
related to agricultural subsidies with the enforcement of World Trade Organization
agreement. The study depicted the significant role played by the agricultural subsidies in
the International trade and as cardinal facet of agricultural initiatives. The study also
highlighted the inability on the part of WTO to minimize the agricultural subsidies, despite
the agreements between agricultural initiatives and the provisions of subsidies.it was
suggested that the budding economies should perform collaborative actions to help
themselves advancing in the International markets and scaling down the subsidies.

Pandey (2008) analyzed the growth impact of Gross Domestic Product of India as well as
its export after the introduction of World Trade Organization Arrangement and structure
Adjustment Programmes after 1990s. The study was conducted between 1985-86 and
2004-05 in India. The study stated a huge difference in the production pattern and Gross
Domestic Product of the nation before and after the introduction of these initiatives. The
study stated the importance of WTO Arrangements of 1995 for the simplification and
rectification existing trade barriers among the various nations. The study emphasized that
there should be proper reconsideration of Indian export strategies for the future use.
Mamerto et al., (2008) investigated the impact and challenges encountered in the
Agricultural trade post Liberalization in Latin America. The research depicted the two-
sided impact of Liberalized policy in terms of increase in agricultural exports as well as
challenges for the small farmers manufacturing the local staple products. The study found
the lack of capability of North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) to produce
precise opportunities for the small farmers engrossed in the traditional practices of
agricultural production. Hence, the study emphasized on the adoption of concrete policies
for the global financial institutions, government of United States and national government
of the concerned terrain.
Sharma (2008) have analyzed the bilateral agricultural trade practices and new
opportunities (AFTA), evolving scenario and existing trade potentials across China and
India. The study highlighted the significant expansion in the agricultural trade in the
segments of raw silk, cotton, oil meals and palm oils. The bilateral trade between India and
China had been marked with the diversification. The major challenge in the bilateral trade
had been the knowledge and understanding of profits and costs related to the Preferential
Trade Agreement between both the nations. The study also depicted the existence of
different phases of development in both the nations, which has created an imbalance and
disparity in the major trade related practices across both the nations. Therefore, it is
necessary that policy must be upgraded at regular intervals of time.

Sen (2008) examined the manufacturing outcomes of International trade in India since
1980s. The study had depicted the magnificent growth of manufacturing sector in the
economy in comparison to Bangladesh, Kenya, Vietnam and South America. The major
outcome of the study was the minimal impact of International trade on the production.
India has been found as the nation rich in labor-intensive manufacturing goods by
providing employment opportunities to the unskilled and unorganized labor. The study
suggested a suitable distinction in the pro-poor outcomes of the globalization in the whole
world to help the emerging nations.

Polaski et al., (2008) have assessed the major challenges faced by the emerging nations due
to trade policies. The study revealed the potential outcomes related to Doha round at the
WTO and numerous bilateral free trade agreements. The changes initiated with the trade
agreements had foregrounded the slow but significant potential of the nation in achieving
higher level of economic growth. The study also highlighted the negative impacts of hike
in rice price in terms of imbalance in distribution of income and lack of growth in the poor
households in the economy. Therefore, the study suggested that Indian government should
provide special status to some specific crops to ensure their existence.

Kaberia (2007) accessed the role played by World Trade Organization in the formation of
International relationships among China, Philippines and United States of America. The
study revealed the negative impact of export dumping on the livelihood of small farmers in
the advancing nations, which had led to problem related to food security in the emerging
economies. The study also revealed the partial benefit of WTO agreement to the advanced
nations only as compare to the emerging nations. WTO regulations should enable the
nations to make their own decisions to protect the interests of labor force and provide
employment opportunities to them. Proper implementation of such regimes would enable
the merging nations to meet their social as well as environmental needs.

Solanki (2007) conducted a study to analyze the impacts of globalization on economic

growth, employment growth rate, inflation, poverty and across various sectors of the
Indian economy. The study had depicted the existence of dual impact in terms of exchange
of technology, Foreign Direct Investment, generation of employment opportunities and
evolving of the service sector as a biggest stroke where as gap between the advanced and
advancing nations, existence of wider fluctuations and instability in the nation. Hence, the
study emphasized that private sector must be encouraged to involve in most of the
activities for optimum utilization of scare natural resources. Besides this, manufacturers
must be provided with adequate information about the long term gains by engrossing in the
effective export practices in the economy.

Chakrabarty (2006) investigated the growth of agricultural trade in India. The study
depicted the inadequate growth in the performance of Indian agriculture. The study
revealed the growing trends in the agricultural sector in India, which showed the high cost
of production, fall in the agricultural prices at the global level all over the world. Besides
this, it was also found that there had been more effective economies in the segments of
agriculture. The study emphasized that there should be precise consideration of all the
facilities related to agricultural development so that there should be proper growth in
agricultural sector, which would support the growth across all the segments and leading to
growth and development in the entire nation.

Bhat et al., (2006) explained the trade relationships between India and China in terms of
strengthening the competitiveness as well as complementarities in the WTO regime. The
adoption of Liberalized regime had created a watershed in the development policies of
both advancing nations. The biggest gap between both the nations had been China’s
significant NRI contribution as well as Foreign Direct Investment initiatives, which was
lacking on the Indian terrain. The study mentioned the possibilities and scope of close
economic relationships between both the nations on the basis of bilateral as well as
regional agreements.
Kalrijan and Singh (2006) examined the aspects related to the WTO’s agreement on the
Agricultural practices as per the India’s point of view. The WTO regime had been found
successful in terms of increasing the pace of agricultural trade related initiatives across the
globe. India had been providing a large number of subsidies to resort the blissful living of
its farmers. Besides this, the research had proclaimed the strong political support for
strengthening the agricultural framework in the domestic market. The study suggested that
India should adopt a concrete strategy to balance the rural-urban divide, provide
employment opportunities to the large segment of its population, expansion of exports and
improvement in the agricultural practices.

Ohlan (2006) has examined the association between the World Trade Organization
agreement and the agricultural practices in India. India has marked increase in the share of
agricultural exports as compare to its imports. There had been decline in the economy’s
share in the Gross Domestic Product in the WTO era. The study highlighted the negative
impact on the agricultural trade practices as well as specialization in context to the
agricultural initiatives. The study suggested that there must be improvement in the
strategical transformation which re required for the promotion of export goods and making
substitutes for the imported goods. Besides, India must maintain its agricultural tariff rates
at WTO agreement to get the long term stability.

Ronald (2006) had investigated the implications of WTO agreements on agricultural

practices in the emerging nations like India. WTO has enabled the growth and widened the
horizon of the agricultural initiatives for the domestic farmers. Doha declaration has played
an imperative role in the form of commitments and comprehensive associations to
encompass the wider market aspects. It was also found that such initiatives had only
benefitted the advanced nations so far. The study emphasized that the agreements should
focus on providing adequate benefits to the emerging nations as well for their long term
capital goals. It would also help the farmers for realizing higher prices for their products.

Jull (2006) conducted a study to examine the influence of Agriculture-related WTO

agreements on Nepal’s domestic legal framework. The research depicted the direct and
positive impact of initiatives taken with World Trade Organization on Nepal’s agricultural
trade policies. Nepal had to encounter numerous challenges in the form of huge reliance on
bilateral agricultural trade practices, weak trading infrastructural settings as well as
inability to muster gains from the agricultural market. Although, Nepal had been able to
attain the reduction on tariff barriers but there is a dire need to induce the public
investment so as to enable the people get the basic revised framework to make private
investment across different segments of the economy.

Samaratunga and Thibbotuwawa (2006) the impact of Liberalization on the agricultural

initiatives in South Asian economies, which had depicted the positive trend of economic
growth in the last few years. The study highlighted the inability on the part of South Asian
Trade negotiations to harness low level of opportunities related to agricultural trade as well
as low coverage in the trade negotiations. A strong potential had been found for the
improvement in the agricultural trade practices and hope for greater openness in trade. The
study also focused on reduction in tariffs, improvement in market access for products with
special expertise in exports and provision of fair trade initiatives as the foundation for the
multilateral, involvement in capturing wide span of market and regional trade agreement
and practices.

Clapp (2006) depicted the pattern of growth and trade involvement with the introduction of
Doha development round of trade negotiations. The emerging nations have been regarded
as instrumental in revitalizing the dynamics related to agricultural practices. The study
revealed the success on the part of developing nations in registering their aspects with the
agreement as well as maintenance of high degree of cooperation across the global south
regions. These initiatives had been taken into account to ensure the smooth existence of a
mechanism to hear the concerns and numerous views related to the involvement of the
emerging nations into various groups like G- 20.

National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (2006) has stated the impact of WTO
agreement on the agricultural initiatives, its implications for policy as well as research and
development. WTO has enabled the nation to attain gradual increase in the agricultural
exports as well as on the other hand increase in the import of goods in the domestic market.
The subsidies provided by the OECD nations had been the prominent reason for such kind
of drastic transformation in the entire world. However, there has been the existence of lop
sided development across advanced and emerging nations leading to a big gap. Hence, the
report has focused on recognizing the need of some suitable initiatives to increase the
tendency of support to the emerging nations as well.
Goldar (2005) analyzed the effect of unilateral tariff reductions and lowering of
Quantitative restrictions since 1991. The study found the average increase in the imports of
textile during 1990s where as higher trend of increase in textile imports during 2000-01
and 2003-04. The study also showed the decline in the trend of textile exports during 1985
to 2001. However, the study foregrounded the magnificent impact of these initiatives on
Indian industry and a large chunk of reduction in tariffs between 1991 and 2004. Hence,
the study also emphasized on increase in the production of textile products to improve the
economic situation of the nation.

Jha et al., (2005) examined the market scenario of 55 wholesale rice markets in India with
the help of Gonzalez-Rivera as well as Helfand. The study depicted the fragmentation in
the rice markets in Indian economy. The study also highlighted the major reason for this
fragmentation had been the prevalence of excessive interference by the government
agencies and the existence of internal trade barriers. Hence, the study suggested that there
should be proper revitalization of the trade related facilities in the economy for balancing
the market growth of the rice markets as a strong measure of support to the manufacturers
and the marketers.

OECD (2005) investigated the agricultural initiatives in the OECD nations with the help of
many measures like Nominal Protection Coefficient, General Services Support Estimate,
Market Price Support and Product Support Estimate. The study revealed the decline in the
market share of production and trade from 90 percent of producers support in FY 1986-88
to 75 percent 2001-03, higher level of support towards the producers as well as variation in
the level of support among the OECD nations. The variation in the supportive echelons
across these nations had been found creating a higher level of distortions in the agricultural
sector over the globe. The study stressed on promoting the suitable agricultural policies
across these nations for ensuring their long term survival and growth.

Brummer (2005) analyzed India’s negotiation positions at the World Trade Organization.
The study revealed the numerous negotiating strategies, policy of import substitution, and
use of defensive approach pursued by the nation in the domestic economy to support the
integral process of development. It was found that the emerging nations had been able to
enhance their influence at the WTO in the last few years. Apart from this, India had been
pursuing a policy of explicit linking to defend its numerous interests in many segments.
The study also revealed the problems faced by India in terms of regional disparities,
insufficient employment opportunities and the existence of poverty among the farmers.

Mattoo and Stern (2003) examined the association between India and the World Trade
Organization. The study depicted the important role played by WTO in terms of
negotiation and design of Doha Development Agenda (2001) in terms of perpetuating
sentience regarding multilateral trade negotiations for the achievement of development
goals, making arrangements for service trade liberalization, Multifibre settings, FDI (
Foreign Direct Investment), procurement of Government, association between environment
and trade as well as proper analysis of the major aspects related to participation of public in
the development negotiations. The study revealed that the nations, which used
competitiveness, had been able to harness the long term gains.

Kathuria et al., (2003) examined the telecommunication policy reforms in India, which
stated the positive trend of higher levels of efficacy in provision regarding the services and
improve the process of telecommunication network and service development. The study
had shown the increase in private investment, open competition and public-private
partnership trend with the inception of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization. The
research also revealed the rapid changes in the nation’s market structure ensuring the
transformation towards effective regulatory regime to introduce changes in the
environment, adopt the new technologies, update the existing ways of working, increase
the range of reaching the public as well as increase in the competitive market structure.
Agarwal (2003) has analyzed the economic influence of Foreign Direct Investment in
South Asia 1980 onwards along with Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
The researcher highlighted the dramatic inclining graph of FDI Inflows in South Asia by
the global investors, which had revealed the strong affiliation between domestic as well as
global capital formation. The study foregrounded the insignificant impact of FDI inflow on
nation’s Gross Domestic Product before 1990 where as it was found to be highly positive
between 1990-96. It was also found that the inflow of FDI had also led to the foreign
borrowing along with the hike in Foreign Direct Investment.

Chow (2001) investigated the effect of China’s membership in World Trade organization
on its legal, economic as well as political institutions. The study highlighted the positive
impacts of member in creating a sound environment in the nation across all the segments.
It was also revealed that the positive psychological impacts of the membership would
enable the nation towards the acceptance and adoption of major, significant but gradual
institutional and democratic reforms as lantern to include major transformations towards a
democratic government. These transformations have enabled China to move ahead in the
competitive globe to establish itself as a super producer in the world.

Shah (2000) examined the current and future prospects of advancing and advanced nations
in agricultural and especially horticultural exports. The study observed the decline in
market share among advancing nations and marginal hike in the market share of Fruits and
Vegetables from 1981 to 1997. The study depicted the growing trends and prospects of
horticulture products in the emerging nations in comparison to the cereal product due to
labor-intensive horticultural products. Besides this, the research highlighted the benefits
from rise in exports in terms of expansion of inflow of foreign capital, which was
considered substantial to meet the proliferation demands of community as well as
mushrooming debt related payments to the domestic and global market.

Binswanger and Lutz (2000) reviewed the practices related to trade negotiations,
agricultural trade barriers and interests in the advancing nations. The study depicted the
inability on the part of emerging nations to capture the major share of growth in agriculture
and diversification. The research revealed the reduction in anti-agricultural trade barriers
on the part of emerging nations but their inability to cover up the welfare losses. The study
laid emphasis on outlawing the export subsidies, reduction in trade barriers and increase in
the tariff quotas for striking a balance in the growth of agricultural initiatives in the
economy.

Barret and Yang (1999) revealed the promotion of trade and economic welfare with
peaceful international product standardization over the globe. The study depicted the
existence of networking impact to balance the market frictions and provide welfare to the
consumers. The study also highlighted the gauntlet lock-in influence towards the
international standard-setting process in the market. Hence, it was suggested that
government must value deviation from the International standards by creating incentives
for the acceptance and enforcement of the technical barriers to the trade, which would
certainly help the nations to form multi-trait competitive environment among the products
as well as reduce the imbalance in the trade flows. Therefore, efforts of the producers must
be stabilizing in one direction for the dual gain in the economy.

McLaren and Jostling (1999) have examined the competition policy and International
Agricultural Trade adopted by the nations as a new issue for the global trading system. The
adoption of WTO and execution of the Uruguay Round Agreements have enabled the
International trading pattern come in the vicinity of enhancing the competitive
environment for the international market of products and services. The study also
mentioned the vitality of international food system as a global phenomenon towards the
establishment of internal economies to scale to enhance the importance of international
discussions and public policy regime. The study stressed that government must make
choices to influence the behavior of its natives as the foundation to policy regime.

Meilke et al., (1995) examined the major challenges in the quantitative economic analysis
in context to multilateral trade negotiations. The study pinpointed the significant role
played by quantitative analysis of agricultural trade liberalization in aspects related to the
trade negotiation process, revitalizing the domestic agricultural policies and exposing the
costs related to contemporary agricultural policies. The study suggested for engrossing
perfectly wider economic approaches such as environmental safeguards, labor policy,
intellectual property rights, competition policy and dispute settlement mechanisms to
create healthy business environment.
2.2 RESEARCH GAPS
After an in-depth review of the past studies available on the agriculture trade, and the
research area following gaps were found out which can serve as a basis of formulation of
objectives of the current study:

1. Literature is full of studies on agriculture, factors affecting agriculture output, but very
few studies have been attempted to examine the trend of agricultural trade in India.
2. Literature has clearly shown the impact of WTO on the growth of various sectors
including agriculture, but the pre and post effect of WTO on agriculture has not been
dealt with.
3. Studies have been conducted across the globe to measure the advantages of agriculture
trend in the growth of economies, but the studies in Indian context are few in numbers.
4. Keeping in view the dynamic nature of business environment, it is the need of the hour
to find out suitable measures for bringing stability in agriculture trade. Very few
studies have been conducted on this area.

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