Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs

Chivalry, the Mediterranean, and the Crown of Aragon

Series: Estudios de literature medieval «John E. Keller», 14

Chivalry,
the Mediterranean,
and the Crown of Aragon
Chivalry,
constitute the threefold axis of this collection of essays. The three are at the Mediterranean,
and the Crown of Aragon
the forefront of a real struggle among civilizations that took place around
the borderland surrounding the Mediterranean in the late Middle Ages,
namely in the Iberian and Italian peninsulas and the Balkans. In fact, it
could be said that the late medieval Mediterranean came to be defined pre-
cisely because of this struggle. Chivalry thrived in its milieu both in real
and fictional terms amidst conquering kingdoms, ethical chevaliers and
knight kings that helped shape the identity of the Catalan-speaking ter-
ritories. – from the Introduction
Antonio Cortijo Ocaña

Abel Soler

Vicent Martines

Montserrat Piera

Gabriel Ensenyat Pujol

CORTIJO OCANA, ed.

Ferran Garcia-Oliver

Òscar O. Santos-Sopena

Joan Molina Figueras

Vicent Josep Escartí

~
Veronica Orazi

Edited by
Juan de la Cuesta 316
Hispanic Monographs Antonio Cortijo Ocana
~
Cuesta
www.JuandelaCuesta.com
 Chivalry,
the Mediterranean,
and the Crown of Aragon
 Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs
Series: Estudios de literature medieval «John E. Keller», 14

Founding Editor
Tom Lathrop
University of Delaware

Editor
Michael J. McGrath
Georgia Southern University

Editorial Board
Vincent Barletta
Stanford University
Annette Grant Cash
Georgia State University
David Castillo
State University of New York-Buffalo
Gwen Kirkpatrick
Georgetown University
Mark P. Del Mastro
College of Charleston
Juan F. Egea
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Sara L. Lehman
Fordham University
Mariselle Meléndez
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Eyda Merediz
University of Maryland
Dayle Seidenspinner-Núñez
University of Notre Dame
Elzbieta Sklodowska
Washington University in St. Louis
Noël Valis
Yale University
Chivalry, the Mediterranean,
and the Crown of Aragon

Edited by

Antonio Cortijo Ocaña

University of California - Santa Barbara
 This publication has benefited from the financial sponsorship
of the Institució Alfons el Magnànim.

On the cover: Fragment of the altarpiece of “Sant Jordi o del Centenar de la Ploma” 
(ca. 1410-1420). Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK.

Copyright © 2018 LinguaText, llc. All rights reserved.

Series: Estudios de literature medieval «John E. Keller», 14

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 Table of Contents

Introduction: Chivalry and the Crown of Aragon: A Mediterranean

Journey in Search of Identity
Antonio Cortijo Ocaña...................................................................... 7

1. Curial and Tirant: The Social and Literary Crisis of Chivalric Ideals
in the Mediterranean “Borderland”
Abel Soler.................................................................................................. 19

2. The Mediterranean Dawn of Chivalric Narrative (Girart de Rosselló

and the Roman de Jaufré): Medieval Literary Chivalry and Its Early
Mediterranean Connection
Vicent Martines.....................................................................................35

3. Of Shipwrecks and Epiphanies: The Mediterranean Wanderlust of

Iberian Knights (Apolonio, Tirant, Curial, Cervantes)
Montserrat Piera................................................................................. 61

4. Salvador Sureda, a Fifteenth-Century Majorcan Knight

Gabriel Ensenyat Pujol...................................................................... 85

5. State, Nation, and Language in the Middle Ages: The Crown of

Aragon (Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries)
Ferran Garcia-Oliver.......................................................................101

6. Cross-cultural Identity, Language Development, and Medieval

Catalan Culture: The Prehumanism of Ramon Llull

Òscar O. Santos-Sopena....................................................................117
7. Légende et image. Jacques Ier d’Aragon et la création d’un mythe
historiographique et visuel de la monarchie (13e-14e Siècles)
Joan Molina Figueras......................................................................... 131

8. Memory Construction: The Knight King Jaume I According to

Troubadours and Chronicles
Vicent Josep Escartí........................................................................... 151

9. Comparing Tirant and Quijote: Four Plays from the Second Half
of the Twentieth Century
Veronica Orazi......................................................................................171
 6
Cross-cultural Identity, Language
Development, and Medieval Catalan Culture:
The Prehumanism of Ramon Llull1
Òscar O. Santos-Sopena
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

Interdisciplinary work, so much discussed these days, is not

about confronting already constituted disciplines (none of
which, in fact, is willing to let itself go). To do something in-
terdisciplinary it’s not enough to choose a “subject” (a theme)
and gather around it 2 or 3 sciences. Interdisciplinarity con-
sists in creating a new object that belongs to no one.
- Roland Barthes, Jeunes Chercheurs

I. Introduction

“I
t is with France and Spain that I shall be principally concerned,
then, in describing the characteristics structured of the feudal king-
dom, with its imperia in imperio or, more accurately, its series of
‘Chinese boxes’ intervening between the all-inclusive monarchy and the hum-
ble individual in his own locality.” With this quote, historian Daniel P. Waley
(1985) began his reflection on European medieval history in his work Later
Medieval Europe: From Saint Louis to Luther. The idea of “Chinese boxes”
becomes an accurate metaphor when dealing with the reception of Human-
ism in the Iberian Peninsula, particularly if we think of the Middle Ages as a

1  I would like to thank Luisa Álvarez Fleming and Andrea González Castro
for their kind and helpful revision and comments of this manuscript.

117
118 Cross-cultural Identity, Language Development, and Medieval Catalan Culture

time of propagation and development behind the origins and cross-pollina-

tion between the Humanist movement and Christian tradition.
This research explores the intersection of cross-cultural identity, lan-
guage development, and medieval Catalan culture in the work of Ramon
Llull (Mallorca, 1232/33 - Tunis, 1315/16). The first section of the study ana-
lyzes his conception of identity, mixing Christian symbols into a philosophi-
cal classical discourse. The second section outlines the cultural and literary
landscape of his works in terms of language development, tone, and style. The
third section examines the historical, social, cultural,  and ideological per-
spectives of Catalan medieval culture. This study seeks to clarify the cultural,
historical, and literary influences of Ramon Llull on Catalan culture, which
are not always taken into account despite the fact that Catalan Humanism
preceded the development of Castilian Humanism in the fourteenth cen-
tury. It will be argued that this cross-pollination of prehumanism from the
Mediterranean world served as a bridge between the different civilizations
and cultures; and will lead to a better understanding of European Human-
ism. For this reason, the methodology of this research has been based on
(re)interpreting, (re)defining, and (re)thinking the classical and Christian
traditions from a comparative perspective giving a particular relevance to the
topic of the creation and the development of Catalan identity and language.

II. Cross-cultural Catalan Identity through Llull’s Journeys

Llull’s identity is an important element linked to Christian Humanism,
which can be defined as classical humanist thought described and under-
stood as deriving from the principles of Christianity. In fact, Ramon Llull
was one of the first authors to include Christian Humanism in Catalan lit-
erature. Other authors like Bernat Metge and Juan Luis Vives, later embody
and visualize these ideas. Additionally, Llull spread Catalan and Christian
identity as he travelled through Europe using his Ars or Art. As Julia Butiñá
and Antonio Cortijo indicate, Art is a way of understanding identity:

Ramon Llull va idear un Art, un mètode apologètic, consistent en una

sèrie de taules mòbils, sobre les quals es trobaven inscrits una sèrie de
conceptes fonamentals, comuns a totes les ciències i dels que participa-
ven tots els sers. Aquestes taules podien combinar-se en diverses posi-
cions, de manera que s’hi obtenien de forma mecànica totes les relacions
conceptuals, que es corresponien amb les veritats essencials de la religió
i que, alhora, posaven en evidència els errors dels averroistes, dels jueus i
 Òscar O. Santos-Sopena 119

dels musulmans, veient-se aquests dos darrers obligats a acceptar la Tri-

nitat. (Butiñá & Cortijo 2011, 84)

An Art was very difficult to be understood in Paris at that time. Never-

theless, Ramon Llull returned and succeeded despite his measured and dis-
creet thought. He lived an eremitic life between Montpellier and Miramar
(1275-87) where he wrote memorable works such as Llibre d’Evast e d’Aloma e
de Blanquerna (1283). According to Miquel Batllori, through his writing and
philosophical thought, Llull merged three cultures: “Ramón [Llull] abraza
sus tres mundos: el occidental, el islámico y el bizantino, cada uno de ellos
con toda su complejidad” ( 11). In order to understand all of this complexity,
it is necessary to understand his journeys through the Mediterranean, a set-
ting that becomes vital for his purpose.
These journeys become his way of living and his source of knowledge.
Llull makes numerous trips to Rome to visit several Popes. In addition, his
three visits to Paris reveal his contact with Latin Averroism at the University
of Paris (1287-90, 1297-99, and 1309-11):

Aquella primera coneixença a la Universitat de París fou també el seu

primer contacte amb l’averroisme llatí, impacte àrab en el món cristià
occidental. Difícilment es podria excogitar un sistema filosòfic més con-
trastant amb el de Ramon Llull. […] Els averroistes de París venien a
admetre la creació en el temps com una veritat teològica i l’existencia del
món des de l’eternitat com una veritat filosòfica. Ramon no solament
nega aquesta proposició per motius de fe, sinó que intenta de rebatre-la
filosòficament amb raons necessàries. (Batllori 1993, 16)

Around 1290, he approaches the Franciscan order, as Miquel Batllori ar-

gues: “Esa secta espiritualista entroncaba los deseos de reforma dentro de la
Orden franciscana— pobreza absoluta, individual y colectiva, y humildad,
que miraba con prevención los estudios, aun teológicos” (Antología 20). Fi-
nally, in 1293 he made his first journey of pilgrimage and conversion starting
in Tunisia and going along the entire Mediterranean cornice: France, Italy,
and Naples among other places.2 His travels are marked by his conversations
and dialogues about the Muslim faith (Butiñá 2012, 10-11). His contact with

2  We must include his trips to North Africa (Tunisia 1293), return to Naples
(1294), Majorca (1300), Cyprus (1301), Armenia and Asia Minor (1303-07), probably
Jerusalem (1303-07), Montpellier (1308), Lyon (1311-12), Sicily and, finally, Tunisia
(1313).
120 Cross-cultural Identity, Language Development, and Medieval Catalan Culture

the outside world and with different cultures and ideological currents pro-
motes a new consciousness and identity; a new way of understanding the
world that Llull would transmit through his didactic-pedagogical works,
which he terms Art.

III. The Development of Catalan Language

The question of language is an important topic for Ramon Llull. He is the
first author who writes philosophical and scientific works in Catalan. Be-
fore Llull, we can only find texts written in Arabic or Latin on these areas of
knowledge. Llull begins to write using a Romance language so that his work
would reach a broader medieval audience. With Llull the Catalan language
evolves, acquires importance, great expressiveness, and lexical amplitude. Be-
cause of Llull, the Catalan language situates itself in a preeminent and dis-
tinguished place within the Romance literatures. Furthermore, the Majorcan
philosopher uses Catalan, Latin, Arabic, and Provenzal for the writing of his
works. He also writes most of his texts in Catalan and Latin side by side in or-
der to promote his way of thinking and reaching the whole Christian world.
This methodology is unique to Llull and important for understanding his
doctrinal and philosophical approach, as well as its subsequent connection
with the origins of Humanism. For instance, Llibre de l’Orde de Cavalleria
(1275-1276) is a doctrinal manual of the perfect knight. This didactic-moral
book examines the origin and nobility of chivalry through the development
of chivalric ethics, which in turn become a defense of the Christian faith.
The Majorcan writer analyzes the intercultural relationship between the me-
dieval class society and social boundaries. For this reason, the use of Catalan
language was crucial. Indeed, it highlights the serfs’ relationship of vassalage
with their feudal lord. Basically, his ultimate intention is to highlight the
value and essence of Christianity. Llull focuses on the conversion of infidels,
proposing a new technique or set of rules, which he calls Art. These are based
on deduction and the broad knowledge he acquired during his multiple
trips throughout the Mediterranean. His method then becomes inclusive,
scholastic and rational: Ars combinatoria. According to Llull, the training
of missionaries, learning the Mediterranean languages and prolific writing
are fundamental to carry out this evangelization because it is only through
the knowledge of the “other” that one can truly understand. Because of his
capacity for understanding these basic principles and the use of his Ars com-
binatoria, he does not contradict the scholastic principles. This is one of the
reasons why his beliefs will serve later as an influence for the Renaissance and
 Òscar O. Santos-Sopena 121

the Baroque movements. His language, style, tone, and themes serve as proof
of the prehumanist elements in this author’s thought.
Ramon Llull’s literary production is extensive. He wrote 280 works that
are still used today for didactic and formative purposes. His style is clearly
marked by his Art and Llull’s primary objectives, that is the conversion of
infidels, contemplation, and pilgrimage:

En la obra literaria de Ramón Llull se funden, en una personalidad recia

y dinámica, los mundos árabe, provenzal e italiano: la esencia de la civili-
zación mediterránea halla en él un genial representante. […] Realiza sus
trabajos y sus artificios en todo el mare nostrum, que surca por caminos
de cruzados, de misioneros y de mercaderes. Si Roma es su centro, Jeru-
salén es su meta y el monasterio de Miramar, en Mallorca, su punto de
partida. (Riquer 1947, 30-31)

For this reason, Llull’s style, language, and the dissemination of his works
laid the foundation of the Catalan language through its endoresement by the
Royal Chancery of Barcelona as early as the fourteenth century. His work
paves the way for the ideas of seriousness and decorum for the future Catalan
prose (Riquer & Comas I, 340). Hence, critics have pointed out that:

Ramón Llull és el primer escriptor català de categoria, ja que abans d’ell

la prosa catalana es troba en un lògic i natural estat de romanç incipient
i titubejant, que només gosa donar-nos textos juridics, histórics i religio-
sos on es veu una llengua de bolquers, per molt prometedora que sigui,
i una migradíssima pretensió literària. El català, gràcies a Ramon Llull,
salta del balbuceig a l’elocució perfecta, plena, abundosa, matisada i uni-
versal, que va des de la més abstrusa i difícil elucubració filosòfica o de
tècnica científica, i del més abrandat misticisme, a l’exposició planera i
suau d’apòlegs que semblen rondalles d’infants. Tot això en una prosa
d’altíssim nivell, concientment depurada de vulgarismes i expressions
populars, car si aquestes hi abundessin no tindria la modernitat que
abans indicàvem. (339-340)

His is a personal style that also endows Catalan language with a large
and complex syntax, grappling with issues that had only applied previously
to the official classical language, Latin. Therefore, he becomes an essential
author for the configuration of the Catalan language. His prose is not con-
structed with short or juxtaposed sentences; rather, he makes ample use of
122 Cross-cultural Identity, Language Development, and Medieval Catalan Culture

subbordination. Nevertheless, the reader finds his style “approachable” for

Llull intersperses his prose with frequent references to his troubadour or chi-
valric experience. For instance, his Book or the Order of Chivalry combines
a poetic language with a didactic tone (Riquer 1947, 21). Thus, the philoso-
pher combines a linguistic depth with a theme that agrees with his doctrinal
formation, which is reflected in the manner in which he costructs his ideal
knight. This combination acts as a counterweight to overcome the dry frame-
work of scholastic philosophical discourse, making him the philosopher of
communication. Llull creates a language of impeccable syntax as asserted by
Martí de Riquer (Literatura catalana medieval 38), in addition to offering
a broad lexicon, often inventing words through derivation and abstraction,
utilizing an intelligent language constructed with perfect logic and syntactic
correction:

En una síntesis conceptual, podríamos decir que Llull es el filósofo de la

comunicación, lo cual, junto con notas como la curiosidad, la impacien-
cia, la postura crítica, el afán por la renovación—rayana en la contesta-
ción, pero siempre dentro de la ortodoxia—, o el acendrado racionalismo
hacen a este pensador alguien muy próximo a nosotros. (Butiñá 2012, 9)

His written production employs popular linguistic constructions (al-

though without making use of informal or vulgar expressions) many of which
come from the Occitan and Muslim traditions, as well as utilizes a Latinized
Catalan in relative clauses, abundant Latinisms or neologisms, among other
elements:

Para Ramón Llull la palabra es a veces un medio imperfecto porque no

puede “significar tanta de veritat con enteniment pot entendre,” si bien,
por otra parte, puede estar dotada de determinada belleza o de determi-
nada fealdad, graduación estética que no depende de la sonoridad ni de
los valores intrínsecos del vocablo. (Riquer 1972, 39)

In addition, his work produces a flexible style that abounds in examples

and visual diagrams or figures (here we can find the Arabic and algebra in-
fluence on Llull). There are many examples of its scientific flavor, which of-
fered him a multidisciplinary methodology when approaching the writing of
Catalan. All these features helped create a cohesive and innovative Catalan
language through identity and culture.
 Òscar O. Santos-Sopena 123

IV. Medieval Catalan culture

At this point it is necessary to highlight Llull’s conception of culture through
language. Llull’s work functions as a framework for the union between medi-
eval culture, the Humanist and Renaissance movements, and their continu-
ation in Baroque culture. His texts show a wide knowledge of Muslim and
Jewish cultures, precisely those that he yearns to evangelize. The style of Llull
does not refute the arguments of the opponent, but rather takes advantage of
the commonalities with other cultures to convince them of his way of think-
ing. Indeed, the Majorcan theologian helps understand and expedite the en-
try of humanist currents in the Iberian Peninsula. Nevertheless, critics do not
consider him a pure humanist since he does not assimilate the classical tradi-
tion nor shows proof of what we could term a “well-assimilated” classicism in
his thought. Llull lies behind the origins of Humanism because of his way of
understanding the Mediterranean and its way of knowing its traditions and
intertextualities.
But it is precisely because of this Mediterranean globality that the Hu-
manist movement will later develop fully that Ramon Llull is essential to
understanding how far one could come from a purely Scholastic thought
that accepted without further discussion the Aristotelian conception of the
world (Batllori, Llull 104-105). Llull can be termed a humanist forerunner:
“Ello no quiere decir que Llull tenga que ser considerado humanista, sino
que su recepción había comenzado firmemente en el primer Humanismo
lo cual además facilita la comprensión de su reaparición posterior, en pleno
Renacimiento y, a partir de él, en la modernidad” (Butiñá, Pensamiento lu-
liano 65-66). However, Llull interests us for his broad way of understanding
society and for being at the forefront of the theoretical development about
to take place in the late Middle Ages and at the beginning of the humanist
current in the Crown of Aragon:

The Llullist movement was a popular movement of Franciscan friars, sec-

ular clergy, merchants, and artisans especially in Valencia, Majorca, and
Catalonia. The kings of Aragon favored the development of Llullism,
perhaps as Carreras suggests, because they regarded it as a sort of national
philosophy. In any case Pedro IV in 1369 gave a privilege for a Llullist
school at Alcoy in Valencia, and in 1392 Juan I did the same for a school
at Barcelona. (O’Callaghan 636)

Llull is one of the most important representatives of the Catalan Middle

Ages. His moral and Christian philosophy must take into consideration the
124 Cross-cultural Identity, Language Development, and Medieval Catalan Culture

mystical components of his contemplation, which are essential for the con-
struction of his Art: “Gracias al sentido lógico que le da su filosofía, ha creado
un lenguaje de una precisión y de una exactitud raras en los romances in-
cipientes” (Riquer, Resumen 31). His Catalan and medieval cultural approach
is based on a global Mediterranean theoretical conception which is crucial
to undestand the literary, linguistic, cultural, philosophical, and social ex-
change characteristics of the humanistic movement to come:

Tras analizar los contactos de Llull con Sibiuda y san Agustín, concluye
la introducción a la nueva edición del estudio de los hermanos Carreras
i Artau: «Elements humanístics en Llull? Rigorosament parlant, encara
no. Però en la mesura que a l’interior de la teologia hi ha un discurs sobre
la dignitat natural de l’home creat i la dignitat sobrenatural de l’home
redimit, com a teòleg Llull ha recollit aquests aspectes,” p. 68. En rigor,
tampoco podría contestar a pregunta tan sutil, pero sí puedo decir que
he apreciado el signo positivo desde un ángulo no contemplado antes: su
influjo sobre un gran y primer humanista como es Metge. (Butiñá 2007,
65)

We should not forget that Llull constantly strives to show and rationally
prove medieval dogmas (within a medieval rhetorical frame) through the
knowledge of the Other. According to José Ramón Areces,

la pedra angular del pensament de Llull la trobem, més concretament, en

el conjunt de regles que l’autor ens proporciona, per a poder combinar
correctament els principis anteriors, i en la idea que l’enteniment ha de
transcendir els sentits, àdhuc transcendir-se ell mateix, de manera que
reconegui l’existència necessària de coses que no comprèn. Tot això es
veu emmarcat dintre de la tradicional idea medieval que Déu se’ns ha
revelat per mitjà de dos fonts: La Bíblia i el Llibre del món. Així doncs, el
coneixement de les perfeccions dels conceptes fonamentals de totes les
ciències no és altre que el coneixement directe de les perfeccions de Déu,
esdevenint el coneixement pura teologia. (Butiñá & Cortijo 2011, 84)

The Western poetic tradition already had achieved sublime results in
the troubadours and Provenzal literature, but it is not until the appearance
of Ramon Llull in the thirteenth century that Catalan prose came to frui-
tion. Lllul’s work includes many examples of the use Provenzal language, as
indicated Batllori: “Hauríem d’anomenar proveçal lleument catalanitzat”
 Òscar O. Santos-Sopena 125

(Batllori, Llull 4). Llull’s prose is mature and displays signs of moderniza-
tion. For instance, in his didactic and moralistic Book of the Order of Chiv-
alry, Llull offers us his concept of good knight through what we could term
(Catalan/ Provenzal) linguistic dynamism which became a model to follow
by subsequent authors, such as Libro del caballero et del  Escudero  (1326-
28), Tirant lo Blanch (1490), Los quatro libros del virtuoso caballero Amadís de
Gaula (1492), among others. He is also considered by many critics one of the
leading figures of European philosophical and literary thought in the Middle
Ages. In addition, his global Mediterranean perspective makes him perhaps
one of the most universal writers of the Iberian Peninsula, and establishes
him as a European and modern thinker at the same time:

Su pensamiento no solo constituye una suma—y de las más importantes

de la Edad Media—sino que enlaza con la modernidad; pues, aunque no
consiguió superar el armazón de la escolástica, en sus planeamientos y
talante se advierte una fuerte afinidad para con nuestro tiempo, así como
avanzarse a tendencias hoy principales. Así, incluso anuncia los tiempos
a venir, pudiendo ser hoy su figura símbolo de la armonía entre Oriente
y Occidente, uno de los grandes problemas que tiene planteado en nues-
tros días la humanidad. Llull nos permite pulsar lo que podía dar de sí,
hacia una línea de futuro, la mentalidad medieval. (Butiñá 2012, 9)

The idea of Llull’s maladjustment, often related to the question of his

modernity, often appears in this context. This remains a controversial notion,
in particular when related to the didactic/moralistic and chivalric elements
in Llull. Nonetheless, it is essential when it comes to understanding his phil-
osophical and theological stand during his process of writing:

Lo desconhort, el Cant de Ramon, el Liber natalis y el Phantasticus. En

su breve, pero informativa introducción, Julia Butiñá no sólo caracte-
riza y contextualiza las cuatro obras que el libro contiene, sino que pro-
pone la tesis de Ramón Llull como precursor del humanismo. Según la
editora, las obras reunidas en este libro manifestarían una “inquietud
característica por el desajuste de ambas tradiciones, clásica y cristiana”
(p. 14), propia del humanismo. Por sugerente que pueda resultar esta
interpretación, me parece que no acaba de hacer justicia a los textos aquí
editados y traducidos, que ciertamente manifiestan una “inquietud por
un desajuste,” pero, a mi modo de ver, no tanto entre la tradición “clásica
y cristiana,” sino entre la razón individual y colectiva. (Fidora 396)
126 Cross-cultural Identity, Language Development, and Medieval Catalan Culture

Llull’s philosophy merges medieval Catalan culture with its Hebrew,

Arab, and Christian heritage, and does not aim at refuting the differences
among the three cultural groups. His philosophy does not rely on authorities
or issues that are not known to the infidels, but rather looks for links and
connections among the three cultural traditions as a tool to demonstrate the
“superiority” of the Christian Faith. It is a philosophical approach based on
rationalist techniques:

De ahí que la razón, si bien es la capacidad más fuerte de que dispone el

ser humano, es a la vez infinitamente frágil y hace al ser racional suma-
mente vulnerable. Son esta fragilidad de la razón y la vulnerabilidad de
su portador las que se encuentran en el centro de los textos de este libro:
la falta de apoyo y reconocimiento al Ars de la que Llull se lamenta en
estos textos es, por lo tanto, mucho más que una decepción personal de
quien ve sus propuestas y proyectos intelectuales frustrados, y también
más que el sentimiento característico de una época concreta de la his-
toria. Estas obras son la sublime y conmovedora expresión literaria del
desajuste propio de una razón en busca de su reconocimiento intersub-
jetivo— una experiencia no sólo humanista, sino humana. (Fidora 397)

That is the main reason why Llull is of paramount interest to us. His
work is universal, as demonstrated in his search for rational structure, some-
thing that facilitates its universal understanding. Finally, his perspective is to
demonstrate questions of faith from the point of view of rational processes
as he himself states in works such as the Book of the Order of Chivalry, a work
that also showcases the utilization of didactic resources akin to the chival-
ric genre. His method of persuasion is stimulated by conflict and relies on
the use of language and a humanist methodology. This is what makes Llull’s
Christian humanist component even more interesting. It is also important to
highlight his use of sources and his capacity for reflecting on his own work, as
this represents a new way of thinking that was uncommon at the time.
The theologian, writer, philosopher and pedagogue Ramon Llull of-
fers the first cultural example of convergence in the Mediterranean world.
Llull’s influence among humanists, in the Crown of Aragon, as well as among
authors of the Renaissance and the Castilian Baroque, was already noticed
by Rubió i Lluch at the beginning of the twentieth century. By the middle
of the same century, Martí de Riquer and Nicolau d’Olwer insisted on the
same idea. Llull was for Bernat Metge what Dante represented for Boccac-
cio: “[Con la] Excepción hecha de Ramón Llull, los poetas líricos catalanes
 Òscar O. Santos-Sopena 127

no dejarán de ser, en principio, unos seguidores de los provenzales hasta que

el Renacimiento italiano nos traiga vientos renovadores y una nueva con-
cepción del hecho poético” (Riquer 48). Llull’s work should be considered
pivotal for understanding his period. His work transcends time and space, as
his writing is still examined and appreciated today. Llull was able to mark a
point of departure from medieval culture.

V. Conclusion
Ramon Llull is a figure of great European relevance. Llull is fundamental for
our research, as his work provides us with a new vision of medieval culture.
We can relate Llull’s spirit to the development of Humanism in Catalan and
Iberian Peninsula letters:

Al lado de Averroes, Llull es el único filósofo de gran talla nacido en

tierras españolas, ya que su doctrina y su método, a pesar de múltiples
luchas y entredichos, llegan hasta Leibnitz, con lo que se incorporan al
pensamiento moderno. Hombre de acción, su actividad es sorprendente.
[…] Llull consagra a ellos [sus ideales] su larga vida, su agudísima inteli-
gencia y su dilatado saber. (Riquer, Resumen 20)

Llull is the first author who expresses himself in a methodological, interdisci-

plinary, and dialogical way in Catalan literature. His work is paramount for
understanding language and culture. In reality, his works are religious and
philosophical texts masked as simple literary writing. As Vicent Martines
points out:

Perquè quant als moviments culturals, en general, i més encara quant als
que, com l’Humanisme són sinònims d’un veritable canvi de paradigma,
no hi ha ni una única font ni un precís moment de fundació, ans al con-
trari és una complexa xarxa d’afluents i de determinats i sempre nombro-
sos moments, que sovint són vides senceres, d’autors que en la seua hete-
rodòxia (com ara Llull) o en la seua sistematització de l’ortodòxia (com
ara Vidal de Besalú quant a la poètica trobadoresca, o Matfré Ermengaud
amb el seu Breviari d’Amor i d’altres “enciclopedistes medievals”) van
sembrar la llavor o són primers testimonis del que, ja coetàniament a ells,
amb Alighieri fa ser emmotllat de la manera que ja és acceptat com a Hu-
manisme (precoç o primer Humanisme). (Butiñá & Cortijo 2011, 386)
128 Cross-cultural Identity, Language Development, and Medieval Catalan Culture

Ramon Llull made a significant and impressive contribution to the de-

velopment of Catalan identity and language and is connected to the appear-
ance and development of Humanism in the Crown of Aragon. His cross-cul-
tural identity must be understaood as an exemplary effort that paved the way
for the introduction of Humanism in Catalan and Spanish literature. Many
later writers made use of Lull’s way of understanding language and identity
to create their own texts. Llull serves as an excellent example of how Iberian
peninsular literature was put into dialogue with a broader European milieu.

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