JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 117, F04024, doi:10.

1029/2012JF002539, 2012

Mapping gravel bed river bathymetry from space

C. J. Legleiter1 and B. T. Overstreet1
Received 2 July 2012; revised 1 October 2012; accepted 5 October 2012; published 21 November 2012.

[1] Understanding river form and behavior requires an efficient means of measuring
channel morphology. This study evaluated the potential to map the bathymetry of two
clear-flowing, shallow (<3 m deep) gravel bed rivers <60 m wide from 2 m-pixel
WorldView2 satellite images. Direct measurements of water column optical properties
were used to quantify constraints on depth retrieval. The smallest detectable change in
depth was 0.01–0.04 m and the maximum detectable depth was 5 m in green bands but
<2 m in the near-infrared; lower sensor radiometric resolution yields less precise
estimates over a smaller range. An algorithm for calibrating a band ratio X to field
measurements of depth d proved effective when applied to spectra extracted from
images (R2 = 0.822 and 0.594 for the larger and smaller stream, respectively) or
measured in the field (R2 = 0.769 and 0.452). This procedure also identified optimal
wavelength combinations, but different bands were selected for each site. Accuracy
assessment of bathymetric maps produced using various calibration approaches and
image types indicated that: 1) a linear d vs. X relation provided depth estimates nearly
as accurate as a quadratic formulation; 2) panchromatic and pan-sharpened
multispectral images with smaller 0.5 m pixels did not yield more reliable depth
estimates than the original images; and 3) depth retrieval was less reliable in pools due
to saturation of the radiance signal. This investigation thus demonstrated the feasibility,
as well as the limitations, of measuring the bathymetry of clear, shallow gravel bed
rivers from space.
Citation: Legleiter, C. J., and B. T. Overstreet (2012), Mapping gravel bed river bathymetry from space, J. Geophys. Res., 117,
F04024, doi:10.1029/2012JF002539.

1. Introduction detailed surveys. A more synoptic perspective on fluvial

systems will require a different approach, and remote sens-
[2] The form and behavior of gravel bed rivers reflect ing is increasingly viewed as a viable alternative [Marcus
complex interactions among morphology, flow, and sedi-
and Fonstad, 2008, 2010]. Previous studies have demon-
ment transport. Understanding connections between form
strated the feasibility of deriving various types of river
and process is thus a principal objective of fluvial geomor-
information from image data, ranging from measurements of
phology, but progress toward this goal is hindered by the
lateral channel migration from historical air photos [e.g.,
difficulty of collecting basic data on topography, flow con-
Micheli and Kirchner, 2002] to suspended sediment con-
ditions, and bed material properties. Moreover, the logistical
centrations inferred from Landsat scenes [Mertes et al.,
constraints associated with traditional field methods for
1993; Kilham et al., 2012]. The most mature application of
measuring these attributes often limit investigations to short,
remote sensing to rivers is retrieval of water depth from
isolated study reaches. Although recent advances in instru-
passive optical images, primarily multi- or hyperspectral data
mentation, such as total stations [Keim et al., 1999], real- acquired from aerial platforms [e.g., Winterbottom and
time kinematic global positioning systems (RTK GPS)
Gilvear, 1997; Marcus et al., 2003; Lejot et al., 2007;
[Brasington et al., 2000], and terrestrial laser scanning
Legleiter et al., 2009; Flener et al., 2012]. In this study, we
[Hodge et al., 2009], have enabled more efficient data col- build upon these results by using field measurements and
lection, most research continues to focus on scales ranging
satellite imagery to evaluate the potential for mapping the
from a few to several tens of channel widths, often with little
bathymetry of gravel bed rivers from space.
consideration of the broader watershed context for these
[3] Knowledge of water depth is valuable for a number of
1
different purposes. For example, depth is an important
Department of Geography, University of Wyoming, Laramie, parameter for any hydrologic study that involves computing
Wyoming, USA.
river discharge and/or routing flows. From a geomorphic
Corresponding author: C. J. Legleiter, Department of Geography, perspective, the depth, along with the water surface slope,
University of Wyoming, Dept. 3371, 1000 E. University Ave., Laramie, exerts a primary control on the boundary shear stress that in
WY 82071, USA. turn drives bed material transport. In an ecological context,
©2012. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved. the thickness and optical properties of the water column
0148-0227/12/2012JF002539

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE
determine the amount of solar energy that propagates to the
streambed to fuel primary production by benthic algae. For
managers interested in monitoring stream condition and
change, depth is one of the principal quantities used to
assess habitat quality. In addition, when combined with
information on water surface elevations, depth measure-
ments can be used to obtain topographic input data for
numerical modeling of flow and sediment transport. Sim-
ilarly, sequential observations of channel morphology can
be used to identify areas of erosion and deposition and
hence to infer bed material transfer and storage [e.g.,
Ashmore and Church, 1998; Ham and Church, 2000].
A capacity to map river bathymetry efficiently, reliably,
and over large extents would thus benefit the riverine
sciences in many ways.
[4] Remote sensing could provide such capability. The
potential of this approach has been confirmed first through
empirical case studies [e.g., Winterbottom and Gilvear,
1997; Marcus et al., 2003] and more recently by consider-
ing the underlying physics [Legleiter et al., 2004, 2009].
Passive optical remote sensing of river bathymetry involves
measuring the amount of solar radiation reflected from the
channel, which depends not only on depth but also the tex-
ture of the water surface, the concentration and composition
of sediment and organic materials within the water column,
and the reflectance of the streambed. Moreover, all of these
quantities vary as a function of wavelength l. To gain
insight as to how the processes that govern the interaction of
light and water both enable and limit the remote sensing of
rivers, Legleiter et al. [2004] used a radiative transfer
model to isolate the effects of depth d, suspended sediment
concentration, and bottom reflectance RB(l) on the
upwelling spectral radiance L(l) recorded by a remote
detector. For conditions representative of a shallow, clear-
flowing gravel bed river, this analysis indicated that depth
was the primary control on L(l) and that taking the loga-
rithm of the ratio of two specific bands yielded an image-
derived quantity X linearly related to d. Subsequently, we
argued on theoretical grounds that spectrally-based depth
retrieval would be feasible when d is small, the substrate is
highly reflective relative to the overlying water column,
and attenuation of light is dominated by pure water
absorption rather than scattering by suspended sediment.
Radiative transfer modeling, field-based reflectance mea-
surements, and bathymetric maps derived from hyper-
spectral image data supported these conclusions and
confirmed the utility of a simple band ratio for remote
measurement of water depths in certain types of rivers
[Legleiter et al., 2009].
[5] Although previous studies have shown that depth
information can be retrieved from aerial images, the feasi-
bility of mapping river bathymetry from space has not been
assessed. In this study, we used field measurements and
multispectral image data to explore the possibility of mea-
suring gravel bed river depths from a satellite platform. Our
research objectives were to: (1) characterize the inherent
optical properties of the water column by obtaining novel in
situ measurements of absorption and attenuation in a pair of
clear-flowing gravel bed streams, (2) establish relationships
between depth and reflectance based on field spectra from
these rivers, and (3) evaluate different approaches for cali-
brating image-derived quantities to flow depth and (4) assess
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F04024
the accuracy of depth estimates produced from various types
of satellite imagery.
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area
[6] To evaluate the feasibility of mapping river bathyme-
try from space, we examined two gravel bed streams in the
Rocky Mountains, USA: the Snake River in Grand Teton
National Park and Soda Butte Creek (SBC) in Yellow-
stone National Park (Figure 1). Both watersheds are
snowmelt-dominated and generally exhibit clear water
conditions during late summer low flows. The two rivers
feature wandering planforms with both sinuous, single-
thread and more complex multi-thread segments. In addition,
both streams are highly dynamic, with extensive morpho-
logic change occurring during spring runoff in many years,
including 2011. The steep, glaciated valley of SBC is com-
posed of weak Eocene volcanic rock and provides an abun-
dant sediment supply that drives channel change [Meyer,
2001]. The Snake River is regulated at Jackson Lake, but
sediment delivered from tributaries below the dam [Erwin
et al., 2011], along with large woody debris, contribute to
frequent morphologic adjustments. We selected these rivers
for study because the complexity and dynamism of these
channels imply that remote sensing might be useful, if not
necessary, for characterizing their form, behavior, and
evolution.
[7] For the Snake River we focused on a meander called
Rusty Bend, shown in Figure 1c and described in Table 1.
The channel curves smoothly to the right through this reach
and has a relatively simple morphology consisting of a gravel
bar along the inner (right, or north) bank and a vertical to
steeply sloping cutbank on the outside of the bend where the
Snake River erodes into a high terrace. For the purposes of
this investigation, the bar-pool topography of Rusty Bend
was attractive because of the broad range of depths encom-
passed: very shallow over the bar and up to 2.77 m in the pool
along the outer bank. Also, a variety of substrates with dif-
ferent reflectance characteristics were present within this
reach: clean gravel, bright green benthic algae, and blocks of
lighter-colored bedrock (Figure 2b).
[8] Soda Butte Creek has been the subject of previous
efforts to map river bathymetry from aerial platforms
[Marcus et al., 2003; Legleiter et al., 2004, 2009; Legleiter,
2012a] and thus provides a convenient opportunity to assess
whether similar information might be derived from satellite
images. In this study, we focused on the Footbridge Reach,
a site for which ground-based topographic surveys have
been conducted each year since 2005 [Legleiter, 2012b].
The reach comprises a sweeping meander and large point
bar, which is now being incised by a chute channel that has
captured much of the stream’s flow and could soon cut off
the bend. Because the discharge is divided among multiple
channels and the image was acquired under base flow con-
ditions, depths were generally quite shallow (Table 1) but
deeper pools were present in the middle of the chute chan-
nel, along the west bank above the bend apex, and against
the east bank at the lower end of the reach. The smaller size
of SBC also implied that mixed pixels along channel mar-
gins would be more extensive and potentially more prob-
lematic than for the Snake River.
F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE F04024

Figure 1. (a) Map indicating the location of study sites in Grand Teton National Park (GTNP) and Yel-
lowstone National Park (YNP), USA. WorldView2 images of the (b) Snake River and (d) Soda Butte
Creek are shown, with insets highlighting (c) Rusty Bend and (e) the Footbridge Reach.

2.2. Field Data Collection

[9] On the Snake River, we surveyed channel bed topog-
raphy using a high-precision (2–3 cm, both horizontal and Table 1. Channel Characteristics for Study Reaches
vertical) real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS receiver. Eleva- Snake River Soda Butte Creek
tions were measured at points arranged along cross-sections Rusty Bend Footbridge Reach
that traversed exposed bars and shallow areas of the wetted
Radius of curvature (m) 84 42
channel. Depths were determined by subtracting the bed Mean wetted width (m) 58 19
elevation for in-stream survey points from the elevation Channel bed slope 0.0035 0.0065
recorded at the water’s edge along each transect [Legleiter Mean da
std. dev. (m) 1.23
0.57 0.22
0.15
et al., 2011a]. For areas that were too deep to wade safely, Maximum d (m) 2.77 0.69
nb 3276 655
the GPS receiver was mounted on a cataraft and configured
to record water surface elevations while communicating with a
The symbol d denotes the pixel-scale mean depth determined from field
an echo sounder that measured flow depths. Measurements measurements via ordinary block kriging.
b
The symbol n is the number of d values for the reach.

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE F04024

Figure 2. (a) Field measurements of flow depth and spectral reflectance were obtained from a cataraft;
the spectroradiometer extends out over the water from the rear of the cataraft (right in this photo).
(b) Blocks of light-colored bedrock present along Rusty Bend. (c) Underwater photograph of the scissor lift
apparatus used to measure downwelling radiant energy at different depths within the water column.

were obtained along a series of transects across our Rusty
Bend study reach as well as longitudinal profiles recorded as
the cataraft traveled downstream. Over 22 km of the Snake
River was surveyed in this manner during a 10-day period in
August and September 2011, resulting in a total of 73,686
echo sounder-based depth measurements. In addition, an
acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) deployed from a
kayak provided additional depth observations. To ensure
that the depth measurements obtained via the three methods
were consistent with one another, we compared echo
sounder and ADCP readings to the closest wading depth.
This analysis indicated that in shallow areas where the data
sets overlapped, the echo sounder depths were biased shal-
low by 7 cm and the ADCP depths biased deep by 3 cm
relative to the wading depths. The mean differences between
the echo sounder and ADCP depths and the corresponding
wading points were used to adjust the echo sounder and
ADCP data to match the wading depths. The resulting,
combined bathymetric field data set was then used for cali-
bration and validation of image-derived depth estimates.
[10] For the smaller Soda Butte Creek, all field measure-
ments were obtained by wading, which allowed us to access
all but the deepest portions of the channel. Field data col-
lection at the Footbridge Reach involved using the RTK GPS
and a robotic total station to complete a detailed, terrain-
sensitive survey that emphasized important breaks in slope
such as the top and base of banks [e.g., Lane et al., 1994;
Wheaton et al., 2010]. In addition, water surface elevations
were measured along channel margins and used to calculate
depths for in-stream points as the difference between water
surface and bed elevations. An earlier study confirmed that
depths determined in this manner agreed closely with
depths measured directly with a ruler, which would have
been a less efficient means of obtaining these data [Legleiter,
2012c].
2.3. Geostatistical Analysis
[11] Before using the depth measurements described
above to calibrate image-derived depth estimates and assess
their accuracy, the original field data were processed
using geostatistical techniques. These analyses served two
important purposes: 1) up-scaling observations collected at
points to the dimensions of an image pixel [Bailly et al.,
2010]; and 2) producing continuous depth maps for com-
parison with the remotely sensed bathymetry. To account for
the non-convex geometry of these meandering rivers, which
implies that conventional Euclidean distances are not a valid
metric [e.g., Little et al., 1997], data were transformed from
the original Cartesian reference frame to an orthogonal cur-
vilinear, channel-centered coordinate system defined by a
streamwise axis s along the channel centerline and a cross-
stream, or normal, n axis oriented perpendicular to the cen-
terline [Smith and McLean, 1984; Legleiter and Kyriakidis,
2006]. The spatial structure of each reach was then quanti-
fied using anisotropic variograms, as described by Legleiter
[2012d]. Briefly, variograms summarize the degree to
which observations are spatially correlated with one another
as a function of the distance and direction (i.e., lag vector)
between pairs of points and thus provide information on
overall variability as well as the length scales over which this
variability is expressed along and across the channel. In this
study, de-trending was not necessary because we used depth
measurements rather than bed elevations that would have
been influenced by the overall slope of the channel. Sample
variograms were calculated for the s and n directions by
restricting the angular tolerances associated with each lag
vector class. Variogram model parameters were estimated
first manually using an iterative graphical procedure and then
refined using a weighted least squares algorithm that
emphasized shorter lag distances with larger numbers of pairs
[Zhang et al., 1995; Pardo-Iguzquiza, 1999].
[12] Although field measurements were collected at dis-
crete points, depth estimates derived from satellite images
pertain to larger areas of space, represented by image pixels.
To account for this difference in scale, or change of support
[e.g., Atkinson and Curran, 1995], we employed a geosta-
tistical algorithm known as ordinary block kriging (OBK),
described in general by Goovaerts [1997] and in a remote
sensing context by Bailly et al. [2010]. Here, we briefly
summarize the rationale for and implementation of this
procedure. Essentially, we used OBK to upscale point
observations to the dimensions of an image pixel and obtain

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE
spatially distributed estimates of the pixel-scale mean depth.
Also, because some pixels contained multiple points, this
analysis served to avoid the redundancy that would have
occurred if the original field measurements were paired
directly with specific image pixels. Instead, the OBK algo-
rithm yielded a single estimate of the average depth within
each pixel, regardless of the number of points present within
that area. To compute OBK estimates, we first created a fine-
scale grid of discretization points for each reach, consisting
of 16 points per pixel, and transformed these prediction
locations to the same channel-centered coordinate system as
the field data. A depth estimate for each discretization point
was then calculated using an ordinary kriging algorithm that
incorporated the anisotropic variogram models described
above [Legleiter and Kyriakidis, 2008]. Taking the average
of the ordinary kriging estimates for the 16 points within
each pixel yielded the block kriging estimate of the pixel-
scale mean depth [Goovaerts, 1997, p. 152]. For purposes of
calibration and validation, OBK depth estimates were com-
puted only for those pixels containing one or more point
measurements. In addition, to examine spatial patterns of
depth retrieval accuracy, continuous field-based bathymetric
maps were generated by estimating via OBK the mean depth
for all pixels within each reach.
2.4. Spectral Characteristics of Gravel Bed Rivers:
Field Measurements and Data Analysis
[13] One of our long-term research objectives is to build a
more thorough database on the spectral characteristics of
fluvial environments, where only a few quantitative obser-
vations of water column optical properties and bottom
reflectance have been made [Legleiter et al., 2009, 2011b].
In this study, we began the process of compiling a spectral
library for rivers by collecting field spectra and measuring
the apparent and inherent optical properties of the water
column in a pair of clear-flowing gravel bed streams.
[14] Reflectance spectra were recorded from above the
water surface using an Analytical Spectral Devices (ASD)
FieldSpec3 spectroradiometer that measured wavelengths
from 350–1025 nm with a 1 nm sampling interval; only the
400–850 nm region was considered here due to noise at both
ends of the spectrum. A 100% reflectant Spectralon cali-
bration panel was used to establish a white reference prior to
each round of measurements. For data collection along the
Snake River, the ASD was mounted on a rod extending from
the rear of the cataraft and configured to record spectra once
each second as we traversed a series of transects across
Rusty Bend (Figure 2a). Flow depths were recorded simul-
taneously using the survey instrumentation described above,
providing the paired observations of depth and reflectance
needed to develop bathymetric mapping algorithms. More-
over, these data extended the range of river conditions under
which spectra have been measured from shallow, wadeable
streams [Legleiter et al., 2009] to a deeper, larger channel
with diverse bottom types (Figure 2b). For SBC, field
spectra were recorded at points accessed by wading and
depths measured with a ruler. Additional detail on the
acquisition and processing of reflectance data were provided
by Legleiter et al. [2011b].
[15] Because water column optical properties influence the
feasibility of inferring depth from image data, we directly
measured several attributes of the water within our study
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streams. Attenuation of light was characterized by measur-
ing the total amount of incident solar radiation, referred to as
the downwelling spectral irradiance Ed(l), at various depths
within the water column. These irradiance profiles were
collected by connecting the ASD to an upward-facing cosine
response detector that integrated radiant energy arriving
from all directions within the upper hemisphere to obtain
Ed(l); the fore-optic was attached to a waterproof cable and
mounted on an adjustable scissor lift to position the sensor at
different depths (Figure 2c). These measurements were used
to calculate the diffuse attenuation coefficient Kd(l), an
apparent optical property that quantifies the rate at which
light is attenuated with distance traveled through the water
column, following the procedure outlined by Mishra et al.
[2005] and applied to the Platte River by Legleiter et al.
[2011b]. In addition, we used a WET Labs ac-9 to directly
measure two inherent optical properties of the water column,
the absorption and attenuation coefficients, a and c. These
optical data were collected on several dates along the Snake
River and SBC. Ancillary data in support of these mea-
surements included water samples analyzed for suspended
sediment concentration and turbidity readings made with a
Eureka Environmental Manta2 multiprobe.
[16] Measuring water column optical properties allowed
us to examine two important constraints on remote sensing
of river bathymetry: the precision of spectrally-based depth
estimates and the maximum depth detectable by an imaging
system. This analysis was based on the early work of Philpot
[1989], which was revisited in a fluvial context by Legleiter
and Roberts [2009]. The original publications provide
additional detail, but only the key results relevant to this
investigation are highlighted herein. Values of Kd(l) deter-
mined from our field measurements were used to calculate
bathymetric precision as
 
1 DLN ðlÞ
Dd ðlÞ ¼ ln 1  expf2Kd ðlÞd0 g ð1Þ
2Kd ðlÞ L B ðl Þ
where Dd(l) is the smallest detectable difference in depth at
an initial depth d0, DLN(l) is the sensor’s noise-equivalent
delta radiance (essentially the smallest change in brightness
the system can resolve), and LB(l) is that portion of the total
radiance signal that has interacted with the bottom and is
thus related to depth. Because DLN(l) and LB(l) are both
spectral radiance values, the units cancel and only the ratio
DLN(l)/LB(l) is significant in equation (1). This ratio serves
as a convenient index of the detectability of the bottom for a
given river and sensor configuration. In this study, we cal-
culated Dd(l) values by specifying DLN(l)/LB(l) = 0.01,
based on prior radiative transfer modeling [Legleiter and
Roberts, 2009], and using 2Kd(l) as an effective attenua-
tion coefficient, following Philpot [1989] and Maritorena
et al. [1994]. Similarly, the maximum detectable depth
occurs when the difference between the at-sensor radiance
and the radiance from a hypothetical infinitely deep water
column is equivalent to the sensor’s DLN(l) and was calcu-
lated as
 
1 DLN ðlÞ
dmax ðlÞ ¼ ln : ð2Þ
2Kd ðlÞ LB ðlÞ
In this case, we used DLN(l)/LB(l) values of 0.1, 0.01,
0.001, and 0.0001 to illustrate the effects of a greater bottom
F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE
contrast between the substrate and water column and/or a
more sensitive detector, either or both of which would cor-
respond to smaller values of DLN(l)/LB(l).
2.5. Image Data Acquisition and Processing
[17] To evaluate the feasibility of mapping gravel bed
river bathymetry from space, this study used satellite images
acquired by the WorldView-2 (WV2) sensor. This imaging
system became operational in January 2010 and features a
unique combination of high spatial resolution (pixel sizes of
0.5 and 2 m for panchromatic and multiband images,
respectively) and multispectral measurement capabilities,
with eight bands spanning visible and near-infrared (NIR)
wavelengths. In addition to the standard blue, green, red, and
NIR bands, WV2 also includes coastal (400–450 nm), yel-
low (585–625 nm), and red edge (705–745 nm) bands
potentially useful for depth retrieval from shallow streams as
well as a longer-wavelength NIR band (860–1040 nm) that
could be used to discriminate land from water. This satellite
also features advanced pointing technology that allows for
off-nadir viewing, reduced revisit times, and precise geo-
metric positioning, with nominal geo-referencing accuracies
on the order of 4 m (Digital Globe, data available at http://
worldview2.digitalglobe.com/about/, 2012).
[18] WV2 images of the Snake River and SBC were
acquired on 13 September 2011 (Figure 1). Deliverables
included geo-referenced multispectral and panchromatic
data sets and supporting metadata. In addition to the original
images, which were not radiometrically calibrated and
consisted of raw digital numbers, we received atmospherically-
corrected data processed to units of apparent surface reflec-
tance in-house by DigitalGlobe. Depth retrieval performance
was evaluated for the multispectral reflectance images as
well as the higher spatial resolution panchromatic data sets.
In addition, we considered hybrid, pan-sharpened images that
consisted of eight spectral bands, like the original multi-
spectral images, but had a smaller 0.5 m pixel size equivalent
to the panchromatic images; these images were generated
using the Gram-Schmidt spectral sharpening tool in the
ENVI software. The three different types of images (multi-
spectral, panchromatic, and pan-sharpened) allowed us to
assess the relative significance of spatial and spectral reso-
lution for remote sensing of river depths.
[19] Geo-referencing of the WorldView-2 image for the
Snake River was highly accurate, with stream banks and
other distinctive features in the image closely aligned with
our field maps; no further geometric correction of this data
set was needed. For SBC, however, the spatial referencing of
the original image was not as reliable, with many of the
points at which depths were measured plotting outside
the wetted channel when overlain on the image. Given the
smaller size of this stream and the abrupt variations in
depth over the scale of a single, 2 m image pixel, improved
geo-referencing was required. The necessary refinement
was achieved by digitizing a wetted channel polygon on
the image and comparing this feature to a polygon created
from water surface elevation points surveyed in the field.
The parameters of an affine transformation were then
iteratively adjusted so as to maximize the area of overlap
between the image- and field-based channel polygons and
the original image transformed using the optimal para-
meters [Legleiter, 2012a]. This algorithm greatly improved
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agreement between field and image data, with depth points
located within the wetted channel on the transformed
image.
[20] An important pre-processing step was the definition
of in-stream masks for each image. These masks served to
isolate active channels and thus highlight variations in
reflectance within the water portion of each scene. In this
study, binary, water-only masks were produced by display-
ing the longest wavelength NIR band as a gray scale image,
inspecting the histogram of pixel values, and interactively
adjusting the contrast stretch to determine a NIR reflectance
threshold that effectively distinguished dark water from
brighter terrestrial features. Pixels with NIR reflectance
values below this threshold were included in an initial water
mask that was refined using image processing operations:
morphological opening to remove isolated pixels, interactive
segmentation to select in-stream image objects, and mor-
phological closing to fuse small gaps [Legleiter et al.,
2011a]. The resulting raster masks then were converted to
vector representations that enabled manual editing to remove
persistent shadows along steep cut banks, for example. The
vector masks were rasterized and applied to the original
images. Finally, the resulting in-stream images were spa-
tially filtered using a 3  3 pixel Wiener smoothing filter
that has been shown to improve depth retrieval performance
[Legleiter, 2012c].
2.6. Spectrally-Based Depth Retrieval
[21] Mapping river bathymetry from satellite images
requires a quantitative relationship between water depth d
and reflectance R(l) in one or more spectral bands; radiance
or raw digital numbers also could be used for this purpose.
Efforts to establish such relationships are complicated,
however, by the influence exerted on the remotely sensed
signal by several other factors, including variations in bottom
reflectance, water column optical characteristics, water sur-
face roughness, and atmospheric conditions. The availability
of multiple spectral bands provides some leverage for iso-
lating the effect of depth, and Legleiter et al. [2009] showed
that under appropriate circumstances and for certain combi-
nations of wavelengths, the image-derived quantity
 
Rðl1 Þ
X ¼ ln ð3Þ
Rðl2 Þ
is linearly related to depth. The physical basis for ratio-based
depth retrieval was examined in detail by Legleiter et al.
[2004, 2009] and is only summarized herein. The upwelling
spectral radiance from a clear-flowing, shallow stream
channel is primarily a function of depth and bottom albedo.
Whereas the reflectances of various substrates tend to be
within a few percent of one another at a given wavelength
and thus have similar band ratio values, the absorption
coefficient of pure water increases by an order of magnitude
from the blue into the NIR portion of the spectrum. As a
result, the reflectance in the longer wavelength band with
stronger absorption, l2, decreases more rapidly as depth
increases than does R(l1) and the ratio X increases with depth
while remaining relatively insensitive to differences in bot-
tom type. Taking the logarithm of the band ratio accounts for
the exponential attenuation of light by the water column.
F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE F04024

Figure 3. (a) Field spectra recorded at Rusty Bend of the Snake River; the median and interquartile range
of n = 904 samples are plotted. (b) Field spectra convolved to the spectral band passes of the WorldView-2
(WV2) sensor. (c) Image spectra from the WV2 image of Rusty Bend, extracted from the unique pixels at
which flow depths were measured in the field (n = 1638). (d) Image spectra corrected to better match the
convolved field spectra by adding the mean difference between the field and image spectra to the original
image spectra.

[22] This approach to retrieving water depth from
remotely sensed data requires: 1) selecting a suitable pair of
wavelengths; and 2) calibrating a linear relation between d
and X. Both of these objectives can be achieved by Optimal
Band Ratio Analysis, or OBRA [Legleiter et al., 2009].
Given paired observations of depth and reflectance, this
algorithm performs regressions of d on X for all possible
combinations of numerator (l1) and denominator (l2)
wavelengths and identifies the optimal band ratio as that
which yields the highest coefficient of determination R2; the
corresponding regression equation provides a calibrated d
vs. X relation. Because depth is regressed against X values
defined by all possible band combinations, OBRA also is
useful for examining spectral variations in the nature and
strength of the relationship between d and X, which can be
visualized by plotting the matrix of R2(l1,l2) values as a
matrix.
[23] In this study, we performed OBRA of both field
spectra collected along the Snake River and SBC and image
spectra extracted from WV2 images of these streams.
Analysis of the field spectra made use of the collocated
depths measured with the echo sounder or by wading,
whereas OBRA of image spectra used pixel-scale mean
depths estimated via OBK. For the larger and deeper Snake
River, we also performed a modified version of OBRA that
included not only a linear X term but also an X2 term in each
regression, based on the finding of Dierssen et al. [2003]
that a quadratic equation improved bathymetric retrievals
in areas of greater depth.
[24] To assess whether d vs. X relations derived from field
spectra could be used to infer depth from remotely sensed
data, we convolved the original field spectra, which were
recorded with a sampling interval of 1 nm (Figure 3a), to the
specific band passes of the WV2 sensor. The convolved
spectra shown in Figure 3b thus had a similar, though less
well-resolved, shape as the original measurements, but the
convolved field spectra differed from the image spectra in
absolute magnitude due to residual atmospheric effects
(Figure 3c). To account for this difference, we subtracted the
mean reflectance of the image spectra from that of the field
spectra for each band and then added this correction factor to
the image spectra to force a closer agreement between the
field measurements and remotely sensed data (Figure 3d).
OBRA was then performed for the convolved field spectra
and the resulting d vs. X relation applied to both the original
image and the image corrected to better match the field
spectra. This analysis thus allowed us to evaluate the per-
formance of bathymetric mapping algorithms calibrated via
field spectroscopy.
[25] Although OBRA exploits the spectral information
available from multiband data sets, this procedure is not
applicable to panchromatic images that achieve a higher
spatial resolution by integrating electromagnetic energy
from across the spectrum. To assess whether this additional
spatial detail might enable reliable depth retrieval without
requiring spectral information, we evaluated the bathymetric
mapping capabilities of the 0.5 m-pixel panchromatic WV2
images of the Snake River and SBC. Rather than relating d
to X as for the multispectral data, we used the linear trans-
form, or Lyzenga [1981] algorithm, a more traditional
approach to depth retrieval in rivers [e.g., Winterbottom and
Gilvear, 1997; Fonstad and Marcus, 2005; Flener et al.,
2012]. In this case, the image-derived quantity related to
depth is given by
Y ¼ ln½R  R∞  ≈ ln½DN  minðDN Þ þ 1 ð4Þ
where R represents the reflectance integrated over the WV2
sensor’s panchromatic band and R∞ is the reflectance from a
hypothetical, infinitely deep water column that encompasses
the contributions from the water column, water surface, and
atmosphere but which lacks any signal from the bottom; the
latter term is thus known as the deep-water correction.
Computationally, we implemented this algorithm using the
raw digital numbers (DN) from each gray scale image and
used the minimum pixel value from the in-stream portion of
the scene as an estimate of R∞; the last term on the right is
added to avoid taking the logarithm of zero. Pixel-scale
mean depths estimated from the original field measurements
via OBK were then regressed against Y values for the

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Figure 4. Diffuse attenuation coefficient spectra Kd(l) calculated from field measurements of the down-
welling spectral irradiance Ed(l) at various depths within the water column. For each irradiance profile
Ed(l) was measured at 10–12 different depths from just beneath the water surface to 0.6 m. Data were col-
lected from the clear-flowing Snake River (SR) and Soda Butte Creek (SBC) on the indicated dates in
2011, and from the more turbid Platte River (PR) in Nebraska in 2010 [Legleiter et al., 2011b].

corresponding locations to establish d vs. Y calibration
relations.
[26] Calibration relationships obtained via OBRA or the
linear transform were based on randomly selected subsets
(50%) of the pixel-scale mean depths derived from the
original field measurements. The remaining d values were
reserved and used to validate image-derived depth estimates;
accuracy assessment involved calculating mean errors (an
indication of bias) and root mean square errors (RMSE), as
described by Legleiter et al. [2011a], and examining residual
maps. In addition, we performed regressions of observed
(pixel-scale mean depths obtained via OBK) versus pre-
dicted (derived from the image) depths [Pineiro et al., 2008].
We conducted this type of analysis for Rusty Bend and the
Footbridge Reach and considered several different calibra-
tion approaches and image data types: 1) linear vs. quadratic
OBRA for the Snake River; 2) OBRA of convolved field
spectra, with or without a correction applied to the image to
force better agreement with the field spectra; and 3) pan-
chromatic vs. pan-sharpened WV2 images.
3. Results
3.1. Optical Characteristics of Gravel Bed Rivers
3.1.1. Water Column Optical Properties
[27] Ancillary data collected along the Snake River and
SBC confirmed our visual impression of exceptional water
clarity. Turbidity values were consistently low (2–3 Neph-
elometric Turbidity Units, or NTU) and suspended sediment
concentrations were minimal: 2 mg/L for each of three water
samples from the Snake River and one sample from SBC.
We characterized the interaction of solar energy with the
water column by measuring vertical profiles of downwelling
spectral irradiance and calculating values of the diffuse
attenuation coefficient Kd(l) (Figure 4). Data sets from six
different dates resulted in similar Kd(l) spectra that varied
little with wavelength through the visible but increased
abruptly at 700 nm due to a sharp rise in the absorption
coefficient of pure water, denoted by aw(l), in the NIR.
Similarly, the dip in Kd(l) around 810 nm is associated with
a decrease in aw(l) at this wavelength. Because these
streams had only small amounts of suspended sediment or
dissolved organic matter, their optical properties were dic-
tated primarily by those of pure water. To illustrate the
contrast between these clear-flowing gravel bed rivers and a
more turbid sand-bed channel, a Kd(l) spectrum from the
Platte River was added to Figure 4 [Legleiter et al., 2011b].
The higher turbidity (49.5 NTU) and suspended sediment
concentration (161 mg/L) of the Platte River lead to Kd(l)
values 2–5 times greater than those observed in our study
area throughout the visible, with the greatest difference
occurring in shorter blue-green wavelengths more suscepti-
ble to scattering by suspended sediment. In the NIR, where
optical properties were driven primarily by pure water
absorption, the Kd(l) spectra for the three rivers converged
but remained higher for the Platte.
[28] The diffuse attenuation coefficient is an apparent
optical property influenced by variations in the ambient light
field, in addition to the spectral characteristics of the water
itself. To isolate the effects of the water on the interaction of
light with the river, we made direct measurements of inher-
ent optical properties with an ac-9. In situ observations of the
attenuation a(l) and absorption c(l) coefficients quantita-
tively verified the clarity of both streams (Figure 5). Again,

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Figure 5. Inherent optical properties of the water column measured with an ac-9 on the indicated dates
on the Snake River (SR) and Soda Butte Creek (SBC). The blue lines represent the attenuation coefficient
c and the black lines the absorption coefficient a. Also included are the absorption coefficients of pure
water and suspended sediment with a concentration of 2 g/m3, based on data included with the HydroLight
radiative transfer model [Mobley and Sundman, 2001].

the data sets agreed closely with one another, with higher
values of a(l) and c(l) in the shortest- and longest-
wavelength bands and the weakest absorption and attenua-
tion in the green at 555 nm, implying that penetration of
solar energy through the river was most efficient at this
wavelength. Also included in Figure 5 are the absorption
coefficients of pure water and suspended sediment, based on
a specified concentration of 2 mg/L (= 2 g/m3) and an optical
cross-section included with the HydroLight radiative transfer
model [Mobley and Sundman, 2001]. These data are con-
sistent with our measurements of a(l) for l > 600 nm, where
sediment has little influence on overall water column
absorption. For shorter wavelengths more strongly absorbed
by suspended mineral matter, the sum of the pure water
and suspended sediment absorption coefficients agrees well
with our field data, implying that a simple two-component
optical model might be a sufficient description of these
streams. The difference between the absorption and attenu-
ation coefficients is due to the effects of scattering, primarily
by suspended sediment [Legleiter et al., 2011b]. Overall,
the relatively simple optical characteristics and great clarity
of the Snake River and SBC implied that these channels
would be amenable to spectrally-based depth retrieval.
[29] Our measurements of water column optical properties
also allowed us to quantify some of the limitations associ-
ated with remote sensing of river bathymetry. Because
imaging systems have a finite capacity to detect small
changes in the amount of upwelling spectral radiance, truly
continuous depth maps cannot be derived from digital image
data. Instead, the smallest change in depth a particular sensor
can resolve depends on the rate at which light is attenuated
by the water column, the amount of radiance reflected from
the streambed LB(l), and the sensor’s noise-equivalent delta
radiance DLN(l) [Philpot, 1989; Legleiter et al., 2004;
Legleiter and Roberts, 2009]. To explore the implications of
this important concept, we inserted observed values of Kd(l)
into equation (1) and calculated the smallest detectable
change in depth Dd(l) at a range of initial depths d0; the
ratio DLN(l)/LB(l) was held constant at 0.01 [e.g., Philpot,
1989]. The results of this analysis are illustrated in
Figure 6a, based on an irradiance profile from the Snake
River; Dd(l) values for other sites and dates were nearly
identical because Kd(l) values for the various data sets were
so similar. For this example, at a wavelength of 700 nm a
difference in depth of 0.01 m or less would be detectable at
depths up to 0.4 m, and even at a depth of 1 m Dd(l)
remained less than 0.04 m. These calculations imply that if
the imaging system is sufficiently sensitive and the bottom is
well-illuminated and highly reflective, precise depth esti-
mates could be derived from remotely sensed data. Note,
however, that less sensitive instrumentation (i.e., larger
DLN(l)), less reflective substrates, and/or smaller amounts
of incident radiation (i.e., smaller LB(l)), would lead to
larger Dd(l) and less precise depth estimates. For example,
images acquired at greater solar zenith angles (e.g., early or
late in the day, or during the spring or fall) and/or encom-
passing darker streambed materials (e.g., basalt) will have
smaller values of LB(l) and hence larger values of Dd(l) for
a given sensor.
[30] The finite sensitivity of imaging systems also dictates
that river bathymetry can only be mapped up to some max-
imum detectable depth. Again, dmax(l) depends on the
optical properties of the water column, summarized in terms
of an effective attenuation coefficient 2Kd(l), and the ratio

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Figure 6. Example calculations of the precision of image-derived depth estimates Dd(l) and maximum
detectable depth dmax(l) based on Kd(l) values from the Snake River collected on 9 September 2011
(Figure 4). (a) The Dd values calculated for a wavelength of l = 700 nm for a range of initial depths
d0 and a DLN/LB ratio of 0.01 using equation (1). (b) The dmax(l) spectra calculated for the DLN(l)/
LB(l) values indicated in the legend using equation (2).

DLN(l)/LB(l), where in this case DLN(l), the smallest dif-
ference in radiance the imaging system can resolve, is set
equal to the difference between the at-sensor radiance and
the radiance from optically deep water [Philpot, 1989;
Legleiter et al., 2004]. Maximum detectable depths were
calculated via equation (2) for a range of DLN(l)/LB(l)
values; the results of this analysis, based on a Kd(l) spec-
trum from the Snake River, are summarized in Figure 6b.
For DLN(l)/LB(l) = 0.0001 (i.e., a highly sensitive instru-
ment), dmax(l) was 10.9 m in the green wavelengths where
water column attenuation was weakest. As pure water
absorption increased through the red and NIR, dmax(l)
decreased to less than 2 m for l > 730 nm. For a system with
a lower radiometric resolution, corresponding to a two-order
of magnitude decrease in DLN(l)/LB(l) to 0.01 (the value
used to calculate the Dd(l) values in Figure 6a), depths up
to 5.45 m could be detected at 560 nm, but dmax(l) = 0.67 in
the NIR at 760 nm. These results implied that a sensor
capable of resolving small changes in radiance would be
crucial to mapping bathymetry across a broad range of
depths. Similarly, multispectral data would allow for selec-
tion of bands well-suited for depth retrieval across this
range. The maximum detectable depth also would be influ-
enced by the nature of the fluvial environment itself. For a
given imaging system (i.e., a fixed DLN(l)), dmax(l)
depends on the bottom contrast between the substrate and
water column, implying that highly reflective substrates and/
or clear water would favor depth retrieval from deeper
channels. Also note that the absolute magnitude of LB(l) is
significant, such that images acquired under less well-illu-
minated conditions (i.e., early or late in the day, or at high
latitudes) would result in smaller values of dmax(l). In any
case, our field measurements of water column optical prop-
erties, together with the analytical framework represented by
equations (1) and (2), implied that bathymetry could be
mapped remotely with a high degree of precision across the
range of depths, typically less than 2.5 m, observed in many
gravel bed rivers.
3.1.2. Field Spectroscopy and Relationships Between
Reflectance and Water Depth
[31] A primary objective of this study was to establish
quantitative relationships between reflectance and water
depth for the two streams we examined. Field spectra mea-
sured from above the water surface on the Snake River and
SBC were processed following Legleiter et al. [2011b]. Each
set of field spectra, together with the corresponding depth
measurements, was then used as input to the OBRA algo-
rithm described in Section 2.6. This procedure identified
combinations of wavelengths that were sensitive to varia-
tions in depth but robust to other factors that might influence
reflectance, such as substrate heterogeneity or sun glint from
the water surface. The results of this analysis are summa-
rized in Figure 7 using OBRA matrices that represent the
strength of the linear relation between d and X for all pos-
sible band combinations. Figure 7a indicates that for Rusty
Bend, where depths reached up to 3 m, a strong (R2 = 0.887)
relation between d and X was obtained for a green numerator
band and red denominator band. Moreover, the OBRA
matrix shows that a broader range of wavelengths would
have resulted in d vs. X relations nearly as strong: numerator
bands less than 550 nm resulted in R2 > 0.8 for
575 < l2 < 720 nm. For this relatively deep reach, the NIR
portion of the spectrum was not useful because strong
absorption by pure water lead to saturation of the reflectance
signal in pools. Similarly, the decrease in predictive power at
l2 = 675 nm was due to chlorophyll absorption by benthic
algae present on the streambed; the reduced bottom albedo
resulted in a smaller reflectance and a somewhat weaker
relation between d and X in this band.

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Figure 7. Optimal band ratio analysis (OBRA) of field spectra from (a) Rusty Bend and (b) the Foot-
bridge Reach. The color scale represents the coefficient of determination (R2) value for regressions of d
on X, where X is an image-derived quantity defined via equation (3), for all possible band combinations.
The numerator, l1, and denominator, l2, wavelengths defining the optimal band ratio are listed in the inset
of each panel, along with the corresponding regression equation, R2 value, and standard error.

[32] Results from SBC were similar, but the optimal band
ratio produced an even higher regression R2 (0.975) for a
pair of longer wavelengths, and a number of other bands
would have yielded d vs. X relations nearly as strong
(Figure 7b). In contrast to Rusty Bend, NIR wavelengths
were effective denominator bands for any numerator
l1 < 730 nm. In this case, the NIR was more useful due to
shallower depths along the Footbridge Reach. Strong
absorption by pure water at these wavelengths implied that
small changes in depth would produce in large changes in
reflectance, resulting in very strong d versus X relations.
Because depths were so shallow, the saturation that limited
the utility of the NIR on the Snake River was less of an issue
on SBC. In general, stronger d vs. X relations at longer NIR
wavelengths could be expected for shallower streams.
Low concentrations of suspended sediment and dissolved
organic matter and highly reflective substrates also favor
remote bathymetric mapping [Legleiter et al., 2009]. Both
rivers examined in this study satisfied these criteria, and
analysis of field spectra showed that spectrally-based
depth retrieval would not only be feasible but potentially
highly accurate.
[33] An example of this capability is given in Figure 8,
which shows data collected on a transect across Rusty Bend.
Depths measured by the echo sounder agreed closely with
depths calculated from the field spectra using the OBRA
relation from Figure 7a. Correspondence between the
observed and predicted profiles was best over the shallow
bar surface on the right side of the channel (Figure 8, left).
Through the middle of the stream, the OBRA relation
resulted in slight over-predictions of depth, and the spec-
trally-based estimates were shallower than the echo sounder
data in the pool along the outer bank. These discrepancies
were small, however, on the order of 0.2–0.4 m, and this
cross-section illustrated the robust performance of the
OBRA relation across a range of depths up to 2.75 m. This
level of accuracy was noteworthy due to the pronounced
differences in bottom reflectance along this transect
(Figure 2c). Whereas most of the cross-section consisted of a
gravel substrate with some degree of algal coating, several
large blocks of clay bedrock were located near the outer
bank. This cohesive material was noticeably lighter-colored
than the surrounding gravel and resulted in large spikes in
reflectance in this part of the channel, as shown in Figure 8
for the OBRA denominator band. The OBRA-based depth
estimates were shallower at these locations but not to the
degree that the abrupt increases in reflectance might seem to
dictate. These results thus confirmed that OBRA enabled
effective depth retrieval in the presence of highly heteroge-
neous substrates, cited by Legleiter and Roberts [2005] as
one of the primary advantages of this technique. This study
supported this conclusion in the context of a deeper river
with more variable bottom reflectance than had been con-
sidered previously.
[34] These results, though encouraging, were derived from
field spectra that provided essentially continuous reflectance
data with a 1 nm sampling interval. To assess whether strong
relations between d and X could be derived from image data
that integrate reflectance over a smaller number of broader
bands, we convolved the original field spectra to match the
WV2 sensor response function, as described in Section 2.6
and illustrated in Figures 3a and 3b. The convolved spectra
consisted of eight discrete bands and were subjected to
OBRA to quantify the extent to which reduced spectral
resolution might compromise the ability to retrieve
bathymetry from satellite images. The results of this analysis

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Figure 8. Cross-section of observed depths and image-derived estimates from a transect of Rusty Bend
are plotted on the right axes. On the left axes is the reflectance at 607 nm, the denominator wavelength for
the optimal band ratio for this reach, recorded as the cataraft traversed the cross-section.

are summarized in Figure 9a, which indicates only a slight
decrease in the OBRA R2 to 0.839. For the convolved
spectra, the optimal WV2 band combination was a green
numerator and yellow denominator, essentially the same
wavelengths as for the original field spectra. The OBRA
matrix also indicated that the blue band would have been an
effective numerator with either the yellow or red band as a
denominator. These results implied that the sensor’s broader
bands contained sufficient spectral information for inferring
depth and provided further evidence of the feasibility of
mapping river bathymetry from space.
3.2. Mapping River Bathymetry From Satellite
Image Data
[35] Our in situ measurements of water column optical
properties, together with visual inspection of WV2 images,
implied that flow depths could be inferred from satellite
data. In this section, we report depth retrieval results from
the Snake River and SBC, with a focus on accuracy assess-
ment of depth estimates obtained using various calibration
approaches and image data types.
3.2.1. Snake River
3.2.1.1. Depth Retrieval Calibration Approaches
[36] The most direct means of mapping bathymetry from
remotely sensed data involved extracting image spectra from
the locations of field-based depth measurements and using
these data to calibrate a relationship between d and the
image-derived quantity X defined by equation (3). The
Snake River posed a challenging test of this approach
because flow depths ranged up to 3 m, far greater than the
shallow streams that have been the subject of our prior
remote sensing investigations [Legleiter et al., 2009, 2011a].
In larger gravel bed rivers, saturation of the radiance signal
might lead to a non-linear relationship between d and X and
could preclude depth retrieval from pools. To account for
this possibility we performed both linear OBRA, with a
single X term in the regression against field measurements of
d, and a quadratic OBRA in which an X2 term also was
included in the regression, based on a similar study by
Dierssen et al. [2003]. The resulting OBRA matrices are
presented in Figures 9b and 9c, which indicate that the same
band combination, a blue numerator with a yellow denomi-
nator, was optimal for both linear and quadratic formula-
tions. The simple d vs. X regression yielded a strong
(R2 = 0.827) linear relationship between depth and the band
ratio, but adding an X2 term only slightly increased predic-
tive power (R2 = 0.864). Closer inspection of the OBRA
matrices indicated similar spectral patterns, but the NIR
bands became more useful when the X2 term was included.
To an extent, allowing for a non-linear d vs. X relation
accounted for saturation of the radiance signal in deeper
water in the NIR. Nevertheless, the marginal improvement
provided by the quadratic term implied that the additional
complexity of this approach was not justified.
[37] Bathymetric maps generated from the WV2 satellite
image of Rusty Bend using linear and quadratic OBRA

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE F04024

relations are shown in Figures 10a and 10b, respectively.

The maps were very similar to one another, with the linear
formulation yielding slightly shallower depth estimates in
the pool along the outer bank and over the bar surface on the
right (north) side of the channel, relative to the quadratic
OBRA. Both techniques produced realistic depictions of the
gross morphology, with an asymmetric cross-sectional shape
extending from above the apex through the middle of the
bend before the thalweg shifted toward the right at the lower
end of the reach. Depth retrieval accuracy was assessed via
comparison with pixel-scale mean depths obtained by OBK
of the field survey data. The resulting residual maps are
shown in Figures 11a and 11b, where negative residuals
(bright red tones) represent over-predictions of depth and
positive residuals (darker blue tones) represent under-
predictions of depth. Again, spatial patterns for the two
versions of OBRA were similar, with the linear d vs. X
relation leading to more extensive underestimates of depth
along the outer bank in the upper end of the reach and a
greater number of overestimates along the left bank past the
bend apex. Most depth retrieval residuals were on the order
of 0.25 m but locally ranged as high as 0.6 m, nearly half the
mean depth of 1.23 m, in the thalweg above the apex and on
the outer bank through the lower portion of Rusty Bend.
[38] For the most part, depth estimates from both linear
and quadratic OBRA were reliable, as indicated by high R2
values for observed vs. predicted (OP) regressions based on
field measurements set aside for validation (Figure 12 and
Table 2). Moreover, small mean errors and OP intercept and
slope values near 0 and 1, respectively, implied that depth
estimates were unbiased on average. The OP regression plot
in Figure 12a revealed a curved trend for linear OBRA,
however, with systematic under-prediction of depth in both
shallow and deep water. This trend arose from the non-lin-
earity of the relationship between d and X and was effec-
tively removed by including an X2 term in the OBRA
regression (Figure 12b). Nevertheless, the depth retrieval
RMSE and OP regression standard errors were only slightly
less for the quadratic vs. linear OBRA, and a typical error of
0.22 m would be less than 20% of the reach-averaged mean
depth. Because the quadratic formulation did not signifi-
cantly improve accuracy, the standard linear OBRA appeared
to be well-suited for bathymetric mapping in larger, deeper
gravel bed rivers such as the Snake, although an X2 term
could prove useful in streams with greater depths.
[39] An alternative strategy for remote mapping of river
bathymetry would involve making direct measurements of
depth and reflectance and using field spectra to develop d
versus X relations that could then be applied to remotely
sensed data. If the spectral response function of the sensor
were known, the field spectra could be convolved to match
the instrument’s band passes, as shown in Figures 3a and 3b
for the WV2 satellite. Ideally, OBRA of the convolved field
spectra would result in a calibrated relationship between d
and X that could be applied directly to images of the river

Figure 9. Optimal band ratio analysis (OBRA) from Rusty

Bend of the Snake River: (a) field spectra convolved to
match the band passes of the WorldView-2 (WV2) sensor;
(b) linear OBRA of WV2 satellite image spectra; and
(c) quadratic OBRA of WV2 satellite image spectra.

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE F04024

Figure 10. Image-derived depth maps for Rusty Bend of the Snake River produced using various calibra-
tion approaches and image data types. All maps have a common color scale shown at the bottom. Flow is
from right to left.

from which the field spectra were collected and potentially
other streams as well. To assess the feasibility of this
approach, we measured depth and reflectance on transects
across Rusty Bend, convolved the spectra to the WV2
bands, and performed OBRA. This analysis is summarized
in Figure 9a, which indicated a strong linear relation
(R2 = 0.839) between d and X, defined as the logarithm of
the ratio of the green and red bands. This R2 value was nearly
as high as that associated with the original field spectra
(Figure 7a) and slightly better than that associated with the
linear OBRA of image spectra (Figure 9b). Applying the
OBRA relation from Figure 9a to the WV2 image resulted in
the bathymetric map in Figure 10c, which has the same color
scaling as the maps produced via OBRA of image spectra.
A comparison of these maps indicated that the pool along the
outer bank was not well-resolved by depth estimates based
on convolved field spectra, and depths on the shallow bar
surface tended to be over-predicted. This pattern was evident
in the residual map in Figure 11c, which featured under-
estimates on the order of 0.6 m in the pool above the bend
apex and overestimates of similar magnitude at the lower end
of the reach. The OP regression for these depth estimates
yielded a lower R2 value of 0.75, a large negative intercept
term, and a slope much greater than 1 (Figure 12c), implying
that predictions based on convolved field spectra were
biased.
[40] In an effort to account for this bias, we adjusted the
image data to better match the field spectra as described in
Section 2.6 and illustrated in Figure 3. This adjustment,
which could be considered a simple means of radiometric

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Figure 11. Maps of depth retrieval residuals, defined as the difference between the field-based depth
map and the image-derived depth estimates, for Rusty Bend of the Snake River produced using various
calibration approaches and image data types. All maps have a common color scale shown at the bottom.
Flow is from right to left.

calibration and atmospheric correction, served to modify the
image so that the d vs. X relation derived from the convolved
field spectra (Figure 9a) could be applied directly to the
WV2 scene. The resulting bathymetric map, shown in
Figure 9d, featured greater depth estimates than did the
original, uncorrected image but still failed to resolve the full
depth of the pool along the outer bank. On the opposite side
of the channel, depths tended to be under-predicted,
including some negative estimates. The spatial pattern of
these errors is illustrated in Figure 11d, which shows that
even after modifying the image data to better match the
convolved field spectra, pool depths were underestimated by
0.5 m or more throughout much of the bend; overestimates
of 0.5 m or more occurred at the lower end of the reach.
Accuracy assessment using the validation subset of the field
survey resulted in OP regression intercept and slope values
closer to 0 and 1, respectively, implying that the image
correction was effective in removing the bias associated with
calibration based on field spectra, but the OP R2 improved
only marginally, from 0.75 to 0.77. The RMSE and OP
regression standard errors for both depth retrieval methods
based on convolved field spectra were greater than those for
OBRA of image spectra; typical errors on the order of 0.3 m
would be approximately 25% of the mean depth for the
reach. These results imply that calibration via field spec-
troscopy was a plausible strategy, especially when the image
was corrected to better match the field spectra, but this
approach was less reliable than OBRA of image spectra.

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE F04024

Figure 12. Depth retrieval validation for Rusty Bend of the Snake River for the various calibration
approaches and image data types labeled for each plot. Each plot represents the results of an observed
versus predicted (OP) regression as well as the one-to-one line of perfect agreement for comparison.

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE F04024

Table 2. Depth Retrieval Accuracy Assessment for Various Calibration Methods and Image Types
Num.b Den.c Mean RMSE OP Std. OP OP Intercept
Reach Method OBRAaR2 (nm) (nm) Error (m) (m) OPdR2 Error (m) Slope (m)
Rusty Lineare 0.827 480 605 0.004 0.238 0.822 0.238 0.993 0.005
Quadratice 0.864 480 605 0.003 0.212 0.859 0.212 0.977 0.026
Fieldf 0.839 545 605 0.056 0.305 0.753 0.280 1.326 0.476
Field + imageg 0.839 545 605 0.058 0.271 0.769 0.271 1.005 0.052
Panh N/A N/A N/A 0.032 0.327 0.666 0.327 0.952 0.027
Pan-sharpi 0.794 480 605 0.009 0.254 0.801 0.254 0.992 0.001
Footbridge Lineare 0.585 545 725 0.001 0.094 0.594 0.110 0.987 0.004
Fieldf 0.962 660 725 0.026 0.195 0.452 0.110 0.380 0.157
Panh N/A N/A N/A 0.003 0.115 0.414 0.115 0.928 0.020
Pan sharpi 0.578 545 725 0.003 0.110 0.504 0.110 0.969 0.011
a
Optimal Band Ratio Analysis.
b
Numerator wavelength for optimal band ratio.
c
Denominator wavelength for optimal band ratio.
d
Observed versus predicted regression.
e
Linear and quadratic refer to linear and quadratic OBRA of image spectra.
f
Field refers to OBRA of field spectra convolved to match WorldView-2 sensor band passes.
g
Field + image is similar but refers to application of the OBRA relation from convolved field spectra to an image corrected to better match the field
spectra.
h
Pan refers to depth retrieval via the linear transform algorithm applied to the panchromatic image.
i
Pan-sharp refers to linear OBRA of image spectra from a pan-sharpened multispectral image.

3.2.1.2. Image Data Types
[41] Although depth retrieval via OBRA requires multiple
spectral bands, bathymetric maps also can be generated from
single-band or panchromatic gray scale images using the
linear transform algorithm introduced by Lyzenga [1981].
In the context of satellite imagery, this capability is poten-
tially significant because many spaceborne sensors feature a
panchromatic band with a greater spatial resolution than the
individual multispectral bands; for the WV2 system, the
pixel sizes for the panchromatic and multispectral images are
0.5 m and 2 m, respectively. If spectral information is not
essential for accurate depth retrieval, application of the linear
transform (equation (4)) might enable more effective map-
ping of smaller streams and enhanced spatial detail in larger
rivers. If spectral information does prove critical, a hybrid
approach based on a pan-sharpened image that features the
high spatial resolution of the panchromatic image but also
incorporates the multispectral data could prove to be most
useful.
[42] We explored this possibility and evaluated the rela-
tive significance of spectral and spatial resolution by pro-
ducing bathymetric maps from 0.5 m-pixel panchromatic
and pan-sharpened WV2 images of the Snake River. These
maps are included in Figures 10e and 10f, along with the
bathymetry inferred from the original, 2 m-pixel multispec-
tral images. For the panchromatic scene, depth retrieval via
the linear transform algorithm captured the general mor-
phology of the reach but the map had a grainy appearance
due to high-frequency noise that persisted despite the
application of a smoothing filter. The area of deeper flow
along the outer bank was narrower in the bathymetric map
derived from the panchromatic data than in the map based on
the original multispectral image (Figure 10a), suggesting
that spectral information was needed to resolve greater
depths. The corresponding residual map (Figure 11e) high-
lighted this pattern, with depth underestimates on the order
of 0.6 m extending across a greater fraction of the channel
width over the upper half of the reach. Past the bend apex,
depths were over-predicted in a large area along the left side
of the channel. Accuracy assessment of the linear transform-
derived depths indicated a weaker, but still fairly strong
agreement between observations and predictions (R2 = 0.67),
and the OP regression equation did not imply any systematic
bias. Closer examination of Figure 12e revealed that this
agreement deteriorated considerably in deeper water, with
the image-derived estimates failing to increase as rapidly as
the field-surveyed depths for d > 1 m.
[43] The bathymetric map derived from the pan-sharpened
image (Figure 10f) included a broader area of deep water
along the outer bank than did the map produced from the
panchromatic image, suggesting that the additional spectral
information resulted in a more accurate representation of the
thalweg. The grainy texture of the panchromatic image
persisted in the pan-sharpened data, however, and appeared
to be even more pronounced over the point bar on the right
side of the channel at the lower end of the reach. The
residual map in Figure 11f was similar to that associated
with the panchromatic image, but the large underestimates in
the upper portion of the bend were less extensive. Accuracy
assessment of depth estimates from the pan-sharpened mul-
tispectral image, which had a pixel edge dimension four
times smaller than the original multispectral data, yielded an
OP regression R2 of 0.80 (Figure 12f), which was a signifi-
cant improvement over the panchromatic image but was less
than that associated with the 2 m-pixel multispectral image.
This result implied that greater spectral information content
was more important than enhanced spatial detail for depth
retrieval from this relatively large gravel bed river. The noise
introduced by fusing the panchromatic image with the mul-
tispectral data also might have contributed to the greater
depth retrieval errors associated with the pan-sharpened
image. In any case, our analysis suggested that the additional
image processing required to generate the pan-sharpened
image was not justified and that depth retrieval from the
original multispectral images might be both simpler and
more accurate in this setting.
3.2.2. Soda Butte Creek
3.2.2.1. Depth Retrieval Calibration Approaches
[44] The Footbridge Reach presented a different type of
challenge for remote sensing of river bathymetry: for this

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE
Figure 13. Optimal band ratio analysis (OBRA) from the Footbridge Reach of Soda Butte Creek:
(a) OBRA of image spectra; and (b) field spectra convolved to match the WorldView-2 sensor bands.
small gravel bed stream, the pixel size was a significant
fraction of the mean channel width, particularly under the
low-flow conditions when the WV2 image was acquired.
Moreover, at this discharge, SBC split into two separate
channels, each of which was further divided by mid-channel
bars. As a result, the flow was quite shallow (Table 1) and
deriving information on channel form thus required an
imaging system capable of resolving subtle variations in
depth. Based on the results for the Snake River, and because
SBC was so much shallower, we focused on the standard
linear formulation of the OBRA algorithm and did not pur-
sue the quadratic alternative. Similarly, because our analysis
of convolved field spectra from the Snake River indicated
that depth estimates would be biased unless the image data
were adjusted to match the field spectra, we considered only
the latter approach for SBC.
[45] OBRA results obtained using spectra extracted from
the WV2 image or measured directly in the field are shown
in Figures 13a and 13b, respectively. For the image spectra,
the highest d vs. X regression R2 occurred for a green
numerator and NIR numerator (the sensor’s ‘red edge’ band)
but was only 0.585, significantly less than the 0.827 R2 on
the Snake River. The OBRA matrix in Figure 13a indicated
that this NIR band was by far the most useful denominator
wavelength with any visible numerator; other denominator
bands produced much weaker d vs. X relations. For the
convolved field spectra, the OBRA results were more
encouraging, with an optimal R2 value of 0.962 for a red
numerator band and the same 725 nm denominator as for the
image spectra. Unlike the image spectra, however, a broader
range of bands produced strong, linear relationships between
d and X, including longer NIR wavelengths. This result was
expected because strong absorption by pure water in the NIR
caused small changes in depth to be expressed as relatively
large changes in reflectance; because depths in this reach
were so shallow, saturation of the NIR reflectance signal was
less of an issue than along the deeper Snake River. OBRA of
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the two Footbridge Reach data sets suggested that bathy-
metric mapping based on field spectra might be more
effective than extracting spectra directly from an image.
Whereas many of the image spectra were from mixed pixels
contaminated by radiance from adjacent terrestrial features,
each of the field spectra sampled a smaller area entirely
within the wetted channel. Atmospheric effects present in
the satellite image data but absent from the field measure-
ments also might have contributed to the inferior OBRA
results for the image spectra.
[46] Bathymetric maps produced using these two calibra-
tion methods are presented in Figures 14a and 14b, both of
which have a common color scale with an upper limit set to
the maximum depth observed in the field. In general, both
maps captured the gross morphology of the reach, with
deeper flow along the left (east) bank at the upper end of our
study area, in a pool on the far right channel near the
entrance to the bend, in the lower half of the left chute
channel, and at the bottom of the reach where the channels
converge and the stream enters a curve to the right. Aside
from these areas, depths were very shallow, on the order of
0.2 m. Although both OBRA of image spectra and applica-
tion of a d vs. X calibration relation derived from field
spectra to the corrected WV2 image produced reasonable
spatial patterns, the absolute magnitudes of the depth esti-
mates were less reliable, especially for calibration based on
field spectra. The bathymetric map shown in Figure 14b
exceeded the specified color limits at both the shallow and
deep ends of the spectrum, resulting in the dark red tones
most notable over the point bar near the apex and the dark
blue tones at the upper and lower ends of the reach. Depths
estimated from image spectra, in contrast, fell within the
range of observed depths and were more accurate.
[47] Differences between the two approaches also were
highlighted by the residual maps shown in Figures 15a and
15b. For the image-based algorithm, most of the residuals
were near zero, with a tendency to over-predict depth in
F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE F04024

Figure 14. Image-derived depth maps for the Footbridge Reach of Soda Butte Creek produced using
various calibration approaches and image data types. All maps have a common color scale shown at
the bottom. Flow is from top to bottom.

shallow areas and under-predict in pools. When the OBRA
relation from the field spectra was applied to the corrected
image, the overestimates of depth in shallow riffles and bars
were more pronounced, as was the under-prediction in the
left chute channel and along the outer banks at both the
upper and lower ends of the reach. Large positive residuals
near steep cutbanks suggested that the presence of both
bright terrestrial features and deep water within mixed pixels
might have lead to unreliable depth estimates along channel
margins and that sensor spatial resolution might have been a
limiting factor for this small stream. Similarly, the inability
of either method to detect the deep pool in the middle of the
left chute channel, evident as a dark blue area on the residual
maps, also implied that the 2 m pixel size might not have
been adequate for mapping SBC under low-flow conditions.
[48] The accuracy assessment summarized in Figures 16a
and 16b yielded further insight regarding discrepancies
between bathymetric maps produced from field vs. image
spectra. Regression of observed vs. predicted depths yielded
a stronger correlation (R2 = 0.59) for depth retrieval based on

Figure 15. Maps of depth retrieval residuals, defined as the difference between the field-based depth
map and the image-derived depth estimates, for the Footbridge Reach of Soda Butte Creek produced using
various calibration approaches and image data types. All maps have a common color scale shown at the
bottom. Flow is from top to bottom.

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE F04024

Figure 16. Depth retrieval validation for the Footbridge Reach of Soda Butte Creek for the various cal-
ibration approaches and image data types labeled for each panel. Each plot represents the results of an
observed versus predicted (OP) regression as well as the one-to-one line of perfect agreement for compar-
ison. Note that Figure 16b has different axis limits than the other plots.

image spectra than when using the convolved field spectra
for calibration, which resulted in an R2 of only 0.45. More
importantly, however, the image-based estimates were
unbiased, with an OP regression intercept near 0 and slope
near 1. In contrast, depth estimates derived using the cali-
bration relation for the convolved field spectra resulted in a
positive intercept term nearly as large as the mean depth for
the reach and a much smaller slope, implying biased esti-
mates. This bias lead to over-predictions of depth in shallow
areas and under-predictions in deep areas and persisted
despite the correction applied to the image to force closer
agreement with the field spectra. Although the simple image
adjustment outlined in Section 2.6 allowed for reasonably
accurate depth retrieval for the Snake River, this technique
was not effective on SBC, implying that more sophisticated
radiometric calibration and atmospheric correction might
be required before relationships derived from field spectra
can be applied to remotely sensed images. Another factor
that might have contributed to biased estimates was the
use of a near-infrared band that might have been more
strongly affected by residual atmospheric effects not fully
accounted for in the reflectance retrieval algorithm used by
DigitalGlobe.
3.2.2.2. Image Data Types
[49] Given the small size of SBC and the modest depth
retrieval performance of the 2 m-pixel WV2 data, we eval-
uated whether images with greater spatial resolution might
prove more useful for bathymetric mapping. Depth maps
produced from 0.5 m-pixel panchromatic and pan-sharpened
images are shown in Figures 14c and 14d, with the same
color scaling as used for the maps generated from the
coarser-resolution data. Overall spatial patterns were similar,
but the smaller pixel size revealed some details of the mor-
phology that were not evident in Figures 14a and 14b. For
example, the depth map generated by applying the linear
transform to the panchromatic image captured shoaling of
the flow onto the point bar in the middle of the three chan-
nels present at the bend apex, a feature that was not resolved

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F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE
by any of the other image types. The linear transform failed
to detect the full depth of pools located in the left chute
channel and at the lower end of the reach, however. The pan-
sharpened multispectral image did not provide quite as much
detail but yielded greater depth estimates in the pools than
did the panchromatic data. The residual maps in Figure 15
indicated that depth retrieval errors from the higher resolu-
tion images were of a similar magnitude as those associated
with the original multispectral image. Over-predictions of
depth in the riffle at the upper end of the reach and
approaching the bar at the bend apex and under-predictions
of depth throughout the lower portion of the reach were
salient in the residual maps for both the panchromatic and
pan-sharpened images. The accuracy assessment summa-
rized in Figures 16c and 16d indicated that depth estimates
were unbiased in both cases but were more reliable for the
pan-sharpened than for the panchromatic image. OP regres-
sion R2 values of 0.50 and 0.41, respectively, were signifi-
cantly less than the 0.59 obtained using image spectra from
the original multispectral scene. Typical errors of 0.11 m
were half the mean flow depth for the reach. These results
imply that even in a smaller stream such as SBC, the addi-
tional spatial detail provided by the panchromatic image did
not translate into improved depth retrieval performance.
Instead, spectral information was essential for reliable
bathymetric mapping.
4. Discussion
[50] Efforts to characterize the complex interactions
among flow, morphology, and sediment transport that shape
alluvial river channels have often been compromised by the
difficulty of acquiring basic measurements of channel form.
As a result, field studies typically have examined only short
reaches in isolation. Important, increasingly interdisciplin-
ary research opportunities thus exist at larger segment and
watershed scales [e.g., Fausch et al., 2002; Carbonneau
et al., 2011]. For example, geomorphologists might seek
to examine how the detailed process mechanics documented
through reach-scale studies self-organize within a catchment
to create emergent patterns in channels and landscapes that
have tended to be described only in conceptual or theoretical
terms [e.g., Church, 2002; Benda et al., 2004]. Similarly,
greater insight on the distribution of in-stream habitat within
a watershed would help biologists to understand the move-
ment of fish throughout their life histories [e.g., Ganio et al.,
2005]. In an applied context, a more synoptic perspective on
fluvial systems would help to provide a holistic, integrated
context for the planning, implementation, and monitoring of
river restoration projects [e.g., Beechie et al., 2010; Downs
et al., 2011]. For all of these purposes, the lack of an efficient
means of mapping river morphology has impeded progress
and the development of new techniques could thus stimulate
significant advances in each of these fields [Fonstad and
Marcus, 2010]. Motivated by this prospect, this investiga-
tion demonstrated the feasibility of mapping the bathymetry
of clear-flowing gravel bed rivers from satellite image data.
Using field measurements and WV2 imagery from two
streams in the northern Rocky Mountains, we showed that
information on flow depth can be retrieved from multispec-
tral data across a range of channel sizes from approximately
20–60 m in width and 0.2–1.25 m in mean depth. A simple
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F04024
band ratio-based algorithm, calibrated using either spectra
extracted from the image or measured directly in the
field, provided reliable depth estimates. The results of this
study thus imply that satellite-based mapping of river
bathymetry could become a viable tool for river research
and management.
4.1. Constraints on Spectrally-Based Bathymetric
Mapping
[51] Although the potential for remote sensing methods to
contribute to the riverine sciences is justifiable cause for
excitement [Marcus and Fonstad, 2010], we advocate a
cautious approach that acknowledges the constraints as well
as the capabilities associated with this new technology. The
retrieval of water depth from passive optical image data, for
example, is subject to some important caveats. The most
significant constraint on the spectrally-based approach is the
limited range of stream conditions under which bathymetry
can be mapped reliably. For rivers having greater depths (on
the order of several meters) and/or more turbid water due to
higher amounts of suspended sediment and/or organic mat-
ter, accurate depth estimates are less likely, and much of the
channel might exceed the maximum detectable depth [e.g.,
Legleiter et al., 2011b, 2011a]. Overhanging vegetation,
shadows, mixed pixels along channel margins, dark sub-
strates (resulting in low LB(l) values), sun glint from the
water surface, and hazy atmospheric conditions can also
compromise, if not preclude, effective depth retrieval
[Legleiter et al., 2009].
[52] In addition to these environmental factors, the extent
to which an image data set can satisfy the information
requirements of a particular investigation also depends on
the sensor itself. For example, the imaging system must have
sufficient spatial resolution to detect the channel features of
interest. Similarly, instruments with greater spectral resolu-
tion might enable more accurate bathymetric mapping by
providing radiance measurements in a larger number of
narrower wavelength bands, some of which could be highly
responsive to changes in depth. Radiometric resolution
refers to a sensor’s ability to detect subtle differences in
radiance, such as those associated with small variations in
water depth, and thus exerts a primary control on both the
precision of depth estimates and the maximum detectable
depth. Forward image modeling, which involves simulating
an image “from the streambed up” given information on the
morphology and optical characteristics of the channel and
the technical specifications of the sensor, provides a means
of determining a priori the accuracy, precision, and dynamic
range of image-derived depth estimates. This approach
allows tradeoffs among spatial, spectral, and radiometric
resolution to be evaluated in the context of a specific river of
interest [Legleiter and Roberts, 2009].
[53] In this study, rather than resort to modeling, we made
direct measurements of water column attenuation in a pair of
gravel bed rivers and used these data to quantify the limita-
tions of spectrally-based depth retrieval. Vertical profiles of
downwelling spectral irradiance were used to calculate
values of the diffuse attenuation coefficient Kd(l) that were
in turn used to determine the smallest detectable change in
depth and maximum detectable depth via the theoretical
framework established by Philpot [1989]; this analysis was
performed for hypothetical imaging systems with specified
F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE
levels of radiometric resolution. Our results indicated that for
these clear-flowing streams, a typical instrument with a
DLN(l)/LB(l) ratio of 0.01 would yield depth estimates with
a precision on the order of 0.01–0.04 m and a maximum
detectable depth ranging from 5 m in the green portion of the
visible spectrum to 1.3 m in the NIR. More sensitive
instrumentation would yield more precise estimates and
increase the dynamic range of depth retrieval, but, con-
versely, less sophisticated sensors would provide estimates
subject to greater uncertainty over a more restricted range of
depths. These theoretical calculations were consistent with
our analysis of actual satellite image data and corresponding
field-based depth measurements. Typical errors of 0.238 and
0.094 m for the larger and smaller of our study streams,
respectively, corresponded to 20% and 42% of the mean
flow depths for the two reaches examined in detail. Depth
estimates calibrated using field measurements representative
of the overall distribution of depths within each reach were
less reliable in deeper water, so the maximum detectable
depth was not as well-constrained by our data, but pools
over 2.5 m deep were captured by satellite-based bathy-
metric maps. A combination of in situ observations of water
column optical properties, theoretical calculations, and
careful accuracy assessment will be most effective in defin-
ing the constraints associated with remote sensing of river
bathymetry.
4.2. Alternative Approaches to Remote Measurement
of River Morphology
[54] This study focused on retrieving water depth from
passive optical image data using a single, relatively simple
band ratio algorithm, but several alternative strategies for
remote sensing of river morphology are available as well.
For example, the same type of forward image modeling
described in Section 4.1 forms the basis of more advanced
spectrum-matching methods now favored by the coastal
research community for mapping depth, bottom composi-
tion, and concentrations of various optically significant
constituents of the water column [e.g., Lee et al., 1999;
Mobley et al., 2005]. In theory, these techniques could be
adapted for application to riverine environments, but this
prospect has yet to be explored. Implementing such an
approach would require additional data on the spectral
characteristics of different fluvial substrates and water types,
as well as significant modeling effort. In this study, we made
some initial progress toward this goal by making field
measurements of reflectance and apparent and inherent
optical properties of the water column for a pair of clear-
flowing gravel bed rivers. If a suitable database can be
developed, this physics-based approach could allow for
greater generality and thus eliminate the need to coordinate
remotely sensed data collection with field measurements to
establish relationships between image-derived quantities and
observed flow depths. Continued reliance upon this type of
empirical calibration, which involves regressing in situ depth
measurements against image pixel values, would undermine
one of the principal advantages of remote sensing.
[55] A complementary technology for characterizing river
morphology is light detection and ranging, or LiDAR.
Although LiDAR has become a preferred method of mea-
suring topography [Slatton et al., 2007], typical LiDAR
systems cannot measure submerged bed elevations because
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F04024
water strongly absorbs the NIR laser pulses emitted by these
instruments. To obtain a complete, hybrid representation
of the fluvial environment, LiDAR topography from
exposed bars and floodplains can be combined with
channel bathymetry derived from passive optical image
data, although such data fusion involves various technical
challenges [Legleiter, 2012a]. Newly developed, water-
penetrating green LiDAR systems provide a more direct
solution for measuring both subaerial and submerged sur-
faces [e.g., McKean et al., 2008]. Originally developed for
coastal applications, these bathymetric LiDARs provide a
relatively large laser spot size and low point density and
tend to over-estimate bed elevations in riverine settings
[Kinzel et al., 2007]. In addition, laser returns from the
water surface, water column, and streambed can be diffi-
cult to distinguish in shallow channels [Kinzel et al., 2012].
Thus, although green LiDAR has outstanding potential for
measuring riverine topography, these systems remain
experimental and have yet to achieve operational status as a
viable monitoring tool.
[56] Passive optical remote sensing, in contrast, has
become routine, with image data acquired on a regular basis
and made freely available to the public. For example, aerial
photography acquired through the National Agriculture
Imagery Program is accessible online and has been shown to
provide reasonably accurate bathymetric information for
clear-flowing gravel bed rivers. The low radiometric reso-
lution of these basic image data resulted in saturation of the
radiance signal, however, and the full depth of pools could
not be detected [Legleiter, 2012c]. For focused scientific
investigations or any application for which precise estimates
across a broad range of depths are necessary, acquiring task-
specific data with more advanced multi or hyperspectral
sensors might be more appropriate. This type of airborne
data collection requires careful planning and can be com-
plicated by a number of different factors. In our experience,
logistical coordination of pilots, planes, and instrumentation
can prove difficult, particularly if image acquisition is to be
synchronized with field-based measurements for purposes of
calibration and validation. Weather, mechanical problems,
and other unforeseen circumstances can derail even the most
well-thought out missions. In sensitive areas, such as the
National Parks where we conducted this investigation, flight
permits must be secured and restrictions on flying height
above terrain can compromise spatial resolution and sensor
signal-to-noise. For larger study areas or channels that do not
follow a straight course, multiple flight lines might be
needed, resulting in multiple images that must be geo-
referenced and mosaicked and might not be consistent with
one another in terms of atmospheric conditions and viewing
and illumination geometry. For these reasons, airborne data
might not be optimal for remote sensing of rivers.
4.3. Potential Advantages of Mapping River
Bathymetry From Space
[57] Satellite imagery could prove to be a viable alternative
with several distinct advantages. A number of commercial
satellites, such as QuickBird, GeoEye, and WorldView, now
provide the kind of spatial resolution required to map small-
to medium-sized gravel bed rivers, with pixel sizes of 2 m or
less for multispectral images and 0.5 m for panchromatic
images. These sensors also feature off-nadir pointing
F04024 LEGLEITER AND OVERSTREET: MAPPING RIVER BATHYMETRY FROM SPACE
capabilities that provide greater flexibility for tasked data
collection during an acquisition window specified by the
user. Because the platform is already in orbit, logistical pro-
blems associated with remotely sensed data collection are
less likely and obtaining flight permits is not an issue; plan-
ning can instead focus on field activities. Satellite images
typically encompass a larger area than could be acquired
along an aerial flight line, so longer river segments or even
entire watersheds can be captured in a single scene with
uniform radiometry, rather than a mosaic of multiple flight
strips. For cases where the entire image is not relevant,
commercial providers often market data on a per km2 basis to
match the user’s area of interest, so satellite imagery might be
more cost-effective as well. Because these data products
often are geo-referenced and atmospherically corrected, sat-
ellite images can be used as delivered, without the need for
extensive pre-processing that could require specialized soft-
ware and expertise. In addition, obtaining repeat coverage to
characterize channel change is more feasible because orbiting
satellites can be tasked on an as-needed basis in response to a
geomorphically significant event, whereas acquiring post-
flood aerial data would involve a second round of complex
logistical arrangements. For application-oriented users more
concerned with information derived via remote sensing and
less interested in the details of flight planning and image
processing, satellite data might provide a simpler, more
consistent solution.
5. Conclusion
[58] Efforts to characterize and understand the morphol-
ogy and dynamics of alluvial river channels are often com-
promised by the difficulty of measuring their form and
behavior via conventional, ground-based field methods. This
study explored the potential to map river bathymetry from
passive optical images acquired from spaceborne satellite
platforms that provide high resolution data, such as the 2 m-
pixel WorldView2 images evaluated here. Our results indi-
cate that water depths in clear-flowing, mid- to large-sized
gravel bed rivers with depths <3 m and widths <60 m can be
estimated reliably from multispectral data. Direct measure-
ments of water column optical properties were used to
quantify some of the key constraints associated with such
spectrally-based depth retrieval. For typical levels of sensor
radiometric resolution, the smallest detectable change in
depth was calculated to be on the order of 0.01–0.04 m and
the maximum detectable depth to vary with wavelength from
>5 m for green bands to <2 m in the NIR. A simple, band
ratio-based algorithm for selecting appropriate combinations
of wavelengths and calibrating relationships between field
measurements of depth and image-derived quantities was
shown to be effective when applied to spectra extracted from
an image or recorded directly in the field, although a dif-
ferent pair of bands was selected for each of the streams
examined. Adding a quadratic term to these relationships
provided only a marginal improvement in bathymetric
accuracy in a deeper river. Similarly, neither panchromatic
nor pan-sharpened multispectral images with greater spatial
resolution yielded more accurate depth estimates, even in a
smaller stream for which the pixel size was 10% of the mean
channel width. These results implied that spectral informa-
tion content was crucial to reliable depth retrieval. The
23 of 24
F04024
principal conclusion of this investigation is that, under
appropriate circumstances that include clear water condi-
tions and shallow to moderate depths, river bathymetry can
be mapped from space, provided that field measurements of
depth are available for calibration. By exploiting this capa-
bility, while also acknowledging the limitations associated
with remote sensing, scientists might gain novel insight on
the dynamics of certain types of fluvial systems.
[59] Acknowledgments. This investigation was supported by a grant
from the Office of Naval Research Littoral Geosciences and Optics Program
(grant N000141010873). The National Park Service granted permission to
conduct research in Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. The Uni-
versity of Wyoming-National Park Service Research Center and the Yel-
lowstone Ecological Research Center provided logistical support. The ac-
9 instrument was borrowed from the Naval Research Laboratory and the
United States Geological Survey loaned suspended sediment sampling
equipment and processed water samples. Gregory Miecznik of DigitalGlobe
coordinated acquisition of the WorldView-2 images used in this study. C.L.
Rawlins and Floyd Legleiter assisted with field work. The editor, associate
editor, and three anonymous reviewers provided useful comments on an
earlier version of this paper.
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