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Eco Energy 02 PDF
Eco Energy 02 PDF
Food chain : the transfer of food energy from producers through a series of
organisms with repeated eating and being eaten
P r i ma r y se c o n da r y Te rtiary
Eco sy st e m P ro d uc er
c o n su me r c o n su me r c o n su me r
fr e s h wa ter p o nd green algae → protozoa → mosquito larva → fish
rock y pond sea weeds → molluscs → starfish → sea birds
Grassland grass → grasshopper → lizard → snake
Woodland green plants → caterpillars → sparrow → hawk
Buddhist Chi Hong Chi Lam Memorial College A.L. Bio. Notes (by Denise Wong)
Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment ...... Page 55
Food web : in general, the food chains in an ecos ystem are not isolated, but are
interconnected with one another, i.e. an herbivore may feed on
several species of plants, and/ or be consumed by many consumers
and so on, such a number of interconnected food chains is known as
food web
Trophic level : organisms in a food chain occupy different trophic levels, which
indicate their place in the energy flow through the communit y
: organisms whose food is obtained from plants by the same number
of steps in the food chain belong to the same trophic level
producers - first trophic level
primary consumers - second trophic level
secondary consumers - third trophic level
tertiary consumers - fourth trophic level
Fig. 36 Flow of energy and cycling of materials through a typical food chain.
• the energy supplies for the grass, onl y a small part is used in the s ynthesis
of organic materials, much are lost
• part of the primary productivit y is used in the respiration of the producers,
of the net primary productivit y, a portion is eaten by the primary consumers,
the rest remains unused and is passed as dead plant materials
• of the food eaten b y the primary consumers, some is assimilated and
incorporated into the body tissue while others are unabsorbed and are
discarded in the form of faeces and other wastes
• the same loss of energy occurs when the energy is transferred from the
primary consumers to the secondary consumers
III. Ecological p yramids :
The feeding relationships between organisms at different trophic level within a
communit y can be represented by ecological pyramids. The producers (green
plants) form the base of the p yramids can be structured according to numbers
of organisms, total biomass, or total energy flow at each trophic level.
Buddhist Chi Hong Chi Lam Memorial College A.L. Bio. Notes (by Denise Wong)
Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment ...... Page 57
4 t h t r o p hic le v e l
3 r d t r o p hic le v e l
2 n d tro p hic le v el
1 s t t r o p hic le v e l
Exercise :
(90 I 7b)
Distinguish between production and biomass. [2 marks]
(98 I 11)
Why is the p yramid of energy always upright whereas the pyramid of biomass can
sometimes be inverted ? [4 marks]
IV Biogeochemical cycles :
The fundamental difference between the flow of energy and the flow of
materials in an ecosystem is that the latter can flow through the ecos ystem and
be recycled again to be available to producers, e.g. the flow of energy in an
ecos ystem is unidirectional while that of materials or nutrients is cyclic.
The importance of decomposers in an ecos ystem is to allow the recycling of
nutrients and makes it possible. Since they convert dead organic substances into
forms which are available for the plants to use again.
Buddhist Chi Hong Chi Lam Memorial College A.L. Bio. Notes (by Denise Wong)
Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment ...... Page 59
Interdependence of organisms
A. Predation :
- predation is a t ype of biological interaction in which one species (the predator)
attacks and kills another species (the prey).
- usuall y the predator populations is much smaller than the prey population
otherwise they may not have sufficient food to support them
- predator-prey relationships are important in producing cyclic changes in the
size of a population (refer to page 38 of the note of this topic)
- the t ype of cyclic fluctuation plays an important role in evolution whereby onl y
those individuals who are able to escape predation, or withstand adverse
climate conditions, will survive to reproduce, the population thereby evolves
to be better adapted to the prevailing conditions
B. Competition :
- when two t ypes of organisms live together in the same habitat, they require the
same materials from the environment, their presence strongl y affect one
another, this relationship is called competition
- there are two t ypes of competition : intraspecific and interspecific competition
(refer to page 4 of the note of this topic)
-for plants, they compete for sunlight, water, minerals salts and growing spaces
- for animals, they may compete for food, shelters and mates
C. Symbiosis :
- is a mode of life in which two organisms of different species live in intimate
association with each other, depending on the nature of the association, the
relationship is designated as commensalism, mutualism and parasitism
I. Commensalism :
- when two t ypes of organisms live together, onl y one organism gains benefit,
but the other neither harmed nor benefited, such association is called
commensalism
• usuall y such association is not permanent and no physical connection is
involved
• the commensals usuall y gain the benefits of feeding arrangement,
protection (shelter) and support
• examples
1. the sea anemones live on the shells of the hermit crabs
: the sea anemones as sessile animals gain the benefits of moving to a
new environment with better food suppl y and obtaining the food
remains dropped b y the crabs
: the crab also gains some protection from the anemone’s stinging cells
and some form of camouflage
*since these benefits are not essential and their association is not
permanent, it is regarded as commensalism
2. some barnacles attach on the shells of crabs
: these sessile commensalism gain the benefits of locomotion and feed on
the food remains of the host
3. epiphytes, plants growing on surfaces of the other plants
: they grow on the tree trunks to gain support in order to receive more
light, they do not draw nutrients from the host plants, they can also
easil y absorb water from the bark and from the atmosphere
Buddhist Chi Hong Chi Lam Memorial College A.L. Bio. Notes (by Denise Wong)
Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment ...... Page 63
II. Mutualism :
- when two t ypes of organisms live together and both gain benefits from one
another, such association is called mutualism
- this association is usuall y a permanent one and in the absence of the other
one, they do not live as successful as before or may even die
- examples
1. lichens (10% green algae and 90% fungi)
: the fungal hyphae entirel y enclose the algal cells to protect them against
desiccation, to anchor the plant body on the substratum and to absorb
water and mineral salts
: the algal cells carry out photos ynthesis to suppl y food to the fungus
2. leguminous plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria
: the nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium) living in the root nodules of
leguminous plants and change the nitrogen gas into nitrates, the nitrate
will be used b y the leguminous plants to produce proteins
: the leguminous plants in turn protect the bacteria and suppl y
carboh ydrates to support the growth of nitrogen-fixing bacteria
3. cellulase producing bacteria and herbivores
: the cellulase-producing bacteria living inside the alimentary canal of the
herbivorous mammals (cow, sheep or rabbit) to gain shelter, protection
and food suppl y
: the herbivores obtain cellulase from these bacteria to digest the cellulase
of the plant tissues into sugars
Exercise : (97 I 3)
The following photograph shows the root morphology of a normal leguminous
plant :
(a) Identify structure Y. What causes its formation ? [1½
marks]
(b) Describe the biological association inside Y and its significance [4 marks]
Buddhist Chi Hong Chi Lam Memorial College A.L. Bio. Notes (by Denise Wong)
Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment ...... Page 64
III Parasitism :
- it is a t ype of close association between two organisms in which one, the
parasites, depending upon the other (the host) for the suppl y of nutrients
- usuall y the parasites gain benefits from the host and imposes harm to it
- examples
1. endoparasites
: they live inside the host’s body, usuall y in their guts or tissue fluid e.g.
tapeworm is an animal parasite living inside the intestine of man
2. ectoparasites
: they live on the bod y surface of their hosts and obtaining their food b y
piercing through the outer tissues of the hosts to suck up their body fluids
e.g. Dodder is a plant parasite living on clover plants
Succession
It is a gradual, orderl y and predictable changes in the composition of
communities towards a climax communit y
Serial stages : is the sequence of communities occurring in each stage of the
succession
Dominant species : is the t ype of species that make up most of a serial stage
Climax communit y : is the final t ype of communit y, it is often described as having
one dominant or several co-dominant species
Dominance species : normall y refers to those species with the greatest collective
biomass or productivit y
A. Primary succession :
If succession begins on an area which has not been previousl y occupied by
communit y (such as newl y exposed rock or sand surface), the process is term as
primary succession
Fig. 40 Vegetational change during succession
1. Pioneer plants :-
- it is the first plants that invade an area and start the series of succession
- for bare rocks the plants that can grow on them are the lichens, these plants
create a layer of soil on the rock surface by the following routes
• as they cling to the rocks, they hold the water on the surface, chemicals
such as CO 2 dissolve in the water and corrode the rocks to soil particles
• the rock is also split physicall y by their rhizoids
• the dead bodies of the lichens enrich the soil with organic matters
2. Moss stage :-
- after the mosses have established, they compete with lichens and graduall y
eliminate the lichens at the area
- the mosses continue to build up deposits of organic matter and soil as more
rock is broken down and as the old mosses die
3. Herb stage :-
- some herbs such as the grass may compete with the mosses when an area has
been covered with mosses
- the herbs finall y eliminate the mosses and become dominant
4. Shrub stage :-
- the herbs further enrich the soil and they also furnish shade and act as a
windbreak, then the soil has more moisture for the growth of the shrubs
- as the shrubs grow taller, they become the dominant plants and shade the
herbs, i.e. some of the herbaceous plants will not be able to survive
5. Tree stage (forest) :-
- the next t ype of plants following the shrubs are the trees, as they grow, they
will graduall y form a dense vegetation (a forest) that shade out the shrubs, at
this stage a climax communit y is said to be reaches
- it will remain at equilibrium so far if the environment does not change
B. Secondary succession :
If succession proceeds in an area where a communit y has been removed (such
as a ploughed field or cut forest or fire) the process is called secondar y
succession. Secondary succession is usuall y more rapid because the soil has
alread y been made receptive by the previous communities. The speed of
succession varies greatl y from one situation to another, and the climatic
conditions play an important role in determining the speed. Below shows the
possible sequence of succession in Hong Kong
Bare ground
Grassland
frequent fire ----→ ----→ maintain grassland
Shrub land
occasional fires ----→ ----→ maintain shrub land
repeated cutting ----→ ----→ diverted to fern community
The succession of animals is less defines than plants, and the appearance of
species usuall y does not wipe out the existing species
[1] At the moss stage, some insects and small invertebrates may be attracted and
make their shelter there.
[2] At the herbs stage, there will be more insects, especially the grasshoppers,
beetles, bees and ants. Attracted by the insects are the insectivorous
mammals, e.g. moles and shrews.
[3] At the shrub stage, larger mammals make their appearance; these include
deer, foxed, rabbits etc. Birds also come here to seek out insects and fruits.
[4] At tree stage (climax), the area has similar fauna (animal species) as found in
the shrub stage
(90 I 1)
athlete's
Disease cholera malaria measles syphilis rabies influenza hepatitis
foot
Group bacteria protozoa virus bacteria virus virus fungus virus
(97 I 1a)
- flattened thallus provides increased surface area for photosynthesis [1]
- holdfast to attach to a substratum for prevention of being washed away by wave [1]
- leathery (tough) or flexible body resists action of waves [1] any 2
- air-bladders keep the alga buoyant for capturing light for photosynthesis [1]
- mucilage conserves water when alga is exposed to dry conditions [1]
(99 I 1)
(a) Sporangium [1], produce spores [1/2], formation of gameophyte [1/2]/ propagation /
reproduction of the species, and disperse the spore [1/2]
(b) diploid [1/2] / 2n / 2
(94 I 1)
Mosses : found in damp / moist habitat, shady and cool environment [½]
Ferns : found in open areas, near to hillside / roadside / on walls, where moisture is available for
certain time of the year (for fertilisation) [½]
Features : (1 for each feature mentioned, 2 marks max. for moss and 2 marks max. for fern)
Mosses Ferns
Water conservation i. no cuticle water and nutrients diffuse i. have woolly (hairy) cuticle so can reduce
/ uptake rapidly in and out, restricted to grow in water loss
moist habitat
ii. no true roots only rhizoid, water uptake is ii. true roots to facilitate water uptake so can
less efficient so restricted to moist habitat stand drier areas
iii. grow tightly together in form of a mat for
water retention
Reproduction both male gametes are mobile,
so necessity for water medium to complete its life cycle
Buddhist Chi Hong Chi Lam Memorial College A.L. Bio. Notes (by Denise Wong)
Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment ...... Page 68
(98 I 1)
<<accept alternatives other than those listed below that are group characteristics only, deduct ½
mark for no tabulation>>
Group Features
(a) Echinodermata - pentaramous symmetry [1]
- tube-feet [1]
any 2
- calcareous scales / spines on body [1]
- body with oral and aboral surfaces [1]
(b) Cnidaria - radial symmetry [1]
- possesses tentacles [1] any 2
- single body opening [1]
(93 II 5)
Compare and contrast body organization :
Hydroid coelenterate Tapeworm Earthworm mark
muticellular animals 1
diploblastic : jellyfish like
mesoglea sandwiched between triploblastic : endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm 1
ectoderm and endoderm
organ-level
tissue-level organ-level
organisation 1
organisation organisation
(many organs reduced)
acoelomate (continuous
acoelomate coelomate 1
proliferation of proglottids)
metamerically
not metamerically segmented 1
segmented
radially symmetrical bilaterally symmetrical 1
(96 I 3)
Planarian do not have coelom [½], no metamerism. [½]
In earthworms :
mesoderm splits into outer and inner layer [ ½] with coelom in between [ ½] which allows for :
- space for development of organs [ ½]
- development of hydrostatic skeleton for support and / or movement [1]
- independent movement of body wall and gut [1]
metameric segmentation [ ½] allows for :
specialization of different body parts / division of labour / muscular body wall divides into blocks
provides for independent movement of different parts of the body. [1]
<< max. 5 >>
(99 I 5)
Group Function <any 1, 1 @>
(a) - maintains body shape / support
Annelida, Annelid(s) [1] - muscles of body wall acts on coelomic fluid to bring
about locomotion
(b) - catching / kill / trap preys
Cnidaria / Cnidarian/ Coelenterata /
<not accept ‘feeding’>
Coelenterate(s) [1]
- defense
<deduct ½ mark if no tabulation>
(97 I 8)
(a) L : 1A, 2A [1] Psettodes erumei [ ½]
M : 1A, 2B, 3A, 4A [1] Pseudorhombus arsius [ ½]
N : 1B, 6B [1] Cynolgossus abbreviatus [ ½]
(b) - eyes located on one side to allow for vision while swimming on the ocean floor [1]
- dorsal and ventral fins are elongated used to swim near the bottom [1] / used to move sand /
mud and bury in the bottom,
- flat body makes it possible to lie flat on the ocean floor / flat body makes it inconspicuous on
the ocean floor. [1]
<< any 2 points>>
Buddhist Chi Hong Chi Lam Memorial College A.L. Bio. Notes (by Denise Wong)
Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment ...... Page 70
(90 I 7a)
Habitat is the place in nature [1/2] where the species lives (or where you can find the species) [1/2]
Niche is the functional role of the species [1/2] i.e. what it does in the community, including the
habitat, food, nest sites, its place in the community in relation to other species and so on, that it
needs in order to survive. [1/2]
(93 I 6b)
A biome is an ecological term used to describe a major terrestrial community unit which results
from an interaction between regional climate and biota. [1]
A habitat is an ecological concept of a space which is characterized by a set of physical conditions or
limiting factors that influence the presence, distribution and survival of organisms within it. [1]
(99 I 4)
(a) predator-prey relationship [1] / X preys on Y / predation
(b) (i) at least 2 oscillation cycles are shown [1/2], Y and X out of phase [1/2],
peak for Y higher than that of X [1/2], 2 curves correctly labeled as X and Y [1/2]
<axes without labels – ½>
no of
individuals Y
Time
(ii) Both X and Y would not die out complete [1]. In the natural environment, as the population
density of Y falls, it would be difficult for X to locate Y [1]. When X falls in population, Y
will take chance to proliferate [1/2] and this is followed by an increase in X population as
more food is available.
(91 II 4b-d)
A named local habitat e.g. mangrove
(a) The two physical factors described must be major ones operating at the specified habitat e.g. the
salinity and the anaerobic soil in mangrove [1]
Correctly state the effects of the factors on distribution [ ½ x 3 x 2]
(b) The organisms named must be present in the habitat, adaptations cited must be adaptations
towards the particular habitat specified, general adaptations not acceptable. For each
organism :
- correct name (common name acceptable) [1/2]
- at least two adaptations [ ½ x 2] Total : 1.5 x 4
(c) The examples cited must be present in the habitat for each inter-relationship :
- correct examples (both partners correct) [ ½ x 2 x 2]
- description of the role of each partner [ ½ x 2 x 2]
Buddhist Chi Hong Chi Lam Memorial College A.L. Bio. Notes (by Denise Wong)
Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment ...... Page 71
(91 II 4a)
A named local habitat e.g. mangrove
(a) Use transects [1/2] and quadrats [1/2] to measure the abundance and distribution of species.
[1/2]
e.g. Line transect
• select a typical stretch of areas of interest in the habitat [1/2]
• laid a rope in ground (fixed at the 2 ends) [1/2]
• record abundance and distribution of species touching the rope [1/2]
• data graphed (histograms / kite diagrams ) and analyzed [1/2]
e.g. quadrats
• random or along a line transect (belt transect) [1/2]
• count the number of each species occurring in the quadrat [1/2] / estimate the
percentage coverage of each species in the quadrat [1/2]
• for random quadrat : repeat a number of times to get the average [1/2]
• for belt transect : repeat along the transect [1/2]
(90 I 7b)
Biomass is the amount of living material [1/2] ( e.g. in terms of weight or carbon) of a biological
unit at any given time. [1/2]
Production is the difference in biomass [1/2] within a certain time interval. [1/2] i.e. final biomass -
initial biomass.
(98 I 11)
(a) (i) X : (950) / (11360) x 100 % [1/2]
= 8.36 % [1/2]
Y : (8750) / (9250) x 100 % [1/2]
= 94.59 % [1/2]
(ii) X : coniferous [1/2]
Y : deciduous [1/2]
(b) Yes [1/2]. All growth stages of A are present [1/2] in forest X[1/2] but not in Y. Absence of
seedlings and saplings in Y [1/2] indicates that fire may be essential for the initial growth
phase of A [1/2].
A becomes the dominant species (component) of the forest tree community in X where fire is
periodic but not in Y [1]. In X, species A is mostly represented by mature trees [1/2], prolific
number of seedlings in X perpetuates the species [1/2] / indicating that growth is not
interrupted. <max. 4>
< Bonus : The periodic burning away of deciduous trees by fires in X removed the competitor of
A [1]>
(c) B only exists in X but not in Y [1/2].
Without fire, the luxurious growth of deciduous trees in forest Y outcompeted species B [1]. /
The cones of B need fire to split open to release the seeds. / Fire exposes the bare grounds for
the germination of the seeds of B.
(d) Fire is destructive to / limits the growth of deciduous trees [1/2] because in forest X, where fires
occurred periodically, the total number of deciduous trees is much reduced [1/2]. The seedlings
and saplings which form the under-growth were burnt by the low-level fires which occurred
every 5 years [1]. Thus only a few survived to reach maturity [1/2]. Compared to forest Y where
fire is absent, deciduous trees become dominant [1/2].
Fire also shifted the dominant tree species from C to D in X [1/2] because in Y the more
dominant species in C [1/2]
<Bonus : probably C is more sensitive to fire / D is more fire tolerant [1/2]>
Buddhist Chi Hong Chi Lam Memorial College A.L. Bio. Notes (by Denise Wong)
Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment ...... Page 72
(e) Allow the regular fires to occur periodically [1/2]. Fire proved to promote species diversity [1],
at least conifer trees can't survive well without fires [1/2]. / Conifer trees grow luxuriously
because fire reduced the competition from deciduous trees. Fire also cleared off the ground and
add ash to the soil thus increased soil fertility [1].
(97 I 3)
In the pyramid of energy, there is a progressive decrease in energy flowing through successive
trophic levels up a food chain [1/2]. This is due to a net loss of energy to the environment [1/2] as a
result of processes such as <any 2> respiration / heat loss / dead body wastage / incomplete eating
[1/2]. Inverted pyramids of biomass can result when the turn-over rate (high reproductive rate) of
producers is fast compared to the consumers [1], thus at any time the standing biomass of the
producer can be smaller [1/2] to sustain a larger biomass of consumers [1/2].
(90 I 7c)
Zonation refers to the spatial distribution pattern of various species [1/2] within a community at any
one time according to the environmental gradient. [1/2]
Succession refers to the replacement of some species within a community by other species [1/2]
through time. [1/2]