COMPARISION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

THICKNESS FOR WEAK AND STRONG SUBGRADE

SOILS
A Report submitted
in partial fulfillment for the Degree of
B. Tech
in
Civil Engineering
by
D.Sandhya-12245A0112
T.L.S.Saranya-11241AO1B3
T.Jyothi-12245A0122
J.Divya-12245A0113
D.Kumari-12245A0110
M.Sree Jyothirmayee-11241A0192
Department of Civil Engineering

GOKARAJU GANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

HYDERABAD
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)
MAY,2015

1
 GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “COMPARISION OF

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT THICKNESS FOR WEAK AND STRONG
SUBGRADE SOILS” that is being submitted by D.Sandhya, T.L.S.Saranya,
T.Jyothi, J.Divya, D.Kumari,M.Sree Jyothirmayeeunder the guidance of
Mr.Kamal Raju in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor
of Technology in Civil Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University is a record of bonafide work carried out by them under my guidance
and supervision. The results embodied in this project report have not been
submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any graduation
degree.

Mr.Kamal Raju External Examiner Prof . Md.Hussain

Asst.Proffeser, CE Dept, HOD, CE Dept,
GRIET, Hyderabad. GRIET,Hyderabad.

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We have immense pleasure in expressing our thanks and deep sense of

gratitude to our guide Mr.Kamal Raju, Assistant Professor, Department of
Civil Engineering, G.R.I.E.T for his guidance throughout this project.

We also express our sincere thanks to Prof. Md.Hussain Head of the

Department, G.R.I.E.T for extending his help.

We wish to express our profound sense of gratitude to Prof. P. S. Raju,

Director, and G.R.I.E.T for his encouragement, and for all facilities to complete
this project.

Finally we express our sincere gratitude to all the members of faculty and
my friends who contributed their valuable advice and helped to complete the
project successfully.

3
 ABSTRACT

Our project deals with the design of flexible pavements. Currently, majority of the Indian

roads are flexible pavements, the ones having bituminous layer/s. earlier, there used to be

scarcity of cement and India went for flexible pavements with bituminous toppings. Now,

flexible pavement are preferred over cement concrete roads as they have a great advantage

that these can be strengthened and improved in stages with the growth of traffic. Another

major advantage of these roads is that their surfaces can be milled and recycled for

rehabilitation. The flexible pavements are less expensive also with regard to initial investment

and maintenance.

In this project the flexible pavement thickness is designed for both weak and strong sub grade

soils following IRC:37-2001 code and the results are compared..The pavement thickness is

calculated by two methods California Bearing Ratio method, triaxial test method.

4
CONTENTS PAGE
NO
CHAPTER-1 11
INTRODUCTION
1.1PAVEMENT 11

1.2TYPES OF PAVEMENTS 12

1.3RIGID PAVEMENT 12

1.4FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 12

CHAPTER-2 13
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
2.1TYPES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 14
2.2COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 14
2.3METHODS USED IN DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 18
2.3.1CBR METHOD 18
2.3.2 GROUP INDEX METHOD 20
2.3.3TRIAXIAL METHOD 21
2.4DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 22
CHAPTER-3 29
LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER-4 31
EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED
CHAPTER-5
STANDARD COMPACTION TEST
CHAPTER-6
GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY SIEVE ANALYSIS
CHAPTER-7
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

5
CHAPTER-8
DTERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT
CHAPTER-9
DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT
CHAPTER-10
PAVEMENT DESIGN
CHAPTER-11
SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
CHAPTER-12
REFERENCES

6
LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO.
FIGURE-1 15
FIGURE-2 23
FIGURE-3 26
FIGURE-4 27
FIGURE-5 27
FIGURE-6 28
FIGURE-7 33
FIGURE-8 35
FIGURE-9 36
FIGURE-10 37
FIGURE-11 38
FIGURE-12 39
FIGURE-13 40
FIGURE-14 46
FIGURE-15 47
FIGURE-16 51
FIGURE-17 53
FIGURE-18 54
FIGURE-19 60
FIGURE-20 61
FIGURE-21 62
FIGURE-22 67
FIGURE-23 68
FIGURE-24 69

7
LIST OF TABLES PAGE NO.
TABLE-1 35
TABLE-2 36
TABLE-3 37
TABLE-4 38
TABLE-5 39
TABLE-6 40
TABLE-7 46
TABLE-8 47
TABLE-9 50
TABLE-10 53
TABLE-11 54
TABLE-12 61
TABLE-13 62
TABLE-14 65
TABLE-15 66
TABLE-16 72

8
LIST OF ABBRIVATIONS PAGE NO.

9
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1PAVEMENT

Pavement is the actual travel surface especially made durable and serviceable to withstand the

traffic load commuting upon it. Pavement grants friction for the vehicles thus providing

comfort to the driver and transfers the traffic load from the upper surface to the natural soil.

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials

above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle

loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of

acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics,

and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to

wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-

grade.

1.2TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

Pavements are primarily to be used by vehicles and pedestrians. Storm water drainage and

environmental conditions are a major concern in the designing of a pavement. The first of the

constructed roads date back to 4000 BC and consisted of stone paved streets or timber roads.

The roads of the earlier times depended solely on stone, gravel and sand for construction and

water was used as a binding agent to level and give a finished look to the surface. All hard

road pavements usually fall into two broad categories namely Flexible Pavement and Rigid

Pavement.

10
1.3RIGID PAVEMENT

The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with rigidity or flexural strength or

slab action so the load is distributed over a wide area of sub grade soil. Rigid pavement is laid

in slabs with steel reinforcement .The rigid pavements are made of cement concrete either

plan, reinforced or prestressed concrete

1.4FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

It yields “elastically” to traffic loading. It is constructed with a bituminous-treated surface or

a relatively thin surface of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) over one or more unbound base courses

resting on a sub grade.

11
 CHAPTER-2

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Flexible pavements which reflect the deformation of sub grade and the subsequent layers to

the surface. Flexible, usually asphalt, is laid with no reinforcement or with a specialized

fabric reinforcement that permits limited flow or repositioning of the roadbed underground

changes.

The design of flexible pavement is based on load distributing characteristic of the

component layers. The black top pavement including water & gravel bound macadam fall in

this category.

Flexible pavement on the whole has low or negligible flexible strength flexible in their

structural action). The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses

to the lower layers by grain transfer through contact points of granular structure.

The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface directly under the

wheel load and is equal to contact pressure under the wheels. Due to the ability to distribute

the stress to large area in the shape of truncated cone the stresses get decreased in the lower

layer.

As such the flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and the top layer

has to be strongest as the highest compressive stresses.

To be sustained by this layer, in addition to wear and tear, the lower layer have to take

up only lesser magnitude of stress as there is no direct wearing action die to traffic

loads, therefore inferior material with lower cast can be used in the lower layers.

12
2.1TYPES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high quality expensive materials

are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials are placed in

lower layers.(This is the type considered for this project)

Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the

soil sub-grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not

available.

Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers

in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the

sub-grade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and

protect from surface water.

2.2COMPONENETS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack

coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and

natural sub-grade.

13
 Fig.1

Seal Coat

Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid

resistance.

Tack Coat

Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It

provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly

cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat

Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like

granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers.

Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a

water tight surface.

14
Surface course

Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains

superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete

(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:

It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent the

entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base and sub-

grade

It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid- resistant

riding surface

It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening effect of

water.

Binder course

This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to

distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having

less asphalt and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the

surface course by the binder course results in more economical design.

Base course

The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and

it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may be

composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.

15
Sub-Base course

The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary functions

are to provide structural support, improve drainage and reduce the intrusion of fines from the

sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base

course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course A sub-base

course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high

quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base course. In

such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.

Sub-grade

The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the

layers above It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed It should be

compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

16
2.3METHODS USED IN THE DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

2.3.1CBR METHOD

The following sub sections describe the various variables and parameters involved

in design of flexible pavement of road as per IRC 37 - 2001.

Traffic- CV/Day Annual traffic census 24 X 7:

For structural design, commercial vehicles are considered. Thus vehicle of gross weight more

than 8 tones load are considered in design. This is arrived at from classified volume count.

Wheel loads:

Urban traffic is heterogeneous. There is a wide spectrum of axle loads plying on these roads.

For design purpose it is simplified in terms of cumulative number of standard axle (8160 kg)

to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This is expressed in terms of million

standard axles or msa

Design Traffic:

Computation of design Traffic In terms of cumulative number of standard axle to be carried

by the pavement during design life.

365 A [(1+r)n –1]

N = ----------------------------- x F x D xr

Where

N = The cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in design in terms of million

standard axles - msa.

17
A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction

D = Lane distribution factor

F = Vehicle damage factor, VDF

n = Design life in years

r = Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles {this can be taken as 7.5% if no data is
available}

18
2.3.2 Group Index Method:-
In order to classify the fine grained soils within one group and for judging their suitability as

sub grade material, an indexing system has been introduced in HRB classification which is

termed as Group Index. Group Index is function of percentage material passing 200 mesh

sieve (0.074mm), liquid limit and plasticity index of soil and is given by equation: (0.074mm)

. Liquid limit and plasticity index of soil and is given by equation:

GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd

Here,

a=that portion of material passing 0.074mm sieve, greater than 35 And not exceeding 75 %

b=that portion of material passing 0.074mm sieve, greater than 15

And not exceeding 35%

c = that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60

d = that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more than 30

19
2.3.3TRIAXIAL METHOD

L.A.Palmer and E.S.Barber in 1910 proposed the design method based on Boussinesq’s
displacement for homogeneous elastic single layer: The thickness of pavement.

T = √((3P/2¶∆Es)2 –a2 )

Here,

T=Pavement thickness, cm

Es=modulus of elasticity of sub grade from Triaxial test result, Kg/cm2

A=radius of contact area, cm

∆=design deflection (0.25 cm)

20
2.4 (IRC 37:2001) Design of flexible pavements:

The Pavement designs given in the previous edition IRC:37-1984 were applicable to design

traffic up to only 30 million standard axles (msa). The earlier code is empirical in nature

which has limitations regarding applicability and extrapolation. This guidelines follows

analytical designs and developed new set of designs up to 150 msa.

Scope:

These guidelines will apply to design of flexible pavements for Expressway, National

Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads, and other categories of roads. Flexible

pavements are considered to include the pavements which have bituminous surfacing and

granular base and sub-base courses conforming to IRC/ MOST standards. These guidelines

apply to new pavements.

Design criteria:

The flexible pavements has been modeled as a three layer structure and stresses and strains at

critical locations have been computed using the linear elastic model. To give proper

consideration to the aspects of performance, the following three types of pavement distress

resulting from repeated (cyclic) application of traffic loads are considered

 vertical compressive strain at the top of the sub-grade which can cause sub-grade

deformation resulting in permanent deformation at the pavement surface.

 horizontal tensile strain or stress at the bottom of the bituminous layer which can

cause fracture of the bituminous layer.

 pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.

While the permanent deformation within the bituminous layer can be controlled by

meeting the mix design requirements, thickness of granular and bituminous layers are

21
selected using the analytical design approach so that strains at the critical points are within the

allowable limits. For calculating tensile strains at the bottom of the bituminous layer, the

stiffness of dense bituminous macadam (DBM) layer with 60/70 bitumen has been used in the

analysis.

Failure Criteria:

Fig.2

Design procedure:

Based on the performance of existing designs and using analytical approach, simple design

charts and a catalogue of pavement designs are added in the code. The pavement designs are

given for subgrade CBR values ranging from 2% to 10% and design traffic ranging from 1

msa to 150 msa for an average annual pavement temperature of 35 C. The later thicknesses

obtained from the analysis have been slightly modified to adapt the designs to stage

construction. Using the following simple input parameters, appropriate designs could be

chosen for the given traffic and soil strength.

I. Design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles; and

II. Value of sub grade.

22
Design traffic:

The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160 kg)

to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following information

1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD

2. Traffic growth rate during the design life

3. Design life in number of years

4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)

5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way.

Initial traffic: Initial traffic is determined in terms of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD).

For the structural design of the pavement only commercial vehicles are considered assuming

laden weight of three tonnes or more and their axle loading will be considered. Estimate of

the initial daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day 24-hour

classified traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the

basis of potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area.

Traffic growth rate: Traffic growth rates can be estimated

(i) by studying the past trends of traffic growth, and

(ii) by establishing econometric models. If adequate data is not available, it is

recommended that an average annual growth rate of 7.5 percent may be adopted.

Design life: For the purpose of the pavement design, the design life is defined in terms of the

cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before strengthening of the pavement

is necessary. It is recommended that pavements for arterial roads like NH, SH should be

designed for a life of 15 years, EH and urban roads for 20 years and other categories of roads

for 10 to 15 years.

23
Vehicle Damage Factor: The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the

number of commercial vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the number

of standard axle-load repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per

commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with the axle configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of

road, and from region to region. The axle load equivalency factors are used to convert

different axle load repetitions into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. For these

equivalency factors refer IRC: 37 2001. The exact VDF values are arrived after extensive

field surveys.

Vehicle distribution

A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction and by lane is

necessary as it directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load application used in the

design. Until reliable data is available, the following distribution may be assumed.

Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two lane roads

and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design should be based on

total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.

Two-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 75 % of the commercial

vehicles in both directions.

Four-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 40 % of the total

number of commercial vehicles in both directions.

Dual carriageway roads: For the design of dual two-lane carriageway roads should be based

on 75 % of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction. For dual three-lane

carriageway and dual four-lane carriageway the distribution factor will be 60 % and 45 %

respectively.

24
Pavement thickness design charts

For the design of pavements to carry traffic in the range of 1 to 10 msa, use chart 1 and for

traffic in the range 10 to 150 msa, use chart 2 of IRC:37 2001. The design curves relate

pavement thickness to the cumulative number of standard axles to be carried over the design

life for different sub-grade CBR values ranging from 2 % to 10 %. The design charts will

give the total thickness of the pavement for the above inputs. The total thickness consists of

granular sub-base, granular base and bituminous surfacing. The individual layers are designed

based on the recommendations given below and the subsequent tables.

IRC Pavement Design Catalogue

Fig.3

25
Fig.4

Fig.5

26
Fig.6

27
 CHAPTER-3

LITERATURE REVIEW

Saurabh Jain, Dr. Y. P. Joshi, S. S. Goliya (2013)

 The pavement is designed as a flexible pavement upon a black cotton soil sub grade,

the CBR method as per IRC 37-2001 is most appropriate method than available

methods. The pavement is designed as a flexible method from which each method is

designed on the basis of their design thickness from which each method has different

cost analysis of a section, from which CBR as per IRC is most appropriate in terms of

cost analysis. The pavement is designed as a rigid pavement; the method suggested by

IRC is most suitable.

 It is observed that flexible pavements are more economical for lesser volume of

traffic. The life of flexible pavement is near about 15 years whose initial cost is low

needs a periodic maintenance after a certain period and maintenance costs very high.

The life of rigid pavement is much more than the flexible pavement of about 40 years

approx 2.5 times life of flexible pavement whose initial cost is much more then the

flexible pavement but maintenance cost is very less.

Mr Sandeep D. Khorasiya (JUNE-2013)

 The Aim of this paper is compare different types of flexible pavement design to in

various conditions. In this study an attempt is made to compare the IRC method of

flexible pavement design using M-EPDG in terms of its design concepts and structural

adequacy. It was seen that the IRC design over estimates the design requirements for

all the distress types except AC layer rutting. A redesign was done to rectify this

problem and the design was optimized.

28
  From analysis and calculate design is prefer a AASHTO method for because it is
provide 750mm thickness as compare to IRC it is provide a 1000mmthickness for

pavement so IRC is economical.

E.J.YODER (FEBRUARY-1969)

 The primary purpose of this paper has been to present concepts relative to a method

for optimizing certain decisions the design engineer must make when establishing the

design of a pavement. Perhaps the most utility of the techniques can be realized in

developing areas where experience with the materials at hand are meagre or

completely lacking. Suggested criteria are presented for sampling and selection of a

design value.

 It has been demonstrated that the anticipated traffic and moisture condition at the site

are important factors when selecting a specific design value from a series of tests.

Since the selection is controlled by the above factors coupled with construction and

maintenance costs, reliable estimates of these quantities must be made for a given

area.

29
 CHAPTER-4

EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED

1. Standard compaction test

2. Grain size sieve analysis

3. California bearing ratio test

4. Liquid Limit test

5. Plastic limit test

30
 CHAPTER-5

STANDARD COMPACTION TEST

Aim:-

Determination of the relationship between the moisture content and density of soils

compacted in a mould of a given size.

Apparatus:-

1. Proctor mould having a capacity of 944cc with an internal diameter of 100mm and

effective height of 127.3mm. The mould shall have a detachable collar assembly and a

detachable base plate.

2. Rammer: A mechanical operated metal rammer of weight of 2.6kg, drop of 310mm

for standard test. The rammer shall be equipped with a suitable arrangement to control

the height of drop to free fall.

3. Sample extruder.

4. A balance of 15kg capacity

5. Sensitive balance.

6. Straight edge.

7. Graduated cylinder.

8. Mixing tools such as mixing pan, spoon, towel, spatula etc.

9. Moisture tins.

31
 Fig.7

Procedure:-

1. Take a representative oven dried sample, approximately 3kg in the given pan.

Thoroughly mix the sample with sufficient water dampens it to approximately

8-10% points below optimum moisture content.

2. Weight the proctor mould without base plate and collar.fix the collar and base

plate. Place the soil in the proctor mould and compact it in 3layers giving 25

blows per layer with the 2.6kg rammer falling through for standard

compaction.

32
3. Remove the collar, trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mould by

means of straight edge and weigh.

4. Divide the weight of the compacted specimen and record the results as the wet

weight in gm/cc of the compacted soil.

5. Remove the sample from the mould and slice vertically through and obtain a
small sample for moisture determination.

6. Thoroughly break up the remainder of the material and add water in sufficient
amounts o increase the moisture content of the soil sample by one two
percentage points and repeat the above procedure for each increment of water
added.

7. Continue this series of determination until there is either a decrease or no

change in the wet unit weight of the compacted soil.

33
 Observations and Calculations:-

Subgrade-1

SAMPLE-I

Moisture
content
Wt of Wt of (w) Empty Wt. of volum
cont. cont = ((W2- wt. of compact e of Dry
% of Empty with with W3) / compact ion Wt. of compa Bulk density(
water wt of wet dry (W3- ion mould compacted ction density γd)
added cont. soil soil W1))X10 mould( with soil soil (M) mould (γb) =(γb/(1+
Sl by Cont (W1) (W2) (W3) 0 M1) (M2) =(M2-M1) (V) =(M/V) w))
no weight no gm gm gm % gm gm gm cc gm/cc gm/cc

1 8% 14 33.00 112.00 105.50 8.97 2162.00 3995.00 1833.00 944.00 1.94 1.78

2 10% 1 34.00 128.50 119.00 11.18 2162.00 4205.50 2043.50 944.00 2.16 1.95

3 12% 22 27.50 108.00 99.00 12.59 2162.00 4270.50 2108.50 944.00 2.23 1.98

4 14% 75 22.00 101.50 92.00 13.57 2162.00 4251.50 2089.50 944.00 2.21 1.95

Table.1

Moisture content vs Dry density

2.00

1.95

1.90
Dry density(γd)
=(γb/(1+w))
1.85 gm/cc

1.80

1.75
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00

Fig.8

34
 SAMPLE-II

Moistur
e content
Wt of Wt of (w) Wt. of Wt. of Bulk Dry
cont. cont = ((W2- compact compact density density
% of Empty with with W3) / Empty wt. ion ed soil (γb) (γd)
water wt of wet dry (W3- of mould (M) volume of =(M/V =(γb/(1
added Co cont. soil soil W1))X1 compaction with soil =(M2- compaction ) +w))
l by nt (W1) (W2) (W3) 00 mould(M1) (M2) M1) mould (V)
weight no gm gm gm % gm gm gm cc gm/cc gm/cc

1 8% 6 34.50 146.00 136.50 9.31 2162.00 4137.50 1975.50 944.00 2.09 1.91

2 10% 11 34.00 179.50 164.50 11.49 2162.00 4234.50 2072.50 944.00 2.20 1.97

3 12% 28 28.00 204.00 185.00 12.10 2162.00 4285.00 2123.00 944.00 2.25 2.01

4 14% Lid 20.50 183.50 163.50 13.99 2162.00 4262.00 2100.00 944.00 2.22 1.95

Table.2

Moisture content vs Dry density

2.02

2.00

1.98

Dry density(γd)
1.96
=(γb/(1+w))
gm/cc
1.94

1.92

1.90
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00

Fig.9

35
 SAMPLE-III

Moisture
content
Wt of Wt of (w) Empty Wt. of volume Bulk Dry
cont. cont = ((W2- wt. of Wt. of compact of density density
% of Empty with with W3) / compact compactio ed soil compact (γb) (γd)
water wt of wet dry (W3- ion n mould (M) ion =(M/V =(γb/(1
added cont. soil soil W1))X10 mould( with soil =(M2- mould ) +w))
Sl by Cont (W1) (W2) (W3) 0 M1) (M2) M1) (V)
no weight no gm gm gm % gm gm gm cc gm/cc gm/cc

1 8% A 19.00 85.00 80.00 8.20 2162.00 4070.00 1908.00 944.00 2.02 1.87

2 10% B 21.50 145.00 132.00 11.76 2162.00 4283.50 2121.50 944.00 2.25 2.01

3 12% C 20.00 106.00 95.00 14.67 2162.00 4314.00 2152.00 944.00 2.28 1.99

4 14% D 21.50 122.00 108.00 16.18 2162.00 4219.00 2057.00 944.00 2.18 1.88

Table.3

Moisture content vs Dry density

2.04
2.02
2.00
1.98
1.96 Dry density(γd)
1.94 =(γb/(1+w))
gm/cc
1.92
1.90
1.88
1.86
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00

Fig.10

36
 Subgrade-2

SAMPLE-I

Moisture
content
Wt of Wt of (w) Empty Wt. of volume Bulk Dry
cont. cont = ((W2- wt. of compact of density density
% of Empty with with W3) / compact ion Wt. of compact (γb) (γd)
water wt of wet dry (W3- ion mould compacted ion =(M/V =(γb/(1
added cont. soil soil W1))X10 mould( with soil soil (M) mould ) +w))
Sl by Cont (W1) (W2) (W3) 0 M1) (M2) =(M2-M1) (V)
no weight no gm gm gm % gm gm gm cc gm/cc gm/cc

1 10% 2 29.00 93.00 85.50 13.27 2162.00 3953.50 1791.50 944.00 1.90 1.68

2 12% 5 27.00 88.00 80.00 15.09 2162.00 4051.00 1889.00 944.00 2.00 1.74

3 14% 14 33.50 94.00 85.50 16.35 2162.00 4160.00 1998.00 944.00 2.12 1.82

4 16% 73 21.50 82.00 73.00 17.48 2162.00 4178.50 2016.50 944.00 2.14 1.82

5 18% 28 28.00 89.00 79.00 19.61 2162.00 4173.00 2011.00 945.00 2.13 1.78

Table.4

Moisture content vs Dry density

1.84
1.82
1.80
1.78
1.76 Dry density(γd)
1.74 =(γb/(1+w))
gm/cc
1.72
1.70
1.68
1.66
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00

Fig.11

From graph OMC=17.50% Max. dry density=1.81 gm/cc

37
 SAMPLE-II

Moisture
Wt of Wt of content Empty volume Dry
cont. cont (w) wt. of Wt. of of Bulk density
% of Empty with with = ((W2- compact compactio Wt. of compa density (γd)
water wt of wet dry W3) / ion n mould compacted ction (γb) =(γb/(1
added cont. soil soil (W3- mould( with soil soil (M) mould =(M/V) +w))
Sl by Cont (W1) (W2) (W3) W1))X100 M1) (M2) =(M2-M1) (V)
no weight no gm gm gm % gm gm gm cc gm/cc gm/cc

1 10% Lid-A 19.00 61.00 55.50 15.07 2162.00 4048.50 1886.50 944.00 2.00 1.74

2 12% Lid-D 21.50 85.00 76.50 15.45 2162.00 4069.00 1907.00 944.00 2.02 1.75

3 14% Lid-1 21.50 62.00 56.00 17.39 2162.00 4101.50 1939.50 944.00 2.05 1.75

4 16% Lid-2 20.50 67.00 60.00 17.72 2162.00 4186.00 2024.00 944.00 2.14 1.82

5 18% Lid-3 20.50 75.00 66.00 19.78 2162.00 4180.00 2018.00 945.00 2.14 1.78

Table.5

Moisture content vs Dry density

1.83
1.82
1.81
1.80
1.79
Dry density(γd)
1.78
=(γb/(1+w))
1.77 gm/cc
1.76
1.75
1.74
1.73
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

Fig.12

From graph OMC=17.70% Max. dry density=1.81 gm/cc

38
 SAMPLE-III

Moisture
Wt of Wt of content Wt. of Wt. of volume Bulk Dry
cont. cont (w) compact compact of density density
% of Empty with with = ((W2- Empty wt. ion ed soil compa (γb) (γd)
water wt of wet dry W3) / of mould (M) ction =(M/V =(γb/(1
added cont. soil soil (W3- compaction with soil =(M2- mould ) +w))
Sl by Cont (W1) (W2) (W3) W1))X100 mould(M1) (M2) M1) (V)
no weight no gm gm gm % gm gm gm cc gm/cc gm/cc

1 10% 1 34.00 98.50 91.00 13.16 2162.00 3921.50 1759.50 944.00 1.86 1.65

2 12% 8 28.50 94.00 85.00 15.93 2162.00 4075.00 1913.00 944.00 2.03 1.75

3 14% Lid-C 20.00 65.50 59.00 16.67 2162.00 4173.50 2011.50 944.00 2.13 1.83

4 16% 50 21.00 68.00 61.00 17.50 2162.00 4246.50 2084.50 944.00 2.21 1.88

5 18% Lid-B 21.50 80.00 70.50 19.39 2162.00 4227.50 2065.50 945.00 2.19 1.83

Table.6

Moisture content vs Dry density

1.90

1.85

1.80

Dry density(γd)
1.75
=(γb/(1+w))
gm/cc
1.70

1.65

1.60
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00

Fig.13

From graph OMC=17.50% Max. dry density=1.87 gm/cc

39
40
41
42
Results:-
Subgrade-1

From the conducted test on samples

Average OMC=((12.60+12+11.70)/3)

=12.10%

Average maximum Dry density=((1.98+2+2)/3)

=1.99 gm/cc

Therefore the soil having a

 OMC=12.10%

 γd =1.99 gm/cc

Subgrade-2

From the conducted test on samples

Average OMC=((17.50+17.70+17.50)/3)

=17.50 %

Average maximum Dry density=((1.81+1.81+1.87)/3)

=1.83 gm/cc

Therefore the soil having a

 OMC=17.5%

 γd =1.83 gm/cc

43
 Chapter-6

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY SIEVE ANALYSIS

Aim:-
Determine the relative properties of different grain sizes which make up a given soil mass.

Apparatus:-
1. Balance

2. IS sieves

3. Manual/Mechanical sieve shaker

Procedure:-

1. For a soil sample of soil retained on 75 micron IS sieve

a) The proportion of soil sample retained on 75 micron sieve is weighed and recorded

weight of soil sample is as per Is2720.

b) IS sieve are selected and arranged in the order.

c) The soil sample is separated into various fractions by sieving through above

sieves place in the above mentioned order.

d) The weight of soil retained on each sieve is recorded.

2. The sieves for soil test: 4.75mm to 75 micron.

3. No particle of the soil sample shall be pushed through the sieve.

4. The balance to be used must be sensitive to the extent of 0.1% of total weight of sample taken.

44
Observations and Calculations:-
Subgrade-1

Weight
retained on Cumulative % on
Sl IS Sieve size each sieve % on each each sieve % finer
no mm gm sieve (x) (100-x)

1 4.750 254.000 25.400 25.400 74.600

2 2.000 195.000 19.500 44.900 55.100
3 1.000 244.000 24.400 69.300 30.700
4 0.600 114.500 11.450 80.750 19.250
5 0.425 65.500 6.550 87.300 12.700
6 0.300 41.500 4.150 91.450 8.550
7 0.150 46.000 4.600 96.050 3.950

8 0.075 12.000 1.200 97.250 2.750

Table.7

Grain size sieve analysis

Sieve size Vs %finer
80.000

70.000

60.000

50.000

40.000 % finer
(100-x)
30.000

20.000

10.000

0.000
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000

Fig.14
45
Subgarde-2

Weight retained Cumulative % on

Sl IS Sieve size on each sieve % on each each sieve % finer
no mm gm sieve (x) (100-x)
1 4.750 116.500 11.650 11.650 88.350
2 2.000 93.500 9.350 21.000 79.000
3 1.000 113.500 11.350 32.350 67.650
4 0.600 70.000 7.000 39.350 60.650
5 0.425 40.000 4.000 43.350 56.650
6 0.300 22.500 2.250 45.600 54.400
7 0.150 23.000 2.300 47.900 52.100
8 0.075 6.000 0.600 48.500 51.500

Table.8

Grain size sieve analysis

Sieve size Vs %finer
100.000

90.000

80.000

70.000

60.000

50.000 % finer
(100-x)
40.000

30.000

20.000

10.000

0.000
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000

Fig.15

46
Results:-

Subgrade-1

D10 =0.45

D30 =1.00

D60 =2.50

Therefore the soil is well graded.

Subgrade-2

D10 =0.00

D30 =0.00

D60 =0.50

Therefore the soil is poorly graded.

47
 Chapter-7

CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

Aim:-

Determine the California bearing ratio by conducting a load penetration test in the

laboratory.

The California bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgarde

strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by the tests are used with the empirical

curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most

widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.

Planning and Organization:-

Equipments and tool required are

1. Cylindrical mould with inside dia 150mm and height 175 mm, provided with a

detachable extension collar 50 mm height and a detachable base plate 10 mm thick.

2. Spacer disc 148 mm in dia and 47.70 mm in height along with handle.

3. Metal rammers. Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight 4.89 kg a drop

450mm.

4. Weights. One annular metal weight and several slotted weights weighing 2.50 kg

each, 147 mm in dia with a central hole 53mm diameter.

5. Loading machine. With a capacity of at least 5000kg and equipped with a movable

head or base that travels at a uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min. complete with load

indicating device.

6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm dia and minimum of 100 mm on length.

48
7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01mm.
8. Sieves. 4.75mm and 20mm IS sieves.
9. Miscellaneous apparatus, such as a mixing bowl, straight edge, scales soaking tank or pan,
drying oven, filter paper and containers.

Definition of CBR:-

It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular

piston at the rate of 1.25mm/min to that required for the corresponding penetration of a

standard material.

CBR= (Test load/Standard load)*100

The following Table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the

standard material with a CBR value of 100%

Values of penetration vs. standard load

Penetration of plunger (mm) Standard Load (kg)

2.5 1370
5 2055
7.5 2630
10 3180
12.5 3600

Table.9

The test may be performed on undisturbed specimens and on remoulded specimen who

may be compacted either statically or dynamically.

49
 Fig.16

Preparation of test Specimen:-

Prepare the remoulded specimen at proctor’s maximum dry density or any other

density at which CBR is required. Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture content or

any other density field moisture as required. The material used should pass 20 mm IS

sieve but it should be retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve. Prepare the specimen either by

dynamic compaction or by static compaction.

50
Dynamic compaction:-

1. Take about 4.5 to 5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water.

2. Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over

the base. Place the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.

3. Compact the mix soil in h mould using either light compaction or heavy

compaction. For light compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer

subjected to 55 blows by the 2.6 kg hammer. For heavy compaction compact the

soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to each layer by the 4.89 kg hammer.

4. Remove the collar and trim off soil.

5. Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc.

6. Weight the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry

density.

7. Put filter paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the
perforated base plate on to it.

Procedure for penetration test:-

1. Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test

machine.

2. Seat the penetration piston at the centre piston at the centre of the specimen

with the smallest possible load, but in no case in excess of 4 kg so that full

contact of the piston on the sample is established.

3. Set the stress and dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that

the penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.

4. Record the load reading at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0,

4.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mm. note the maximum load and corresponding

penetration if it occurs for a penetration less than 12.5 mm.

5. Detach the mould from the loading equipment.

51
 Observations and calculations:-

Subgrade-1

Sub grade-1
Sample-I Sample-II Sample-III
CBR
CBR CBR
Penetration No. of value(%) No. of No. of
value(%) value(%)
(mm) Divisions Load (kg) =Test Divisions Load (kg) Divisions Load (kg)
=Test load/ =Test load/
on load Div*6.9523 load/ on load Div*6.9523 on load Div*6.9523
Standard Standard
dial Standard dial dial
load load
load
2.50 16 111.24 8.12 18 125.14 9.13 17 118.19 8.63
5.00 24 166.86 8.12 25 173.81 8.46 25 173.81 8.46
7.50 30 208.57 7.93 29 201.62 7.67 31 215.52 8.19
10.00 34 236.38 7.43 33 229.43 7.21 35 243.33 7.65
12.50 37 257.24 7.15 37 257.24 7.15 37 257.24 7.15

Table.10

Penetration Vs Test load

300.00

250.00

200.00

Sample-I
150.00
sample-II
Sample-III

100.00

50.00

0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00

Fig.17
52
 Sub grade-2
Sample-I Sample-II Sample-III

CBR CBR CBR

Penetration No. of No. of No. of Load
value(%) value(%) value(%)
(mm) Divisions Load (kg) Divisions Load (kg) Divisions (kg)
=Test load/ =Test load/ =Test load/
on load Div*6.9523 on load Div*6.9523 on load Div*6.95
Standard Standard Standard
dial dial dial 23
load load load

2.50 11 76.48 5.58 12 83.43 6.09 12 83.43 6.09

5.00 16 111.24 5.41 16 111.24 5.41 16 111.24 5.41
7.50 18 125.14 4.76 19 132.09 5.02 19 132.09 5.02
10.00 20 139.05 4.37 21 146.00 4.59 20 139.05 4.37
12.50 21 146.00 4.06 21 146.00 4.06 21 146.00 4.06

Table.11

Penetration Vs Test load

160.00

140.00

120.00

100.00

Sample-I
80.00 sample-II
Sample-III

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00

Fig.18

53
54
55
Results:-

Subgrade-1

California Bearing Ratio sub grade-1 = (8.12+9.13+8.63)/3

= 8.63 ≈ 9%

Therefore CBR=9%

Subgrade-1

California Bearing Ratio sub grade-1 = (5.58+6.09+6.09)/3

= 5.92 ≈ 6%

Therefore CBR=6%

56
 Chapter-8

DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT

Aim:-

Determine the liquid limit for the given soil sample.

Liquid limit is significant to know the stress history and general and general

properties of the soil met with construction. From the results of liquid limit the compression

index may be estimated. The compression index value will help us in settlement analysis.

The Liquid limit is the moisture content at which the groove, formed by a

standard tool into the sample of soil taken in the standard cup, closes for 10 mm on being

given 25 blows in a standard manner. At this limit the soil posses low shear strength.

Apparatus:-

1. Balance

2. Liquid limit device (Casagrande’s)

3. Grooving tool

4. Mixing dishes

5. Electrical oven

Procedure:-

1. About 120 gm of air-dried soil from thoroughly mixed proportion of material passing

425 micron IS Sieve is to be obtained.

57
2. Distilled water is mixed to the soil thus obtained in a mixing disc to form uniform

paste. The paste shall have a consistency that would require 30to 35 drops of cup to

cause closer of standard groove for sufficient length.

3. A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of the liquid limit device and spread into

portion with few strokes of spatula.

4. Trim it to a depth of 1 cm at the point of maximum thickness and return excess of soil

to the dish.

5. The soil in the cup shall be divided by the firm strokes of the grooving tool alog the

diameter through the centre line of the follower so that sharp groove of proper

dimension is formed.

6. Lift and drop the cup by turning crank at the rate of two revolutions per second until

the two halves of soil cake come in contact with each other for a length of about 1 cm

by flow only.

7. The number of blows required to cause the groove close for about 1 cm shall be

recorded.

8. A representative portion of soil is taken from the cup for water content determination

58
Fig.19

59
 Observations and Calculations:-

Sub grade-1

Determination Number 1 2 3 4

Container no 5 2 8 50

Weight of container (gm) W1 28.5 28.5 27 22

weight of container + wet soil
(gm) W2 47 48 47.5 40
weight of container + dry soil
(gm) W3 42 42 41 34

Weight of water (%) W2-W3 5 6 6.5 6

weight dry soil (gm) W3-W1 13.5 13.5 14 12

Moisture content (%)
((W2-W3)/(W3-W1))*100 37.04 44.44 46.43 50.00

No of blows 40 31 20 10

Table.12

Moisture content vs. No of blows

60.00

50.00

40.00

30.00 Moisture content vs. No of

blows

20.00

10.00

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50

Fig.20

From graph Liquid limit of the soil sample is 46% at 25 blows.

60
 Sub Grade-2

Determination Number 1 2 3 4

Container no Lid-B Lid-2 Lid-1 Lid-3

Weight of container (gm) W1 21.5 20.5 20.5 21

weight of container + wet soil (gm)
W2 37 46 39 42
weight of container + dry soil (gm)
W3 32.5 38 33 34

Weight of water (%) W2-W3 4.5 8 6 8

weight dry soil (gm) W3-W1 11 17.5 12.5 13

Moisture content (%)
((W2-W3)/(W3-W1))*100 40.91 45.71 48.00 61.54

No of blows 40 31 20 10

Table.13

Moisture content vs. No of blows

70.00

60.00

50.00

40.00
Moisture content vs. No of
30.00 blows

20.00

10.00

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50

Fig.21

From graph Liquid limit of the soil sample is 47% at 25 blows.

61
Results:-

LL of subgrade-1 is 46%

LL of subgrade-1 is 46%

62
 Chapter-9

DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT

Aim:-

Determine the plastic limit of the soil sample.

Soil is used for making bricks, tiles and soil cement blocks in addition to its use as foundation

structures.

Apparatus:-

1. Porcelain dish.

2. Glass plate

3. Air tight containers

4. Balance

5. Oven.

Procedure:-

1. Take about 20 gm of thoroughly mixed portion of the material of the material passing

through 425 micron IS Sieve obtained in accordance with IS 2720(Part 1).

2. Mix it thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish till the soil mass

becomes plastic enough to be easily molded with fingers.

3. Allow it to season for sufficient time9for 24 hrs) to allow water to permeate

throughout the soil mass.

4. Take about 10 gm of this plastic soil mss and roll it between fingers and glass plate

with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a threaded of uniform diameter

throughout its length. The rate of rolling shall be between 6 and 90 strokes [er minute.

5. Continue rolling till you get a threaded of 3 mm diameter.

63
 6. Kneed the soil together to a uniform mass and re re-roll.

7. Continue the process until the thread crumbles when the diameter is 3 mm.

8. Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread in air tight container for moisture content
determination.

Observations and Calculations:-

Sub Grade 1 2

Container no 73 33

Weight of container (gm) W1 21.5 30

weight of container + wet soil (gm) W2 32 38.5

weight of container + dry soil (gm) W3 30.6 37

Weight of water (%) W2-W3 1.4 1.5

weight dry soil (gm) W3-W1 9.1 7

Moisture content (%)
((W2-W3)/(W3-W1))*100 15.38 21.43

Table.14

Results:-

PL of sub grade-1 is 15.38%

PL of sub grade-2 is 21.43%

64
 Chapter-10

PAVEMENT DESIGN

Data obtained from experiments and available data:-

Sub Grade-1 Sub Grade-1

CBR 9% CBR 6%
LL 46% LL 47%
PL 15.38% PL 21.43%

Table.15

Cumulative traffic 150 msa

10.1 CBR Method:-

Subgrade-1

CBR 9% and for cumulative traffic 150 msa

As per IRC 37-2001

The thickness of pavement is 655 mm

The composition is maintained as per IRC 37-2001(shown below)

65
Fig.22

66
Subgrade-1

CBR 6% and for cumulative traffic 150 msa

As per IRC 37-2001

The thickness of pavement is 720 mm

The composition is maintained as per IRC 37-2001(shown below)

Fig.23
67
10.2 Group index method:-

GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd

Here,

a=that portion of material passing 0.074mm sieve, greater than 35 And not exceeding 75 %

b=that portion of material passing 0.074mm sieve, greater than 15

And not exceeding 35%

c = that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60

d = that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more than 30

Design chart by Group Index value

Fig.24
68
Sub grade-1

LL=46% PL=15.38%

Plasticity Index (PI) = LL-PL

=46-15.38

=30.62

Portion of material passing through 0.075mm IS sieve9by sieve analysis) =2.50%

Therefore

a=0

b=0

c = LL—40

46-40 = 6

d = PI-10

= 30.62-10 = 20.62

GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd
Therefore GI = 0

From Fig.24

Thickness of pavement = 300 mm

69
Sub grade-2

LL=47% PL=21.43%

Plasticity Index (PI) = LL-PL

=47-21.43

=25.57

Portion of material passing through 0.075mm IS sieve9by sieve analysis) =51.50%

Therefore

a = 51.50-35 = 16.5

b = 51.5-15 = 36.5

c = LL—40

47-40 = 7

d = PI-10

= 25.57-10 = 15.57

GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd
= 0.2*16.5+0.005*16.5*7+0.01*36.5*15.57

= 9.56 ≈ 10

Therefore GI = 10

From fig.24

Thickness of pavement = 510 mm

70
 Chapter-11

COMPARISON OF PAVEMENT THICKNESS

Method of Thickness of Thickness of Difference

design pavement For sub pavement For sub
grade-1 grade-2
CBR Method of 655 720 65
design
Group index 300 500 200
method of design

Table.16

From the values we can observe that sub grade-1 is stronger than sub grade-2.

71
 Chapter-11

SCOPE FOR UTURE WORK/RECOMMENDATIONS

Scope for Future work/Recommendations:-

1. The soil of Sub Grade-2 can be stabilized using suitable stabilizers.

2. The sub grade-1 can be used for constructing Major highways like

Express ways, NH and SH.

3. The Sub Grde-2 is only suitable for roads of less importance or subjected

to less traffic.

72
 Chapter-12

REFERENCES
Reference:-

Text book by S.kanna and Justeo

Saurabh Jain et al. Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications

Vol. 3, Issue 5,

WWW.ijera.com

www.thefreedictionary.com

www.nptel.ac.in

www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in

73