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Mechanics of Materials, 2nd Edition - Andrew Pytel, Jaan Kiusalaas
Mechanics of Materials, 2nd Edition - Andrew Pytel, Jaan Kiusalaas
Mechanics of Materials, 2nd Edition - Andrew Pytel, Jaan Kiusalaas
SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2002-01-2246
Reprinted From: Proceedings of the 2002 SAE International Body Engineering Conference
and Automotive & Transportation Technology Conference on CD-ROM
(IBAT2002CD)
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2002-01-2246
The pending End of Life Vehicle legislation (ELV) states Other rubber (seals
& hoses etc. 4%)
that by 2006, at least 85% of a vehicle must be reused Other(3.5%) Thermoplastics (8%)
or recycled, rising to 95% by 2015 [1]. In order to meet Fluids(1%) Polyurethane seat
foam (2%)
this quota vehicles will need to be dismantled and sorted Battery (1%)
further than they have ever been before. The majority of Thermoset plastics
(1.5%)
a vehicles mass comes from its ferrous metal content,
and this is readily recovered, leaving the lighter material Figure 1. Material composition of a typical 1990's
fractions for recovery {Figure 1}. As up to 2% of a European Car (Source: ACORD)
vehicles weight comes from its glass content- attempts
will be made to remove the glass and sort it. However,
as there is no market for used automotive glass [2]- 1, Reuse. Reused components such as engines,
where will it go? alternators, starter motors and radios. These are not
recycled by complete dismantling, but by cleaning and
preparing the parts for re-sale
PENDING LEGISLATION - The ELV directive is a
pending piece of EU legislation that states that by 2006, 2, Recovery. Material recovery for recycling. This
a minimum of 85% (by mass) of any motor vehicle must requires each specific material (including plastic type) to
be re-used1 or recovered2 when the end of life condition be separated for reprocessing into raw material
arrives [1]. Within the same time limit the reuse and
recycling shall be increased to a minimum of 80% by an
average weight per vehicle per year. By no later than
2015, this quota will rise to a minimum of 95% for reuse
Meeting the Criteria - It is already established that the
and recovery and the reuse and recycling level will rise
automotive industry achieves a recycling rate of
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approximately 75% (by mass) with regards to ELV's. also incorporates the fixing for the winding mechanism
This recycling percentage is higher than for any other {Figure 2}. The steel channel is not removable from the
industrial sector [3]. This is due to the fact that the glass and is not available as a spare part. When a
majority of the weight in a vehicle is from its steel separate door glass is purchased, the steel strip is
content, and this is relatively easy to sort {Figure 1}. A included. For recycling purposes it is desirable to
shredded vehicle is simply magnetically sorted to separate the glass from the steel strip for material
separate the scrap steel, and this is fairly effective. separation reasons. At present however, breaking the
There must be an emphasis placed on carefully sorting glass is the easiest way to remove it from the channel.
different materials from within the scrap steel stockpile to By incorporating some "Active Disassembly" principles
avoid a build up of 'tramp' elements. In particular, at the design stage, it can be made possible to easily
copper contamination must be avoided, but this will not remove the glass by using simple heat triggers.
be dealt with within the scope of this paper [see ref.4].
Where the problem lies, is in 'finding' the extra 10 % of
recyclate to meet the 2006 criteria. Approximately 1% of
a vehicles weight is from the battery, and this can be
removed easily for reprocessing and reuse.
Approximately 1% of the weight of a vehicle comes from
the fluids contained within the vehicle. These can be
removed by drilling the sump, gearbox and petrol tank
and sucking out the fluids and containing them
separately. Even the shock absorber fluid, coolant,
hydraulic fluids and screen wash can be removed and
contained for reprocessing. These fluids and the battery Figure 2. Ford Door Glass Retaining Channel
have to be removed under the new legislation (250mm scale)
regardless. It is compulsory to remove any hazardous
materials so that shredder residue does not get ACTIVE DISASSEMBLY
contaminated [5]. Tyres will also have to be removed
under the European Landfill Directive (app. 3% by
Active Disassembly using Smart Materials (ADSM) is
mass). From 2003 it will be prohibited to landfill whole
now a well proven concept that has been developed by
tyres, and from 2006 the ban will also apply to shredded
Chiodo at Brunel University since the mid nineties. The
tyres [6]. However, it is expected that the UK will delay
principle involves incorporating actuators or releasable
this implementation.
fastening solutions into host products to aid disassembly
when the end of life condition arises. Initially the project
Unfortunately this results in a total recovered mass of
scope took in consumer electronic products [8], but now
less than 80% (~79%). With glass making up
with the ELV directive pending, the project scope has
approximately 2% of the overall weight of a vehicle, this
expanded to take in automotive disassembly.
will be a material chosen for removal to help meet the
criteria. With 8-9 million tonnes of waste generated from
By incorporating actuators into a host product, the
scrap vehicles across the community annually, this could
product casing can be made to forcibly separate under a
lead to around 180,000 tonnes of waste glass generated
heat trigger, allowing the internal components to be
annually that has to have a destination other than
recovered. These actuators have typically been made
landfill. The problems are that firstly the glass is difficult
from shape memory alloys (SMA) such as Copper/
to remove, and secondly, there is no second use for
Zinc/Aluminium, or Nickel/ Titanium. These can be
waste automotive glass, so landfill appears to be the
formed into tiny actuators with no additional moving
only economic option.
parts. For example, looking like a coiled spring, they
can sit totally inert inside a product casing and will
Glass Retention - Glass is difficult to remove reliably extend under a certain temperature stimulus
completely without breakage. Avoiding breakage is {Figure 3}. As a broad summary, SMA's can exist in
critical in helping to meet the criteria, as it is not efficient two different shapes, and these can be switched by
usage of time to try and sweep out all the broken glass heat. The resultant shape change is known as the
fragments. Where windscreens used to typically be Shape Memory Effect (SME), and in the case of SMA,
retained by rubbers and chrome glamour strips; a there is a significant force associated with the SME. It is
modern screen is retained by a single part polyurethane this force that can be used to break assemblies. As
adhesive which allows the screen to contribute to the SMA devices are able to 'do work', they can be used as
chassis stiffness [7]. It is a similar story with regards to a replacement for motors and solenoids- and they are
rear screens and fixed quaterlight windows. However, typically 1000 times lighter than a comparable solenoid
door windows that are 'windable' are not retained in this [9]. A solenoid is essentially another type of actuator
way. Typically the glass is captured in a folded steel that could be used to facilitate active disassembly.
channel that is lined with a rubber strip. This traps the
glass securely due to the crimping force of the steel
channel and the surface friction of the rubber. The
rubber is also coated in an adhesive. The steel channel
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Alternative active disassembly solutions have been ACTIVE DOOR GLASS REMOVAL
engineered around shape memory polymers (SMP) [12].
Shape memory polymers are different to shape memory Door glass is retained in pressed steel channels. These
alloys in that instead of being able to exert a force when steel channels are crimped to a slip of rubber that holds
the shape memory effect (SME) occurs, they lose all the glass. The channel itself is bolted to the window
their mechanical properties and if allowed, recover a winding mechanism. Although wind-up windows still
pre-formed shape. SMP's have been successfully exist, most cars now incorporate power windows,
utilised in many ways including screws that lose their particularly at the front. By allowing easy glass removal
heads under thermal load {Figure 4}, screws that retract from the winding mechanism, not only is it possible to
their thread when heated and allow the screw to drop sort the glass for recycling or recovery, but it is possible
out, and shape memory rivets. As there is no force to easily remove the whole window winder assembly for
associated with the shape change of SMP, springs are recycling or reuse. A winder mechanism typically
often used to aid product separation. A good example of weighs about 1.5 kg, (1995 Ford Escort Ghia), there is a
this lies with the SMP snap-fit. This is a conventional total of 6kg (4 mechanisms) of easily recoverable
cylindrical shaped snap fit as used on many product material. New glass can simply be re attached to an
casings. In this instance, the snap fastening is made existing winder mechanism.
from SMP, with a biasing spring loading the joint. This
fixing then remains inert in the product. When the joint
reaches the glass transition temperature (Tg) the SMP
loses all its integrity, and the force of the spring takes SHAPE MEMORY POLYMER SOLUTION - To
over, separating the joint and pushing the product casing incorporate active disassembly into the door glass area,
apart. the crimped channel must be redesigned without
compromising the existing vehicle specification. In the
first series of experiments, the rubber slip that sits in the
steel channel was replaced with a shape memory
polymer slip. This slip was crimped to the glass in the
same way that the rubber channel was retained. This
means that there is significant pressure applied to the
polymer strip to retain the glass {Figure 5}. The system
was assembled and tested for its release properties. It
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was found that upon heating, the SMP strip would the window was wound up and down. Due to the high
'spread' under the small area where high pressure was transition temperature of the Ni-Ti clips (120 0c), the part
applied. This would decrease the loading on the glass, also meets the Ford specification for the assembly [15].
allowing it to pull free. The Active Disassembly concept
here was a success.
is not seen as renewable. If a hilltop is removed for its remove. By incorporating active disassembly, not only
rock, the hilltop will not grow again…[19]. will it be possible to increase recycling percentages, but
it will also be possible to cut recycling time.
Glass is ideal for coastal projects for many reasons. It is
totally inert so it will not affect wildlife or contaminate the REFERENCES
water. It is thermally stable so it will not be prone to
cracking or any dimensional change associated with [1] Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament
ambient temperatures. And perhaps most importantly, it and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on end-of life
can safely erode. It can absorb energy from the waves vehicles, article 7
as a coastal defence mechanism, and as it erodes, it
merely returns to the silica from whence it came- a [2] Ian Gaskin, Environmental Director- Universal
complete cycle. Salvage Services
CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK [3] Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT).
[13] Irie, M. Shape Memory Polymers. In, Shape [19] Brian Waters, Consultant Engineer, Posford
Memory Materials, Ed by Otsuka and Wayman. Pp 203- Duvivier
207, Cambridge University Press 1998,
CONTACT
[14] Company Literature. Winfield, Innovative Liquid
Cast Solutions Nicholas Jones.
[16] Department of the Environment Transport and the Fax +44(0) 1784-432777
Regions, Waste Strategy- Report of the Market
Development Group. nick.jones@brunel.ac.uk
http://www.environment.detr.gov.uk/waste/strategy/mdg/
report/4.htm http://www.brunel.ac.uk/research/adsm