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IN
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Nicole Montehermoso
8 ss2
Mrs. Barrientos
Culture of Vietnam
The culture of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Văn hóa Việt Nam The culture of Vietnam) originated from
the Bronze Age Đông Sơn culture.[1]
Due to a millennium of Chinese rule, Vietnam was heavily and remarkably influenced by Chinese culture
in terms of politics, government, Confucian social and moral ethics, and art. Vietnam is considered to be
part of the East Asian cultural sphere.[2]
Following independence from China in the 10th century, Vietnam began a southward expansion that saw
the annexation of territories formerly belonging to the Champa civilization (now Central Vietnam) and
parts of the Khmer empire (modern southern Vietnam), which resulted in minor regional variances in
Vietnam's culture due to exposure to these different groups.
During the French colonial period, Vietnamese culture absorbed various influences from the Europeans,
including the spread of Catholicism and the adoption of the Latin alphabet. Prior to this, Vietnamese had
used both Chinese characters and a script called Chữ nôm which was based on Chinese but included
newly invented characters meant to represent native Vietnamese words.
In the socialist era, the Vietnamese cultural life was deeply influenced by government-controlled media
and the cultural influences of socialist programs. For many decades, foreign cultural influences were
shunned and emphasis placed on appreciating and sharing the culture of communist nations such as the
Soviet Union, China, Cuba and others. Since the 1990s, Vietnam has been exposed to other Asian,
European and American culture and media.
Some elements generally considered to be characteristic of Vietnamese culture include ancestor
veneration, ancestor worship,respect for community and family values, handicrafts and manual
labour religious belief. Important symbols present in Vietnamese culture
include dragons, turtles, lotuses and bamboo.

Organization
In terms of societal levels of organization, the two most important units are làng (village)
and nước (country). The Vietnamese usually say that "làng goes hand in hand with nước." Intermediate
organizational units are quận/huyện (district), "xã" (commune) and tỉnh(province)

Warfare
Vietnam has a long history of warfare, which played a big role in shaping the culture and Identity of the
people who now live in the region known as Vietnam.
Major Events that shaped the nation to become the most militaristic nation in South East Asia are;

 Han conquest of Nan-Yue First Chinese Domination of Nam-Viet

 Trưng Sisters - Two sisters who were generals who ruled for three years after rebelling in AD 40
against the first Chinese domination of Vietnam. They are regarded as national heroines of Vietnam.
 Lady Triệu - Female Warrior General; successfully resist the Chinese state of Eastern Wu during its
occupation of Vietnam.
 Lý Nam Đế - Baiyue (Bach Viet Magistrate) who became Emperor and rebelled and created Vạn
Xuân after seeing how the Baiyue and Chinese in his realm were mistreated by their northern
counterparts.
 Battle of Bạch Đằng (938) Decisive defeat of Southern Han Chinese forces ending 1000 years of
Chinese Domination.
 Mongol invasions of Vietnam successively defeating the Mongolians 3 times ending with the battle
of Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)being a Decisive Defeat for the Mongolians with their entire fleet being
Annihilated.
 Lam Sơn uprising Le Loi defeats the Ming Army, Ending the fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam.
Ming Empire officially acknowledged Vietnam as an independent state. Lê Lợi took the throne and
was declared Emperor of Đại Việt (大越).
 March to the South/Nam tiến expansion of the territory of Vietnam from the 11th century to the mid-
18th century. Turning Đại Việtfrom an East Asian State, to an South East Asian State, after annexing
South East Asian kingdoms such as; Champa, Laos and Cambodia.
 Siege of Tourane a Punitive campaign from Empire of France, Kingdom of Spain and The Philippians
to teach the Vietnamese a lesson ended up, as a defeat. What had begun as a minor punitive
expedition had turned into a long, bitter and costly war the Allies were forced to evacuate leading to a
Vietnamese Victory. This defeat later escalated the situation and lead to the colonization of Vietnam.
 First Indochina War: Battle of Dien Bien Phu Decisive Vietnamese Victory over France, ending the
colonialism in Vietnam.
 Second Indochina War: Tet Offensive Strategic and Political Vietnamese Victory was the decisive
blow to the American Public's Moral, leading to Opposition to United States involvement in the
Vietnam War to Skyrocket leading to withdrawal of U.S troops and Involvement ending in the Fall of
Saigon and the Reunification of North and South Vietnam.

Vietnam was a dominantly matriarchal society prior to Chinese rule, which brought
in Confucianpatriarchal values. Countless female warriors such as; Trưng Sisters, Lady Trieu,Tay
Son General: Bùi Thị Xuân. Are National Heroines proving to be Adept capable warriors and
Leaders and are highly revered with Roads, Shrines and Temples built to Honor them.

Third Indochina War: Cambodian–Vietnamese War removal of the Khmer Rouge Regime and Pol
Pot, ended the Cambodian Genocide: triggered a Punitive Chinese Invasion. The Continued
occupation of Cambodia with regular forces and fending off a massive Chinese Invasion with militia
forces, lead to a Vietnamese Victory. [3]
Kinship
Main article: Vietnamese family
Kinship plays an important role in Vietnam. Unlike Western culture's emphasis on individualism, Eastern
culture values in the roles of family and clanship[citation needed]. Comparing with Eastern cultures, Chinese
culture values family over clan while Vietnamese cultural values clan over family. Each clan has a
patriarch, clan altar, and death commemorations attended by the whole clan.
Most inhabitants are related by blood.[clarification needed] That fact is still seen in village names such as Đặng
Xá (place for the Đặng clan), Châu Xá, Lê Xá, so on so forth. In the Western highlands the tradition of
many families in a clan residing in a longhouse is still popular. In the majority of rural Vietnam today, one
can still see three or four generations living under one roof.

Marriage
Main article: Traditional Vietnamese wedding
[[File:Don tiep trong le an hoi engagement ceremony (Vietnam).JPG|thumb|right|250px|The family of a
Vietnamese bride line up to welcome her groom at their betrothal ceremony.]]
The traditional Vietnamese wedding is one of the most important tradition in Vietnamese occasions.
Regardless of Westernization, many of the age-old customs practiced in a traditional Vietnamese
wedding continue to be celebrated by both Vietnamese in Vietnam and overseas, often combining both
Western and Eastern traditions.
In the past, both men and women were expected to be married at young ages. Some mountainous places
exists "Tao Hon" because one of the couples are too young to get married just 13 or 14 years old.
Marriages called contractual marriages were generally arranged by the parents and extended family, with
the children having limited make decision on the matter. In modern Vietnam, this has changed as people
freely choose their own marriage partners called romantic marriage.[4]
Generally there are two main ceremonies:[4]

 Lễ Đám Hỏi (betrothal (engagement's ceremony): Some time before the wedding, the groom and his
family visit the bride and her family with round lacquered boxes known as betrothal presents. The
quantity of boxes must be an odd number. The presents include areca nuts, betel leaves, tea, cake,
fruits, wine, other various delicacies and money. The presents are covered with red paper or cloth,
and they are carried by unmarried girls or boys. Both families agree to pick a good date for the
wedding.
 Lễ Cưới (wedding ceremony): On the wedding day, the groom's family and relatives go to the bride's
house to ask permission for the groom to marry and take his bride to his house. Guests would be
invited to come and celebrate the couple's marriage. The couple pray before the altar asking their
ancestors for permission for their marriage, then to express their gratitude to both groom's and bride's
parents for raising and protecting them.

Funeral ceremony[edit]
Decorations placed around a coffin at a home funeral in Da Nang

Tet Vietnamese New Year Festivities in Chau Doc, Vietnam.

Wake[edit]
When a person passes away in Vietnam, the surviving family holds a [Wake ceremony] or vigil that
typically lasts about five to six days, but may last longer if the surviving family is waiting for other traveling
relatives. The body is washed and dressed. A le ngam ham, or chopstick, is laid between the teeth and a
pinch of rice and three coins are placed in the mouth. The body is put on a grass mat laid on the ground
according to the saying, "being born from the earth, one must return back to the earth." The dead body is
enveloped with white cloth, le kham niem, and placed in a coffin, le nhap quan. Finally, the funeral
ceremony, le thanh phuc, is officially performed.
Funeral[edit]
The surviving family wear coarse gauze turbans and tunics for the funeral. There are two types of funeral
processions:

 Traditional: The date and time for the funeral procession, le dua tang, must be carefully selected.
Relatives, friends, and descendants take part in the funeral procession to accompany the dead along
the way to the burial ground. Votives are dropped along the way. At the grave site, the coffin is
lowered and buried. After three days of mourning, the family visits the tomb again, le mo cua ma, or
worship the opening the grave. After 49 days, le cung that, the family stops bringing rice for the dead
to the altar.[clarification needed] And finally, after 100 days, the family celebrates tot khoc, or the end of the
tears. After one year is the ceremony of the first anniversary of the relative's death and after two
years is the ceremony of the end of mourning.[citation needed]
 Modern: Nowadays, mourning ceremonies follow new rituals which are simplified; they consist of
covering and putting the dead body into the coffin, the funeral procession, the burial of the sike into
the grave, and the visits to the tomb.[clarification needed]
In Vietnam, the family of the deceased undergo a ritual after 100 days of them passing away, where the
whole family sits in pairs in a long line up to a single member of the family. A monk (Thay Cung) will place
a thin piece of cotton over the family member's head and ring a bell and chant while rotating the bell
around the deceased's head[clarification needed], sending them in to a trance and open a way for the deceased
to return to the living. A bamboo tree with only leaves on the top with small pieces of paper with the
deceased's name written on them will start to wave when the deceased is coming. They believe that after
100 days the deceased may return to this realm and "possess" the body of the member of the family
undergoing the ritual and once it is completed the other members of the family can communicate with the
spirit of the deceased through the tranced family member. [citation needed]
Normally this ritual will take all day to prepare and then as long as 6 hours praying and chanting,
changing the family member at the front of the line. Afterwards they will then burn a paper house and
paper made possessions (that which the deceased would have loved during his/her life) so that they may
take it through to their next life with them.
Religion and philosophy[edit]
Main article: Religion in Vietnam

Hanoi's One Pillar Pagoda, a historic Buddhist temple

Religion in Vietnam has historically been largely defined by a mix of Buddhism, Confucianism,
and Taoism, known in Vietnamese as the Tam Giáo ("triple religion").[5] Catholicism is also practiced in
modern Vietnam.[6]
Ancestor worship is common in Vietnamese culture. Most Vietnamese, regardless of religious
denomination, practice ancestor worship and have an ancestor altar at their home or business, a
testament to the emphasis Vietnamese culture places on filial piety.[7]

Literature[edit]
Main article: Vietnamese literature

"Mysterious tales of the Southern Realm" (Vietnamese: Lĩnh Nam chích quái), dated from Vietnam's Later
Lê dynasty
Vietnamese literature includes two major components: folk literature and written literature. The two forms
developed simultaneously and are profoundly interrelated.
Vietnamese folk literature came into being very early and had a profound effect on the spiritual life of
the Viet. The folk literature contributed to the formation of Vietnam's national identity with praising beauty,
humanism, and the love of goodness. Legends, fairy tales, humorous stories, folk songs, epic poems
have a tremendous vitality and have lived on until today.
Written literature was born roughly in the 10th century. Up until the 21st century, there had been two
components existing at the same time: works written in the Han characters (with poems and prose
demonstrating the Vietnamese soul and realities; thus, they were still regarded as Vietnamese literature)
and works written in the Nom character (mostly poems; many great works were handed down to the later
generations).
Since the 1920s, written literature has been mainly composed in the National language with profound
renovations in form and category such as novels, new-style poems, short stories and dramas, and with
diversity in artistic tendency. Written literature attained speedy development after the August Revolution,
when it was directed by the Vietnamese Communist Party's guideline and focused on the people's fighting
and work life.
Modern Vietnamese literature has developed from romanticism to realism, from heroism in wartime to all
aspects of life, and soared into ordinary life to discover the genuine values of the Vietnamese.
Classical literature generated such masterpieces as Truyen Kieu (Nguyễn Du), Cung Oán Ngâm
Khúc (Nguyễn Gia Thiều), Chinh Phu Ngam(Dang Tran Con), and Quoc Am Thi Tap (Nguyễn Trãi).
Some brilliant female poets are Hồ Xuân Hương, Doan Thi Diem, and Bà Huyện Thanh Quan.

Visual arts[edit]
Main articles: Vietnamese art and List of traditional Vietnamese handicraft villages
Traditional Vietnamese art is a part of art practiced in Vietnam or by Vietnamese artists, from ancient
times (including the elaborate Đông Sơn drums) to post-Chinese domination art which was strongly
influenced by Chinese Buddhist art, as well as Taoism and Confucianism. The art
of Champa and France also played a smaller role later on.
The Chinese The chinese arts influence on Vietnamese art extends into Vietnamese pottery and
ceramics, calligraphy, and traditional architecture. Currently, Vietnamese lacquer paintings have proven
to be quite popular.
Calligraphy[edit]
Calligraphy has had a long history in Vietnam, previously using Chinese characters along with Chữ Nôm.
However, most modern Vietnamese calligraphy instead uses the Roman-character based Quốc Ngữ,
which has proven to be very popular.
In the past, with literacy in the old character-based writing systems of Vietnam being restricted to scholars
and elites, calligraphy nevertheless still played an important part in Vietnamese life. On special occasions
such as the Lunar New Year, people would go to the village teacher or scholar to make them a
calligraphy hanging (often poetry, folk sayings or even single words). People who could not read or write
also often commissioned at temple shrines.
Silk painting[edit]
Silk painting of Trịnh Đình Kiên (1715-1786) in the 18th century, exhibited in Vietnam National Museum of
Fine Arts
Vietnamese silk painting is one of the most popular forms of art in Vietnam, favored for the mystical
atmosphere that can be achieved with the medium. During the 19th and 20th centuries, French influence
was absorbed into Vietnamese art and the liberal and modern use of color especially began to
differentiate Vietnamese silk paintings from their Chinese, Japanese and Korean
counterparts.[8] Vietnamese silk paintings typically showcase the countryside, landscapes, pagodas,
historical events or scenes of daily life.
Woodblock prints[edit]
A folk art with a long history in Vietnam, Vietnamese woodblock prints have reached a level of popularity
outside of Vietnam.[9] Organic materials are used to make the paint, which is applied to wood and pressed
on paper. The process is repeated with different colors.

Performing arts[edit]
Music[edit]
Main article: Music of Vietnam

Vietnamese music varies slightly in the three regions: Bắc or North, Trung or Central, and Nam or South.
Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest and is traditionally more formal. Vietnamese classical music
can be traced to the Mongol invasions, when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese operatroupe. Central
classical music shows the influences of Champa culture with its melancholic melodies. Southern music
exudes a lively laissez-faireattitude.
Vietnam has some 50 national music instruments, in which the set of percussion instruments is the most
popular, diverse and long-lasting such as đàn đáy, đàn tranh, đàn nhị, đàn bầu ... The set of blowing
instruments is represented by flutes and pan-pipes, while the set of string instruments is specified by dan
bau and dan day.
The Vietnamese folksongs are rich in forms and melodies of regions across the country, ranging
from ngâm thơ (reciting poems), hát ru (lullaby), hò(chanty) to hát quan họ, trong quan, xoan, dum, ví
giặm, ca Huế, bài chòi, ly. Apart from this, there are also other forms like hát xẩm, chầu văn, and ca trù.
Two of the most widely known genres are:

 Imperial Court music: When referring specifically to the "Nhã nhạc" form it includes court music from
the Trần dynasty on to the Nguyễn dynasty. It is an elaborate form of music which features an
extensive array of musicians and dancers, dressed in extravagant costumes. It was an integral part of
the rituals of the Imperial court.
 Ca trù: An ancient form of chamber music which originated in the imperial court. It gradually came to
be associated with a geisha-type of entertainment where talented female musicians entertained rich
and powerful men, often scholars and bureaucrats who most enjoyed the genre. It was condemned in
the 20th century by the government, being tied falsely with prostitution, but recently it has seen a
 revival as appreciation for its cultural significance has grown. Ca trù has been recognized
by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanitysince 2005.
In the 20th century, in contact with the Western culture, especially after the national independence, many
new categories of arts like plays, photography, cinemas, and modern art had taken shape and developed
strongly, obtaining huge achievements with the contents reflecting the social and revolutionary realities.
Up to 1997, there have been 44 people operating in cultural and artistic fields honored with the Ho Chi
Minh Award, 130 others conferred with People's Artist Honor, and 1011 people awarded with the
Excellent Artist Honor. At the start of 1997, there were 191 professional artistic organizations and 26 film
studios (including central and local ones). There have been 28 movies, 49 scientific and documentary
films receiving international motion picture awards in many countries. :)
Theatre[edit]
Main article: Vietnamese theatre

 Hát tuồng (also known as Hát bội): Traditional Vietnamese opera: A theatre form strongly influenced
by Chinese opera, it transitioned from being entertainment for the royal court to travelling troupes
who performed for commoners and peasants, featuring many well-known stock characters.
 Cải lương: A kind of modern folk opera originating in South Vietnam, which utilizes
extensive vibrato techniques. It remains very popular in modern Vietnam when compared to other
folk styles.
 Hát chèo: Chèo is a form of generally satirical musical theatre, often encompassing dance,
traditionally performed by Vietnamese peasants in northern Vietnam. It is usually performed outdoors
by semi-amateur touring groups, stereotypically in a village square or the courtyard of a public
building, although it is today increasingly also performed indoors and by professional performers

Water puppetry[edit]
Water puppetry (Múa rối), is a distinct Vietnamese art form which had its origins in the 10th century and
very popular in northern region. In Water puppetry a split-bamboo screen obscures puppets which stand
in water, and are manipulated using long poles hidden beneath the water. Epic story lines are played out
with many different puppets, often using traditional scenes of Vietnamese life. The puppets are made
from quality wood, such as the South East Asian Jackfruit tree. Each puppet is carefully carved, and then
painted with numerous successive layers of paint in order to protect the puppets.
Despite nearly dying out in the 20th century, water puppetry has been recognised by the Vietnamese
government as an important part of Vietnam's cultural heritage. Today, puppetry is commonly performed
by professional puppeteers, who typically are taught by their elders in rural areas of Vietnam.
Dance[edit]
Main article: Traditional Vietnamese dance
Vietnam has 54 different ethnicities, each with their own traditional dance. Among the ethnic Vietnamese
majority, there are several traditional dances performed widely at festivals and other special occasions,
such as the lion dance.
In the imperial court, there also developed throughout the centuries a series of complex court dances
which require great skill. Some of the more widely known are the imperial lantern dance, fan dance, and
platter dance, among others.

Communication[edit]
Communication in Vietnam, like other countries in the region, is indirect, based upon rapport and respect,
and relies heavily on body language. Showing agreement by saying "yes" shows respect even if the
person does not agree with what's being said. For example, one would say "yes" to an invitation even if
one does not intend on attending. The individual would simply not attend. Breaking this rapport or
disagreeing is deemed disrespectful. Face facial expression is crucial to Vietnamese, so they are usually
very indirect with what they say and usually avoid stating their opinion in case they are wrong. It is
considered to be polite if women speak softly when they talk. If they talk with a high volume in their
speech, it is considered to be negative.[10] Children are unable to disagree with elders. Smiling is often
used as an apology. Eye contact is usually avoided. Taboo things in western culture, such as asking
about one's age or salary during an initial meeting, is normal. Storytelling is often used as a form of
communication.[11][12][13][dubious – discuss]

Cuisine[edit]

Vietnamese phở, noodle soup with sliced rare beef and well done beef brisket
Vietnamese cuisine is extremely diverse, often divided into three main categories, each pertaining to
Vietnam's three main regions (north, central and south). It uses very little oil and many vegetables, and is
mainly based on rice, soy sauce, and fish sauce. Its characteristic flavors are sweet (sugar), spicy
(serrano pepper), sour (lime), nuoc mam (fish sauce), and flavored by a variety of mintand basil.
Vietnam also has a large variety of noodles and noodle soups. Different regions
invented typicallydifferent types of noodles, varying in shapes, tastes, colors, etc. One of the nation's
most famous type of noodles is phở (pronounced "fuh"), a type of noodle soup originating in North
Vietnam, which consists of rice noodles and beef soup (sometimes chicken soup) with several other
ingredients such as bean sprouts and scallions (spring onions). It is often eaten for breakfast, but also
makes a satisfying lunch or light dinner. The boiling stock, fragrant with spices and sauces, is poured over
the noodles and vegetables, poaching the paper-thin slices of raw beef just before serving. Phở is meant
to be savored, incorporating several different flavors: the sweet flavour of beef, sour lemons, salty fish
sauce, and fresh vegetables.

Clothing[edit]
In feudal Vietnam, clothing was one of the most important marks of social status and strict dress
codes were enforced.
Prior to the Nguyễn dynasty, people not of noble birth could dress quite liberally with only few restrictions
on styles. For example, wearing yellow color in the Lý dynasty was tolerable since the Imperial clan wore
red and white color. However, things changed at the beginning of the Nguyễn dynasty. Commoners now
had a limited choice of similarly plain and simple clothes for every day use, as well as being limited in the
colors they were allowed to use. For instance, commoners were not allowed to wear clothes with dyes
other than black, brown or white (with the exception of special occasions such as festivals), but in
actuality these rules could change often based upon the whims of the current ruler.
The Áo giao lĩnh (襖交領) was a traditional cross-collared robe worn by Vietnamese before the 19th
century. During the Nguyen dynasty, it was replaced by the áo dài and became obsolete.[14][15]
The Áo Tứ Thân or "four-part dress" is one such example of an ancient dress widely worn by commoner
women, along with the Áo yếmbodice which accompanied it. Peasants across the country also gradually
came to wear silk pajama-like costumes, known as "Áo cánh" in the north and Áo bà ba in the south.
Nguyễn Monarchs had the exclusive right to wear the color gold, while nobles wore red or purple. In the
past the situation was different, Đinh dynasty and Lý dynasty rulers wore red, and Trần dynasty emperors
wore white. Each member of the royal court had an assortment of different formal gowns they would wear
at a particular ceremony, or for a particular occasion. The rules governing the fashion of the royal court
could change dynasty by dynasty, thus Costumes of the Vietnamese court were quite diverse. However,
certain fundamental concepts applied.
The most popular and widely recognized Vietnamese national costume is the Áo Dài. Áo Dài was once
worn by both genders but today it is worn mainly by women, except for certain important traditional
culture-related occasions where some men do wear it. Áo Dài consists of a long gown with a slit on both
sides, worn over cotton or silk trousers. Adoption and enforcement of Aó Dài took place in the mid 18th
century by the rulers of Huế. They decided that their garments had to be distinctive to set themselves
apart from the people of Tonkin where áo giao lĩnh and nhu quầnwere worn. White Áo dài is the required
uniform for girls in many high schools across Vietnam. In some types of offices
(e.g. receptionists, secretaries, tour guides), women are also required to wear Áo Dài.
In daily life, the traditional Vietnamese styles are now replaced by Western styles. Traditional clothing is
worn instead on special occasions, with the exception of the white Áo Dài commonly seen with high
school girls in Vietnam.
Culture of Singapore
History[edit]
Singapore history dates back to the third century. It was a vassal state of various empires before
being reestablished and renamed by Sang Nila Utama. The island was ruled by various sultanates
until 1819, when the British came to the island and set up a port and colony. During British rule, the
port of Singapore flourished and attracted many migrants. After independence in 1965, Singapore
made its own way. The British ruled Singapore from 1945–1946
It has a diverse populace of over 5.47 million people[2] which is made up of Chinese, Malays, Indians,
and Eurasians (plus other mixed groups) and Asians of different origins.

Attitudes and beliefs

Meritocracy
"The system of meritocracy in Singapore ensures that the best and brightest, regardless of race,
religion and socio-economic background, are encouraged to develop to their fullest potential.
Everyone has access to education, which equips them with skills and knowledge to earn a better
living."[3] Indeed, the Education in Singapore ensures that primary education is compulsory for all
children of age 7 to 12. Parents have to apply for exemptions from the Ministry of Education in
Singapore in order to exempt their children under this compulsory rule with valid reasonings.
Racial harmony
Singapore is a secular immigrant country. The main religions in Singapore
are Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. Respect for different religions and personal beliefs
is heavily emphasised by the government.[4]
To demonstrate the importance of imparting racial harmony knowledge to the youths, schools in
Singapore celebrate Racial Harmony Day on 21 July annually. Students come to school dressed in
different ethnic costumes, and some classes prepare performances regarding racial harmony.
Democracy, peace, progress, justice and equality[edit]
The concepts of democracy, peace, progress, justice and equality are enshrined as stars in
the Singapore national flag. Freedom in the World ranked Singapore 4 out of 7 for political freedom,
and 4 out of 7 for civil liberties (where 1 is the most free), with an overall ranking of "partly
free". Reporters without Borders ranked Singapore 153th out of 180 countries in their Press
Freedom Index for 2015.[5]

Ethnic area
Singapore has several distinct ethnic neighbourhoods, including Kampong Glam, Geylang
Serai, Chinatown and Little India.
Both Geylang Serai and Kampong Glam are the focal points of the Malays in Singapore.[6] A Malay
Heritage Centre in Kampung Glam showcases the history and cultural exposure of the Malays[7],
which are indigenous to the land.[8] Both areas feature an annual month long Hari Raya Bazaar,
during the fasting month of Ramadan. And is patronized by Malays and also other races.[9]
Little India is known and patronised by all races within the population for its thalis – South
Indian "buffets" that are vegetarian and served on the traditional banana leaves. These
neighbourhoods are accessible by public transport, especially by Mass Rapid Transit (MRT).
Singapore's Chinatown is an ethnic neighbourhood featuring distinctly Chinese cultural elements
and a historically concentrated ethnic Chinese population. Chinatown is located within the larger
district of Outram.
Ethnic enclaves from the British colonial era, akin to those seen in major cities in many Western
countries, are largely non-existent. The remnant "enclaves" such as Little India, Chinatown and
Kampong Glam are now mainly business hubs for their respective ethnic groups and preserved for
historic and cultural reasons. The Housing Development Boardenforces the Ethnic Integration Policy
(EIP) to "preserve Singapore’s multi-cultural identity and promote racial integration and harmony"
and sets proportions for each ethnic group in each housing estate.[10]

Cultural policy[edit]
Singapore maintains tight restrictions on arts and cultural performances. Most artistic works have to
be vetted by the government in advance, and topics that breach so-called out of bounds markers
(OB markers) are not permitted. While the OB markers are not publicly defined, they are generally
assumed to include sensitive topics such as race, religion, and allegations of corruption or nepotism
in government. Nudity and other forms of loosely defined "obscenity" are also banned. Singaporean
film director Royston Tan has produced movies which challenge these policies, including a movie
called Cut in reference to censorship of the arts.[11]
The country's first pre-tertiary arts school, School of the Arts, is now completed and stands along the
country's prominent Orchard Road. Commenced in 2008, the school aims to provide an environment
for nurturing young artists aged between 13 and 18 years old. There has been much public
rhetoric about liberalisation and its association with the development of a creative economy in
Singapore. The response from artists, academics, public intellectuals, and civil society activists has
ranged from strongly optimistic to deeply pessimistic, as reflected in the chapters written for edited
book Renaissance Singapore: Economy, Culture, and Politics. The difference between what is
"culture" and what makes up "the arts" has been a matter of some debate in Singapore. For an
attempt at defining what is artistic, see, for example, the Report of the Censorship Review
Committee 1992.[12]

Cuisine[edit]
Main article: Singaporean Cuisine
See also: Gastronomy in Singapore
Singaporean cuisine is also a prime example of diversity and cultural diffusion in Singapore. In
Singapore's hawker centres, for example, traditionally Malay hawker stalls selling
also Tamil food. Chinese stalls may introduce Malay ingredients, cooking techniques or entire dishes
into their range of catering. This continues to make the cuisine of Singaporesignificantly rich and a
cultural attraction. Singaporeans also enjoy a wide variety of seafood including crabs, clams, squid,
and oysters. One favorite dish is the stingray barbecued and served on banana leaf and with sambal
(chilli).
Creative writing
Singapore has a rich heritage in creative writing in the Malay, English, Chinese, Tamil and other
languages.

Languages[edit]
Further information: Languages of Singapore, Singapore English, and Singlish
Many Singaporeans are bilingual. Most speak Singaporean English and another language, most
commonly Mandarin, Malay, Tamil or Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish). Singapore Standard
English is virtually the same as British, Malaysian, and Indian Standard English in most aspects of
grammar and spelling, though there are some differences vocabulary and minor spelling differences,
for example the word 'swap' is commonly spelt 'swop', as is standard in The Straits Times.[13]
All Singaporeans study English as their first language in schools, under the compulsory local
education system, and their mother-tongue language as their second language. Thus, most
Singaporeans are effectively bilingual, especially the youths in today's society. There are four main
languages in usage in Singapore. The 'national' language of Singapore is Bahasa Melayu. This is in
recognition of the Malay people as the indigenous community in Singapore. 85% of Singaporeans do
not speak Malay. Malay is used in the national anthem, national motto and military parade drill
commands. Tamil is an official language as a majority of South Asians in Singapore are ethnic
Tamils from India and Sri Lanka. While most Chinese Singaporeans are descendants of southern
Chinese migrants who spoke a variety of regional languages, it is the northern Chinese language of
Mandarin that is official in Singapore, though dialects such as Hokkien and Cantonese are still
prevalent in the older generation of Chinese.

Parks

Gardens and gardening have a special place in Singaporean culture as well as in politics.
Historically this is all officially attributed to Lee Kuan Yew who apparently spearheaded this
philosophy in 1963.[14] In a rare interview with Monty Don shown in the TV-series Around the World in
80 Gardens, Lee Kuan Yew reveals that after visits to other big Asian cities such as Hong
Kong and Bangkok he feared that Singapore would turn into another concrete jungle, and he
decided that gardens and parks should be established everywhere and made this a priority of the
government.

Performing arts
Singapore is also known as a cultural centre for arts and culture, including theatre and music.
Stand-up comedy
Singapore has a growing stand-up comedy scene with three active rooms. The three comedy rooms
in Singapore are weekly, starting with Comedy Masala[15] on Tuesdays, Talk Cock Comedy[16] on
Wednesdays and Comedy Hub Singapore[17] on Mondays and Thursdays. Every month, The
Comedy Club Asia features leading international comics such as Shazia Mirza & Imran Yusuf.
Comedy Masala also brings in international comedians, such as Paul Ogata.[18] Kumar, a drag
queen who has performed in Singapore for more than 17 years, is one of Singapore's leading stand-
up comedian.[19]

Religion[edit]

Sri Mariamman Temple, built in 1827, is the largest Hindu temple in Singapore.

Main article: Religion in Singapore

Religion in Singapore is characterized by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices due to its
diverse ethnic mix of peoples originating from various countries.
Culture of Malaysia
The culture of Malaysia draws on the varied cultures of the different people of Malaysia. The first
people to live in the area were indigenous tribes that still remain; they were followed by the Malays,
who moved there from mainland Asia in ancient times. Chinese and Indian cultural influences made
their mark when trade began with those countries, and increased with immigration to Malaysia.
Other cultures that heavily influenced that of Malaysia include Persian, Arabic, and British. The many
different ethnicities that currently exist in Malaysia have their own unique and distinctive cultural
identities, with some crossover.
Arts and music have a long tradition in Malaysia, with Malay art dating back to the Malay sultanates.
Traditional art was centred on fields such as carving, silversmithing, and weaving. Islamic taboos
restricted artwork depicting humans until the mid-20th century. Performing arts and shadow puppet
shows are popular, and often show Indian influences. Various influences can be seen in
architecture, from individual cultures in Malaysia and from other countries. Large modern structures
have been built, including the tallest twin buildings in the world, the Petronas Twin Towers.
Malaysian music has a variety of origins, and is largely based around percussion instruments. Much
early Malaysian literature was based on Indian epics, which remained unchanged even as Malays
converted to Islam; this has expanded in recent decades. English literature remained restricted to
the higher class until the arrival of the printing press. Locally created Chinese and Indian literature
appeared in the 19th century.
Cuisine is often divided along ethnic lines, but some dishes exist which have mixed foods from
different ethnicities. Each major religious group has its major holy days declared as official holidays.
Official holidays differ by state; the most widespread one is Merdeka day which celebrates the
independence of Malaya. Although festivals often stem from a specific ethnic background, they are
celebrated by all people in Malaysia. Traditional sports are popular in Malaysia, while it has become
a powerhouse in international sports such as badminton. Malaysia hosted the Commonwealth
Games in 1998, the first Commonwealth Games where the torch passed through more countries
than England and the host.
The Malaysian government has taken the step of defining Malaysian Culture through the "1971
National Culture Policy", which defined what was considered official culture, basing it around Malay
culture and integrating Islamic influences. This especially affected language; only Malay texts are
considered official cultural texts. Government control over the media is strong, and most media
outlets are related to the government in some way.

guarantees freedom of religion.[4]

Ethnic groups[edit]
See also: Demographics of Malaysia
Malaysia is a multi–ethnic, multicultural, and multilingual society, and the many ethnic groups in
Malaysia maintain separate cultural identities.[5] The society of Malaysia has been described as "Asia
in miniature".[6] The original culture of the area stemmed from its indigenous tribes, along with
the Malays who moved there in ancient times. Substantial influence exists from
the Chinese and Indian cultures, dating back to when trade with those countries began in the area.
Other cultures that heavily influenced that of Malaysia include Persian, Arabic, and British. The
structure of the government, along with the racial balance of power caused by the idea of a social
contract, has resulted in little incentive for the cultural assimilation of ethnic minorities in Malaya and
Malaysia.[7] The government has historically made little distinction between "Malay culture" and
"Malaysian culture".[8]
The Malays, who account for over half the Malaysian population,[1] play a dominant role politically
and are included in a grouping identified as bumiputra. Their native language, Bahasa Malaysia, is
the national language of the country.[9] By definition of the Malaysian constitution, all Malays are
Muslims. The Orang Asal, the earliest inhabitants of Malaya, formed only 0.5 percent of the total
population in Malaysia in 2000,[10] but represented a majority in East Malaysia. In Sarawak, most of
the non-Muslim indigenous groups are classified as Dayaks, and they constitute about 40 percent of
the population in the state.[11] Many tribes have converted to Christianity.[12] The 140,000 Orang Asli,
or aboriginal peoples, comprise a number of different ethnic communities living in peninsular
Malaysia.[13]

Heads from old headhuntingpractices in a Kadazan house in Sabah

The Chinese have been settling in Malaysia for many centuries, and form the second-largest ethnic
group.[1] The first Chinese to settle in the Straits Settlements, primarily in and around Malacca,
gradually adopted elements of Malaysian culture and intermarried with the Malaysian community
and with this, a new ethnic group called emerged, the Peranakan ("Straits Chinese"). These Chinese
have adopted Malay traditions while maintaining elements of Chinese culture such as their
largely Buddhist and Taoist religion.[7] The more common Chinese varieties spoken in Peninsular
Malaysia are Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainanese, and Fuzhou.[1]
The Indian community in Malaysia is the smallest of the three main ethnic groups, accounting for
about 10 percent of the country's population. They speak a variety of South Asian
languages.[1] Tamils, Malayalees, and Telugu people make up over 85 percent of the people of
Indian origin in the country. Indian immigrants to Malaysia brought with them
the Hindu and Sikh cultures. This included temples and Gurdwaras, cuisine, and clothing. Hindu
tradition remains strong in the Indian community of Malaysia. A community of Indians who have
adopted Malay cultural practices also exists in Malacca. Though they remain Hindu,
the Chitties speak Bahasa Malaysia and dress and act as Malays.[7]
Some Eurasians of mixed European and Malay descent live in Malaysia. A small community
in Malacca are descendants of former Portuguese colonists who married Malay women. While they
have adopted Malay culture, they speak their own language and are Catholics.[7]
Each ethnic group has its own underlying culture that separates it from the others, and they have
achieved different levels of integration. The Chinese have integrated with Malay culture in a number
of areas, including parts of Terengganu, and they form Malayanised groups such as the Baba
Chinese in Malacca and the Sino-Kadazan of Sabah. Their years under combined British rule
brought some joint sense of identity to all the ethnic groups, with English ideas and ideals providing
some unifying features. A joint Malaysian culture can be seen in the symbiosis of the cultures of the
people within it.[14]

Policies and controversies[edit]

The Malaysian government defined Malaysian culture through the issuance of the "1971 National
Culture Policy".[15] It defines three principles as guidelines for Malaysian culture: that it is based on
the cultures of indigenous people; that if elements from other cultures are judged suitable and
reasonable they may be considered Malaysian culture; and that Islam will be an important part of
national culture.[15]
Some cultural disputes exist between Malaysia and neighbouring Indonesia. The two countries
share a similar cultural heritage, sharing many traditions and items. However, disputes have arisen
over things ranging from culinary dishes to Malaysia's national anthem. Strong feelings exist in
Indonesia about protecting that nation's national heritage.[16] The rivalry between the two countries
began during Konfrontasi just after Malaysian independence, when Indonesia and Malaysia were
almost at war. Building resentment since then coupled with the economic success of Malaysia mean
these feelings are still strong in Indonesia today.[17] The Malaysian government and the Indonesian
government have met to defuse some of the tensions resulting from the overlaps in
culture.[18] Feelings are not as strong in Malaysia, where most recognise that many cultural values
are shared.[16]
One dispute, known as the Pendet controversy, began when Indonesians claimed the Pendet Dance
was used in an official Malaysian tourism ad campaign, causing official protests.[19] This dance,
from Bali in Indonesia, was used only in a Discovery Channel ad, not an ad sponsored by the
Malaysian government.[20] Songs, such as the Rasa Sayangesong, have caused similar
controversies.[19] The Malaysian national anthem, Negaraku, was claimed to be based on a similar
Indonesian song written a year earlier. Both tunes are derived from a 19th century French song,
which caused the similarity.[21]

Arts[edit]

Joget Melayu, a Malay dance

Malacca Art Gallery

Traditional Malaysian art is mainly centred on the crafts of carving, weaving, and
silversmithing.[22] Traditional art ranges from handwoven baskets from rural areas to the silverwork of
the Malay courts. Common artworks included ornamental kris and beetle nut sets. Luxurious textiles
known as Songket are made, as well as traditional patterned batik fabrics. Indigenous East
Malaysians are known for their wooden masks. Malaysian art has expanded only recently, as before
the 1950s Islamic taboos about drawing people and animals were strong.[23]Textiles such as
the batik, songket, pua kumbu, and tekat are used for decorations, often embroidered with a painting
or pattern. Traditional jewelry was made from gold and silver adorned with gems, and, in East
Malaysia, leather and beads were used to the same effect.[24]
Earthenware has been developed in many areas. The Labu Sayong is a gourd-shaped clay jar that
holds water. Perak is famous for these. Also used to store water is the angular Terenang.
The belanga is a clay bowl used to cook, with a wide base that allows heat to spread
easily.[24] Carved wood is used as ornamentation for many items, such as doors and window
panels.[23] Woodcarving was never an industry, but an art. Traditional woodcarvers spent years
simply preparing the wood, due to a belief that woodcarvers need to be a perfect match with their
wood. The wood also had to match the buyer, so woodcarving was a very ritualised task.[25]
Each ethnic group has distinct performing arts, with little overlap between them. Malay art shows
some North Indian influence.[26] A form of art called mak yong, incorporating dance and drama,
remains strong in the Kelantan state.[27] However, older Malayan-Thai performing arts such as mak
yong have declined in popularity throughout the country due to their Hindu-Buddhist origin. Since the
Islamisation period, the arts and tourism ministry have focused on newer dances of Portuguese,
Middle Eastern, or Mughal origin. Malay traditional dances include joget melayu and zapin. In recent
years, dikir barat has grown in popularity, and it is actively promoted by state governments as a
cultural icon.[28] Silat is another popular Malay martial art and dance form, believed to increase a
person's spiritual strength.[24] Wayang kulit (shadow puppet theatre) has been popular in Malaysia for
centuries.[26] The puppets are usually made with cow and buffalo skin, and are carved and painted by
hand.[24] Plays done with shadow puppets are often based on traditional stories,[29] especially tales
from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Traditionally, theatrical music is performed only by
men.[26] Javanese immigrants brought Kuda Kepang to Johor, and is a form of dance where dancers
sit on mock horses and tells the tales of Islamic wars. The Chinese communities brought
traditional lion dances and dragon dances with them, while Indians brought art forms such
as Bharata Natyam and Bhangra. Colonialism also brought other art forms, such as the
Portuguese Farapeira and Branyo. There are a variety of traditional dances, which often have very
strong spiritual significance. Different tribes from west and east Malaysia have different dances.[24]
In 2010, the Malaysian Art Culture was introduced to a new revival with the arrival of new
independent galleries that focuses on the new contemporary young local artists. One of the most
prominent key players in this new counter-culture is Minut Init Art Social in Uptown Damansara.

Architecture
South-East Asia's Largest Temple- Kek Lok Si in Penang being
illuminated in preparation for the Lunar New Year.

Architecture in Malaysia is a combination of many styles,

from Islamic and Chinese styles to those brought by
European colonists.[23] Malay architecture has changed due
to these influences. Houses in the north are similar to those
in Thailand, while those in the south are similar to those
in Java. New materials, such as glasses and nails, were
brought in by Europeans, changing the
architecture.[30] Houses are built for tropical conditions, raised on stilts with high roofs and large
windows, allowing air to flow through the house and cool it down.[24] Wood has been the main
building material for much of Malaysia's history; it is used for everything from the simple kampung to
royal palaces.[23] In Negeri Sembilan traditional houses are entirely free of nails.[24] Besides wood,
other common materials such as bamboo and leaves were used.[30] The Istana Kenangan in Kuala
Kangsar was built in 1926, and it the only Malay palace with bamboo walls. The Oral Asal of East
Malaysia live in longhouses and water villages. Longhouses are elevated and on stilts, and can
house 20 to 100 families. Water villages are also built on stilts, with houses connected with planks
and most transport by boats.[24]
Chinese architecture can be divided into two types, traditional and Baba Nyonya. Baba Nyonya
households are made of colourful tiles and have large indoor courtyards. Indian architecture came
with the Malaysian Indians, reflecting the architecture of southern India where most originated from.
Some Sikh architecture was also imported.[24] Malacca, which was a traditional centre of trade, has a
large variety of building styles. Large wooden structures such as the Palace of Sultan Mansur Shah
exist from early periods. Chinese influence can be seen in brightly decorated temples and terraced
shop houses.[23] The largest remaining Portuguese structure in Malacca is the A Famosa fort. Other
colonial building include the Dutch Stadthuys,[24] the Dutch Colonial town brick buildings, and
buildings built by the British such as the Memorial Hall, which combines Baroque and Islamic
architecture.[23]
The shapes and sizes of houses differ from state to state. Common elements in Peninsular Malaysia
include pitched roofs, verandahs, and high ceilings, raised on stilts for ventilation. The woodwork in
the house is often intricately carved. The floors are at different levels depending on the function of
the room.[30] Mosques have traditionally been based on Javanese architecture.[23] In modern times,
the government has promoted different projects, from the tallest twin buildings in the world,
the Petronas Twin Towers, to a whole garden city, Putrajaya. Malaysian firms are developing
skyscraper designs that are specifically for tropical climates.[23]

Music[edit]
Main article: Music of Malaysia
Traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan-Pattani region
with influences from India, China, Thailand, and Indonesia. The music is based around percussion
instruments,[26] the most important of which is the gendang (drum). There are at least 14 types of
traditional drums.[31] Drums and other traditional percussion instruments are often made from natural
materials such as shells.[31] Other instruments include the rebab (a bowed string instrument), the
serunai (a double-reed oboe-like instrument), the seruling (flute), and trumpets. Music is traditionally
used for storytelling, celebrating life-cycle events, and at annual events such as the harvest.[26] Music
was once used as a form of long-distance communication.[31] Traditional orchestra can be divided
between two forms, the gamelan which plays melodies using gongs and string instruments, and
the nobat which uses wind instruments to create more solemn music.[24]
In East Malaysia, ensembles based around gongs such as agung and kulintang are commonly used
in ceremonies such as funerals and weddings.[32] These ensembles are also common in the
southern Philippines, Kalimantan in Indonesia, and in Brunei.[32] Chinese and Indian Malaysians have
their own forms of music, and the indigenous tribes of Peninsula and East Malaysia have unique
traditional instruments.[23] In countries such as Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia it is believed that
performing at the house during Hari Raya (a traditional malay festival) is a good belief as it brings
goodluck and fortune to the performers and host of the house.
Within Malaysia, the largest performing arts venue is the Petronas Philharmonic Hall. The resident
orchestra is the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra.[33] Malay popular music is a combination of styles
from all ethnicities in the country.[23] The Malaysian government has taken steps to control what
music is available in Malaysia; rap music has been criticised,[34] heavy metal has been limited,[35] and
foreign bands must submit a recording of a recent concert before playing in Malaysia.[36] It is believed
that this music is a bad influence on youth.[35]

Literature[edit]
Malacca Literature Museum

The strong oral tradition that has existed since before the arrival of writing to what is now Malaysia
continues today. These early works were heavily influenced by Indian epics.[37] Oral literature such as
folktales flourished even after printed works appeared.[23] The Arabic Jawi scriptarrived with the
coming of Islam to the peninsula in the late 15th century.[37] At this point, stories which previously had
given lessons in Hinduism and Buddhism were taken to have more universal meanings, with their
main story lines remaining intact.[29] Each of the Malay Sultanates created their own literary tradition
influenced by preexisting oral stories and by the stories that came with Islam.[37] The arrival of the
printing press in Malaysia was key in allowing literature to be accessed by more than those rich
enough to afford handwritten manuscripts.[29] There was a division between the royal Malays, who
knew English, and the lower classes, who only read Malay.[23] In the early years of the 20th century,
literature began to change to reflect the changing norms of Malaysians.[29] In 1971 the government
took the step of defining the literature of different languages. Literature written in Malay was called
"The National Literature of Malaysia"; literature in other bumiputra languages was called "regional
literature"; literature in other languages was called "sectional literature".[38]
Malay poetry is highly developed, and uses many forms.[37] A Hikayat is a traditional narrative, and
stories written in that fashion are named using Hikayat followed by the name(s) of the protagonist(s).
The pantun is a form of poetry used in many aspects of Malay culture. The Syair is another form of
narrative, once very popular.[29] The Hikayat form remains popular, and the pantun has spread from
Malay to other languages.[37] Until the 19th century, literature produced in Malaysia focused mainly
on tales of royalty,[29] as it was produced just for royalty.[23] It was after this point that it expanded to
other areas.[29] The race riots of 1969 strongly influenced literature; the improvements of the
economy in the 1980s brought about social changes and new forms of literature.[23]
The first Malay literature was in Arabic script. The earliest known Malay writing is on the Terengganu
Inscription Stone, made in 1303.[23] One of the more famous Malay works is the Sulalatus al-Salatin,
also known as the Sejarah Melayu (meaning "The Malay Annals"). It was originally recorded in the
15th century, although it has since been edited;[37] the known version is from the 16th century.
The Hikaya Rajit Pasai, written in the 15th century, is another significant literary work.[23] The Hikayat
Hang Tuah, or story of Hang Tuah, tells the story of Hang Tuah and his devotion to his
Sultan.[23] This is the most famous Hikayat;[29] it drew from the Sejarah Melayu. Both have been
nominated as world heritage items under the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) 'Memory of the World' programme.[37] Folktales such as the Hikayat Sang
Kancil, about a clever mouse deer, are popular, as are adventures such as Ramayana, adapted
from Indian epics. Munshi Abdullah (Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir), who lived from 1797 to 1854, is
regarded as the father of Malay literature. Hikayat Abdullah, his autobiography, is about everyday life
at the time when British influence was spreading. Female Malay writers began becoming popular in
the 1950s.[23]
Different ethnic and linguistic groups have produced works in their own languages.[23] Chinese and
Indian literature became common as the numbers of speakers increased in Malaysia, and locally
produced works based in languages from those areas began to be produced in the
19th century.[37] Beginning in the 1950s, Chinese literature expanded; homemade literature in Indian
languages has failed to emerge. English has become a common literary language.[23]

Cuisine[edit]
Main article: Malaysian cuisine

Nasi Lemak, the national dish of Malaysia

Clockwise from bottom left: beef soup, ketupat (compressed rice cubes), beef rendang and sayur lodeh

Malaysia's cuisine reflects the multiethnic makeup of its population,[39] and is defined by its
diversity.[40] Many cultures from Malaysia and the surrounding areas have greatly influenced
Malaysian cuisine, with strong influence from Malay, Chinese, Indian, Thai, Javanese, and Sumatran
cuisines.[23] Much of this is due to Malaysia being a part of the ancient spice route.[40] The cuisine is
very similar to that of Singapore and Brunei,[41] and also bears resemblance to Filipino cuisine.[23]The
different states of Malaysia have varied dishes,[41] and often the food in Malaysia is different from the
original dishes.[42]
Sometimes food not found in its original culture is assimilated into another; for example, Chinese
restaurants in Malaysia often serve Malaysian dishes.[43] Food from one culture is sometimes cooked
using styles taken from another.[41] This means that although many Malaysian dishes originate from
another culture, they have their own identities.[40] Often the food in Malaysia is different from the
original dishes;[44] for example, Chinese food is often sweeter in Malaysian versions than the
original.[23] The Peranakans, Chinese who moved to Malaysia centuries ago, have their own unique
cuisine that Chinese cooking techniques with Malay ingredients.[40]
During a dinner food is not served in courses, but all at once.[23] Rice is popular in many Malaysian
dishes. Chilli is commonly found in Malaysian dishes, although this does not make them
spicy.[39] Noodles are common. Pork is rarely used in Malaysia, because of the large Muslim
population. Some celebrations have food associated with them, and mooncakesare often eaten
during Mooncake Festival.[23]

Clothing[edit]
Siti Nurhaliza wearing a tudung

As of 2013 most Muslim Malaysian women wear the tudung, a type of

hijab. This use of the tudung was uncommon prior to the 1979 Iranian
revolution,[45] and the places that had women in tudung tended to be rural
areas. The usage of the tudung sharply increased after the 1970s.[46] as
religious conservatism among Malay people in both Malaysia and
Singapore increased.[47]
Several members of the Kelantan ulama in the 1960s believed the hijab
was not mandatory.[45] By 2015 the Malaysian ulama believed this
previous viewpoint was un-Islamic.[48]
By 2015 Malaysia had a fashion industry related to the tudung.[45] By 2015
Muslim Malay society had a negative reaction to Muslim women who do not wear tudung.[46]
Norhayati Kaprawi directed a 2011 documentary about the use of tudung in Malaysia, "Siapa Aku?"
("Who am I?"). It is in Malay, with English subtitles available.[48]

Holidays[edit]

Malay children dressed for Hari raya

Malaysians observe a number of holidays and festivities throughout the year, on both the federal and
state level. Other festivals are observed by particular ethnic or religion groups, but are not public
holidays. The main holy days of each major religion are public holidays. The most widespread
holiday is the "Hari Merdeka" (Independence Day), otherwise known as "Merdeka" (Freedom), on 31
August. It commemorates the independence of the Federation of Malaya. This, as well as Labour
Day (1 May), the King's birthday (first Saturday of June), and some other festivals are major national
public holidays. Federal Territory day is celebrated in the three Federal territories.[23] Malaysia Day,
held on 16 September, commemorates the formation of Malaysia through the union
of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak, although it is celebrated mainly in East Malaysia.[49]
New Year's Day, Chinese New Year, and the start of the Islamic calendar are all public
holidays.[23] Muslim holidays are highly prominent in Malaysia. The most important of these is Hari
Raya Puasa (also called Hari Raya Aidilfitri),[50] which is the Malay translation of Eid al-Fitr. It is a
festival honoured by Muslims worldwide marking the end of Ramadan, the fasting month. They also
celebrate Hari Raya Haji (also called Hari Raya Aidiladha, the translation of Eid ul-Adha), Awal
Muharram (Islamic New Year) and Maulidur Rasul (Birthday of the Prophet).[23]

Sports[edit]
 include badminton, bowling, football, squash, and field
hockey.[55] Malaysia has small-scale traditional
sports. Wau is a traditional form of kite-flying involving kites
created with intricate designs. These kites can reach
heights of nearly 500 metres (1,640 ft), and due to
bamboo attachments create a humming sound when
flown.[56] Sepak takraw is a game in which a rattan ball is kept
in the air without using hands.[57] A traditional game
played during the rice harvest season was
throwing gasing, which are large tops weighing around 5
kilograms (11 lb), which are thrown by unfurling a rope and
scooped off the ground while spinning. They are known to be able to spin for over an hour.[24] Other
sports are dragon dancing and dragon-boat racing. Malaysia's coastline is popular for scuba
diving, sailing, and other water sports and activities.[57] Whitewater rafting and trekking are also often
done.[58]
Many international sports are highly popular in Malaysia. Badminton matches in Malaysia attract
thousands of spectators, and Malaysia, along with Indonesia and China, has consistently held
the Thomas Cup since 1949.[59] Famous players include Lee Chong Wei.[citation needed]The Malaysian
Lawn Bowls Federation (PLBM) was registered in 1997,[60] and already fields a strong international
team[61] and has made progress on the international stage.[62] Squash was brought to Malaysia by
members of the British army, with the first competition being held in 1939. The Squash Racquets
Association of Malaysia (SRAM) was created on 25 June 1972, and has had great success in Asian
squash competitions.[63] Football is popular in Malaysia,[57] and Malaysia has proposed a Southeast
Asian football league.[64] Hockey is popular in Malaysia, with the Malaysian team ranked 14th in the
world as of 2010.[65] Malaysia hosted the third Hockey World Cup at the Merdeka Stadium in Kuala
Lumpur, before also hosting the 10th cup.[66] Malaysia has its own Formula One track, the Sepang
International Circuit. It runs for 310.408 kilometres (193 mi), and held its first Grand Prix in
2000.[67] Golf is growing in popularity, with many courses being built around the country.[55]

Gasing spinning top at the cultural center Gelanggang Seni

The Federation of Malaya Olympic Council was formed in 1953, and received recognition by
the International Olympic Committee in 1954. It first participated in the 1956 Melbourne Olympic
Games. The council was renamed the Olympic Council of Malaysia in 1964, and has participated in
all but one Olympic games since the council was formed. The largest number of athletes sent to the
Olympics was 57, to the 1972 Munich Olympic Games.[68] Malaysian athletes have won a total of four
Olympic medals, all of which are in badminton.[69] Malaysia has competed at the Commonwealth
Games since 1950 as Malaya, and 1966 as Malaysia. It has been dominant in badminton, and
hosted the games in Kuala Lumpur in 1998.[70] The 1998 Commonwealth Games were the first time
the torch relay went through more nations than just England and the host country.[71]

Media[edit]
The regulated freedom of the press has been criticised, and it has been claimed that the government
threatens journalists with reduced employment opportunities and denial of family admittance to
universities.[77] The Malaysian government has previously tried to crack down on opposition papers
before elections when the ruling party was unsure of its political situation.[74] In 2007, a government
agency issued a directive to all private television and radio stations to refrain from broadcasting
speeches made by opposition leaders,[78] a move condemned by politicians from the
opposition Democratic Action Party.[79] Sabah, where only one tabloid is not independent of
government control, has the freest press in Malaysia.[75] Legislation such as the Printing Presses and
Publications Act has been cited as curtailing freedom of expression.[77]
Culture of Egypt
Egyptian culture has six thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest
civilizations and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced
later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and other African countries. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt
itself came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity, and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of
Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern
Western culture, itself with roots in ancient Egypt.

Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has

been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture
and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of Nobel
Laureates in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian
born politicians were or are currently at the helm of major
international organizations like Boutros Boutros-Ghali of the
United Nations and Mohamed ElBaradei of the IAEA.

Renaissance

The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian Renaissance,
marking the transition from Medieval to Early Modern Egypt. His work renewed interest in Egyptian
antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education
reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian
scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of
Egypt. Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people
like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama
Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a
commitment to individual freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.

Art and architecture

The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to

codify design elements in art and architecture. The wall
paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid
code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilization is
renowned for its colossal pyramids, colonnades and
monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of
Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep,
the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and
contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in
the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of
Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud
Mokhtar's famous sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic
iconography of Isaac Fanous.

The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt's
media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, today with more than thirty
satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been
known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the Cairo International Film
Festival, has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International
Federation of Film Producers' Associations. To bolster its media industry further, especially with the
 keen competition from the Persian Gulf Arab States and Lebanon, a large media city was built. Some
Egyptian-born actors, like Omar Sharif, have achieved worldwide fame.

Literature

Literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets
were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they
developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.

The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the
Egyptian vernacular. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the
Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her
feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is
perhaps the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed
Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-AbnudiIn their belief, boats were used by
the dead to accompany the sun around the world, as Heaven was referred to as “Upper Waters”. In
Egyptian mythology, every night the serpentine god Apophis would attack the Sun Boat as it brought
the sun (and as such order ) back to the Kingdom in the morning. It is referred to as the “Boat of
Millions” as all of the gods and all of the souls of the blessed dead may at one point or another be
needed to defend or operate it.

Music

Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In antiquity,
Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud.
Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since.
Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli,
Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Amr Diab,
Mohamed Mounir, Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. From the
1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk
music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.
Festivals

Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually
associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective
of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local
lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt
during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim has been
celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude
(April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.
Thailand
Thailand (/ˈtaɪlænd/ TY-land), officially the Kingdom of Thailand and formerly known as Siam, is a
country at the center of the Southeast Asian Indochinese peninsula composed of 76 provinces. At
513,120 km2 (198,120 sq mi) and over 68 million people, Thailand is the world's 50th largest country
by total area and the 21st-most-populous country. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, a special
administrative area. Thailand is bordered to the north by Myanmar and Laos, to the east by Laos
and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west by the Andaman
Sea and the southern extremity of Myanmar. Its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of
Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. Although
nominally a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, the most recent coup in
2014 established a de facto military dictatorship.
Tai peoples migrated from southwestern China to mainland Southeast Asia from the 11th century;
the oldest known mention of their presence in the region by the exonym Siamese dates to the 12th
century. Various Indianised kingdoms such as the Mon, the Khmer Empire and Malay states ruled
the region, competing with Thai states such as Ngoenyang, the Sukhothai Kingdom, Lan Naand
the Ayutthaya Kingdom, which rivaled each other. European contact began in 1511 with a
Portuguese diplomatic mission to Ayutthaya, one of the great powers in the region. Ayutthaya
reached its peak during cosmopolitan Narai's reign (1656–88), gradually declining thereafter until
being ultimately destroyed in 1767 in a war with Burma. Taksin quickly reunified the fragmented
territory and established the short-lived Thonburi Kingdom. He was succeeded in 1782 by Buddha
Yodfa Chulaloke, the first monarch of the Chakri dynasty and founder of the Rattanakosin Kingdom,
which lasted into the early 20th century.
Through the 18th and 19th centuries, Siam faced pressure from France and the United Kingdom,
including forced concessions of territory, but nevertheless it remained the only Southeast Asian
country to avoid direct Western rule. Following a bloodless revolution in 1932, Siam became a
constitutional monarchy and changed its official name to "Thailand". While it joined the Allies in
World War I, Thailand was an Axis satellite in World War II. In the late 1950s, a military coup revived
the monarchy's historically influential role in politics. Thailand became a major ally of the United
States and played a key anti-communist role in the region. Apart from a brief period of parliamentary
democracy in the mid 1970s, Thailand has periodically alternated between democracy and military
rule. In the 21st century, Thailand endured a political crisis that culminated in two coups and the
establishment of its current and 20th constitution by the military junta.
Thailand is a unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy under a military junta. Thailand is a
founding member of ASEAN and remains a major ally of the US.[14][15] Despite its comparatively
sporadic changes in leadership, it is considered a regional power in Southeast Asia and a middle
power in global affairs.[16] With a high level of human development, the second largest economy in
Southeast Asia, and the 20th largest by PPP, Thailand is classified as a newly industrialized
economy; manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism are leading sectors of the economy.

Culture
Theravada Buddhism, highly practised in Thailand

Thai culture has been shaped by many influences, including Indian, Lao, Burmese, Cambodian, and
Chinese.
Its traditions incorporate a great deal of influence from India, China, Cambodia, and the rest of
Southeast Asia. Thailand's national religion, Theravada Buddhism, is central to modern Thai
identity. Thai Buddhism has evolved over time to include many regional beliefs originating
from Hinduism, animism, as well as ancestor worship. The official calendar in Thailand is based on
the Eastern version of the Buddhist Era(BE), which is 543 years ahead of the Gregorian (Western)
calendar. Thus the year 2015 is 2558 BE in Thailand.
Several different ethnic groups, many of which are marginalised, populate Thailand. Some of these
groups spill over into Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia and Malaysia and have mediated change between
their traditional local culture, national Thai, and global cultural influences. Overseas Chinese also
form a significant part of Thai society, particularly in and around Bangkok. Their successful
integration into Thai society has allowed for this group to hold positions of economic and political
power. Thai Chinese businesses prosper as part of the larger bamboo network, a network
of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common
family and cultural ties.[132]

Khon show is the most stylised form of Thai performance.

The traditional Thai greeting, the wai, is generally offered first

by the younger of the two people meeting, with their hands
pressed together, fingertips pointing upwards as the head is
bowed to touch face to fingertips, usually coinciding with the
spoken words "sawatdi khrap" for male speakers, and
"sawatdi kha" for females. The elder may then respond in the
same way. Social status and position, such as in
government, will also have an influence on who performs the wai first. For example, although one
may be considerably older than a provincial governor, when meeting it is usually the visitor who pays
respect first. When children leave to go to school, they are taught to waitheir parents to indicate their
respect. The wai is a sign of respect and reverence for another, similar to the namaste greeting of
India and Nepal.
As with other Asian cultures, respect towards ancestors is an essential part of Thai spiritual practice.
Thais have a strong sense of hospitality and generosity, but also a strong sense of social hierarchy.
Seniority is paramount in Thai culture. Elders have by tradition ruled in family decisions or
ceremonies. Older siblings have duties to younger ones.
Taboos in Thailand include touching someone's head or pointing with the feet, as the head is
considered the most sacred and the foot the lowest part of the body.

Cuisine
Further information: Cuisine of Thailand

The art of vegetable carving is thought to have originated in

the Sukhothai Kingdom nearly 700 years ago[133]

Thai cuisine blends five fundamental tastes: sweet, spicy,

sour, bitter, and salty. Common ingredients used in Thai
cuisine include garlic, chillies, lime juice, lemon
grass, coriander, galangal, palm sugar, and fish sauce (nam
pla). The staple food in Thailand is rice, particularly jasmine
variety rice (also known as "hom Mali" rice) which forms a
part of almost every meal. Thailand was long[when?] the world's
largest exporter of rice, and Thais domestically consume
over 100 kg of milled rice per person per year.[117] Over 5,000
varieties of rice from Thailand are preserved in the rice gene
bank of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), based in the Philippines. The king of
Thailand is the official patron of IRRI.[134]

Media
Further information: Media of Thailand
Thai society has been influenced in recent years by its widely available multi-language press and
media. There are some English and numerous Thai and Chinese newspapers in circulation. Most
Thai popular magazines use English headlines as a chic glamour factor. Many large businesses in
Bangkok operate in English as well as other languages.
Thailand is the largest newspaper market in Southeast Asia with an estimated circulation of over 13
million copies daily in 2003. Even upcountry, out of Bangkok, the media flourish. For example,
according to Thailand's Public Relations Department Media Directory 2003–2004, the nineteen
provinces of Isan, Thailand's northeastern region, hosted 116 newspapers along with radio, TV, and
cable. Since then, another province, Bueng Kan, was incorporated, totalling twenty provinces. In
addition, a military coup on 22 May 2014 led to severe state restrictions on all media and forms of
expression.

Units of measurement
Further information: Thai units of measurement
Thailand generally uses the metric system, but traditional units of measurement for land area are
used, and imperial units of measurement are occasionally used for building materials, such as wood
and plumbing fixtures. Years are numbered as B.E. (Buddhist Era) in educational settings, civil
service, government, contracts, and newspaper datelines. However, in banking, and increasingly in
industry and commerce, standard Western year (Christian or Common Era) counting is the standard
practice.[135]

Sports
Muay Thai (Thai: มวยไทย, RTGS: Muai Thai, [muaj tʰaj], lit.
"Thai boxing") is a native form of kickboxing and Thailand's
signature sport. It incorporates kicks, punches, knees and
elbow strikes in a ring with gloves similar to those used in
Western boxing and this has led to Thailand gaining medals at
the Olympic Games in boxing.
Association football has overtaken muay Thai as the most
widely followed sport in contemporary Thai society. Thailand
national football teamhas played the AFC Asian Cup six times
and reached the semifinals in 1972. The country has hosted
the Asian Cup twice, in 1972 and in 2007. The 2007 edition
was co-hosted together with Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam.
It is not uncommon to see Thais cheering their favourite
English Premier League teams on television and walking
around in replica kit. Another widely enjoyed pastime, and
once a competitive sport, is kite flying.

Volleyball is rapidly
growing as one of the most popular sports. The women's
team has often participated in the World Championship, World
Cup, and World Grand Prix Asian Championship. They have won
the Asian Championship twice and Asian Cup once. By the
success of the women's team, the men team has been growing
as well.
Takraw (Thai: ตะกร้อ) is a sport native to Thailand, in which the
players hit a rattan ball and are only allowed to use their feet,
knees, chest, and head to touch the ball. Sepak takraw is a form
of this sport which is similar to volleyball. The players must volley a ball over a net and force it to hit
the ground on the opponent's side. It is also a popular sport in other countries in Southeast Asia. A
rather similar game but played only with the feet is buka ball.
Snooker has enjoyed increasing popularity in Thailand in recent years, with interest in the game
being stimulated by the success of Thai snooker player James Wattana in the 1990s.[136] Other
notable players produced by the country include Ratchayothin Yotharuck, Noppon
Saengkham and Dechawat Poomjaeng.[137]