TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

Presented By:

PROF. ELSAYED HASSAN SHEHAB_ELDIN

RIYADH

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TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
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 10-14/6 / 2006

CONTENTS
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Ch. Ch. Title Ch. Page
No. No.
1 TRANSFORMER THEORY 3
2 TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION 29
3 TRANSFORMERS TYPES AND OPERATION 54
4 TRANSFORMERS COOLING 71
5 TRANSFORMERS TESTING 87
6 TRANSFORMERS MAINTENANCE 106
7 PROTECTIVE RELAYING PRINCIPLES 136
8 POWER TRANSFORMER PROTECTION 187

9 TRANSFORMER DIGITAL BIASED 197

DIFFERINTIAL PROTECTION

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 1. ONE

TRANSFORMER THEORY
Size and uses, Mutual inductance, Magnetic circuit, e.m.f., Core losses, Voltage drop, Equivalent circuit,
load, No load losses, Short circuit losses, Efficiency, Regulation

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 1. ONE
TRANSFORMER THEORY

1. Use of the Transformer

The part played by the transformer in making possible the a.c. distribution of
electrical energy has been mentioned already. It has been said that almost the
entire world production of electrical energy is transformed twice, thrice, or
even four times before being utilized. The annual output of transformers in
Britain is 10000000KVA. The wide field covered is indicated by the
following list;
Size and Uses of Transformers
Type Application Order of Size,
KVA.
Power Generator …………………………. 60 000 upwards
Main high-voltage transmission lines 50 000 upwards
Secondary transmission lines 10 000-60 000
Bulk supply to large consumers 500-20 000
Distribution 50- 2 000
House 0.5- 25

Plant Converter, rectifier, stator, furnace, Wide range

testing unit 500-3 000
Traction (locomotive)

Special unit Instrument transformers Fractional

Small mains, lamp, radio-feed, bell Fractional
transformers
Welding, neon - sign 1-100

The physical basis of the transformer is mutual induction between two

circuits linked by a common magnetic field. Small coreless transformers as
used with high-frequency currents are more susceptible to treatment directly
on this basis, while power transformers have characteristics that enable
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simplifying assumptions to be made, but which may cause the physical
principle to be obscured. The general case illustrates more directly, perhaps,
the physical principles involved.

2. Mutual Induction
An electric circuit carrying a current has associated with it, as a part of the
electrical phenomenon of current flow, a magnetic field in its immediate
neighborhood. If the current in the circuit is alternating, then the magnetic
field at any point in the surrounding medium will change in magnitude and
direction in accordance with the changes of current with time.
If another circuit (the secondary) be in the neighborhood of the first (the
primary), it will link some of the magnetic flux produced by the primary
(Fig. 1.1). With an alternating primary current (and therefore flux) the
changing linkages will produce in the secondary an e.m.f proportional with
number of turns N.

Figure 1.1 Mutual Induction

The e.m.f is said to be produced by reason of the mutual induction of the
primary and secondary circuits. A similar effect will naturally take place if
the respective roles of the two circuits are interchanged, and it is shown in
textbooks of electrical technology that the mutual inductance is the same
irrespective of which circuit is primary and which secondary, in any given
case. The coefficient of mutual inductance in henrys may be defined as the
e.m.f. in volts induced in one circuit when the current in the other is changed
at the rate of 1 A. per sec. or the energy in the common magnetic field in
joules when each circuit carries 1 A.
The mutually induced e.m.f. in the secondary circuit will, if the circuit be
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closed through a load, circulate current in the load and dissipate energy
therein. This energy can come only from the primary, to which the whole
operation is due. Thus energy is being transferred from primary to secondary
by means of the mutual magnetic field. This is important, and is the
principle underlying the transformer effect. The process briefly is: the
primary produces a pulsating magnetic field in which energy is stored and
restored periodically. The e.m.f and the current associated with it in the
secondary circuit abstract energy from the common field and pass it on to
the secondary load. If there is no secondary load the magnetic field energy
passes into and out of the primary circuit as a continual pulsation of energy
from electrical to and from magnetic form.
The more closely the primary and secondary circuits are mutually linked, the
more direct becomes the exchange of energy between them, If the two
circuits link a common iron core. (Fig. 1.2), the effects are;

Figure 1.2 Increase of Mutual Induction by Iron Core

(a) A great increase in the total flux by virtue of the improved permeance of
the magnetic circuit;
(b) A smaller magnetizing current (i.e. primary current with secondary open-
circuited), since the increased flux per ampere induces more primary e.m.f.
(c) A much greater proportion of mutual to non-mutual or leakage flux the
latter has air paths whereas the former occupies the permeable iron core,
(d) The introduction of losses in the core, so that the field can no longer be
established without loss.
The voltage applied to the primary is almost completely concerned in
opposing the induced e.m.f. due to the mutual flux, so that if the primary
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voltage is constant, the mutual flux remains approximately constant
regardless of the load connected across the secondary coil.

Linked Electric and Magnetic Circuit

The power transformer is required to pass electrical energy from one circuit
to another, via the medium of the pulsating mutual magnetic field, as
efficiently and economically as possible. Our knowledge of magnetic
materials indicates the use of iron or steel for the conveyance of the flux
with much greater ease than any other known material. The coils are
therefore made to embrace an iron core, which serves as a good conducting
path for the mutual magnetic flux, ensuring that the flux links each coil
fairly completely.

Figure 1.3 Linked Electric and Magnetic Circuit

The elementary linked circuits are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.2. The
use of an iron core permits of much greater freedom in the shape and
arrangement of the primary and secondary coils, since the great majority of
the flux will be conveyed by the core almost regardless of the relative
positions of the two sets of coils -primary and secondary- that link it. In
practice, two general forms are usual: these are obtained from the simple
linked circuits
(a) of Fig. 1.3 by splitting either the coils
(b) or the core
(c) to give the core and shell types, of which the elementary forms are shown
for single-phase transformation. In core types, to avoid undue leakage flux,
it is usual to have half the primary and half the secondary winding side side-
by-side or concentrically on each limb not primary on one limb and
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secondary on the other. The form of the transformer construction is
determined by the constructional methods employed and by the control of
the leakage flux.

Figure 1.4a Core-Type Transformers

Three-phase transformers are developed from. single-phase types as in Figs.

1.4a and 1.4b. The three-phase shell arrangement is merely three single-
phase transformers assembled together. The three-phase core type, on the
other hand, embodies the principle that the sum of the fluxes in each phase
in a given direction along the cores is zero, i.e. that the flux going up one
limb can be returned down the other two. Thus only one-half of a complete
magnetic circuit is necessary for each phase. Each set of phase windings
occupies one limb only.

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 Figure 1.4b Shell-Type Transformers

The core type is more easily repaired on site, by removing the yoke, which
permits the inspection of the coils and cores. The shell type is more robust
mechanically since the coils are more readily braced. The radial shell type
employs simple round coils, and the cooling is good, particularly for the
iron.
A method of construction developed in America for small distribution
transformers up to about 5KVA. employs cores comprising long continuous
strips of sheet steel, wound round the coils as shown in Fig.1.4c. The core
winding requires special machinery, but the advantages include reduction of
joints and the use of the grain-direction of the steel for the flux-path.

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 Figure 1.4c Wound-Core Transformer

3. Theory of the Power Transformer

Power transformers for normal purposes can be considered to work with an
approximately constant mutual or main flux. Since the resistance of the
windings is always small, and the leakage flux (not linking both windings
and therefore not contributing to the transformer-action) is only a small
fraction (e.g. 5 per cent) of the total, the resistance and leakage reactance
voltage drops are small compared with the reactance due to the mutual flux.
Approximately, therefore, the whole of the applied voltage is absorbed in
circulating the primary current against the e.m.f induced by the main flux.
This e.m.f. is

E.M.F = 4.44fNФ

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Obviously the primary and secondary e.m.f bear the same ratio as the turns,
or;
E1/E2 =N1/N2
Further, considered with respect to the common flux which produces them,
both e.m.f’s are in phase. It appears that the e,m,f’s lag by 90° in time on
the flux. The applied primary voltage V1 opposes E1 while E2 provides the
secondary output voltage V2. Thus V1 and V2 are substantially in phase-
opposition.

At normal loads the m.m.f required to maintain the main flux is small
compared with the m.m.f. of either current alone. Consequently the primary
and secondary m.m.f.’s substantially balance each other, or
I1N1 = I2N2
whence
I1/I2 =N2/N1
a relation inverse to that for the e.m.f’s. The relative phase of the currents is
that of opposition, since their m.m.f’s oppose.

Figure 1.5 Elementary Transformer

The action of the transformer can be summarized as follows; Let an

alternating voltage V1 be applied to primary coil of N1 turns linking a suitable
iron core figure 11. A magnetizing reactive current then flow in the coil,
establishing a flux Ф in the core and small additional fluxes elsewhere,
neglected for a first consideration). The magnitude of Ф is such that it
induces in the coil an e.m.f E1 of self-induction to counterbalance the applied
voltage V1 and establish electrical equilibrium. If there be a secondary coil of
N2 turns, linking the same core, then by mutual induction an e.m.f E2 is
developed therein. Should a load (i.e. an impedance of some finite value) be
connected to the second coil, a current I2 will flow in the secondary circuit
under the influence of the induced e.m.f. E2. The secondary current will, by
Lenz’s law, tend to reduce the pulsating flux Ф , but this is prevented by an
immediate and automatic adjustment of the primary current I1, thereby
maintaining the flux Ф at the value required to produce the e.m.f. of self-
induction E1.

Any reduction of the flux would cause a diminution of E1 leaving a voltage-

difference between V1 and E1 which would be sufficient to increase the
primary current and thereby re-establish the flux.
Thus any current which flows in the secondary causes its counterpart to flow
in the primary, it being a condition of working of the transformer that the
flux Ф shall always be maintained at a value such that the voltage V1 applied
to the primary terminals shall balanced by the induced e.m.f E1, neglecting
drops. It is, therefore, evident that energy is conveyed from primary to
secondary by the flux; the primary stores energy in the magnetic field, and
an extraction of some of this for the secondary load is made up by the
addition of energy from the primary, which consequently takes an increased
current. Since the input to the transformer is V1I1 = E1I1 volt-amperes, and
the output is E2I2, then
E1I1 = E2I2,
Neglecting losses, whence

I2/I1 =E1/E2 =N1/N2

a relation which neglects also the magnetizing current demanded by the
imperfection of the core. From the above equation it follows that I2N2 =I1N1
or that the m.m.f’s of the primary and secondary windings are equal. They
are also in magnetic opposition on account of the phase-opposition of I1 and
I2.
 Figure 1.6 Phasor Diagram: Ideal Transformer

In an ideal transformer, there are no voltage drops in resistance or leakage

reactance, the m.m.f required to maintain the main flux is vanishingly small,
and there is no core loss. In these circumstances, the above equation holds
exactly, and the phase relations are the simple ones shown in Fig. 1.6, Here
V1, the applied primary voltage, is equal in magnitude, and in exact phase
opposition, with E1. E2=V2 the secondary terminal voltage. According to the
nature of the secondary load, the phase and magnitude of the secondary
current I2 will be determined. The m.m.f. is proportional to I2N2. To this, the
primary m.m.f. I1N1 will be equal and opposite.
Example
The core of a three-phase, 50 cycle, 11000/550V, delta/star 300kVA, core-
type transformer has a gross cross-section of 400cm2 . Find;
a) the number of HV and LV turns
b) the E.M.F per turn
c)the full load HV and LV phase currents
the core density should not exceed 1.3 Wb/m2
Solution
Do it your self

4. The Complex Diagram

Much of the behaviour and operating characteristics of the transformer can
be derived from its "vector" diagram. It is also convenient for introducing
the modifications due to the divergence from the "ideal" state of the actual
transformer.
5. Magnetizing Current and Core Loss
Although the iron core is highly permeable, it is not possible to generate a
magnetic field in it without the application of at least a small m.m.f. Thus
even when the secondary winding is on open circuit and giving no current, a
small magnetizing current is needed to maintain the magnetic circuit or core
in the magnetized state. The magnetizing m.m.f is a function of the length,
the net cross-sectional area, and the permeability of the iron path. The m.m.f.
of the primary circuit on no load is of the order of 5 per cent of its m.m.f. on
full load.
The magnetizing current (symbol Ior) is to be considered as in time phase
with its associated flux: a reasonable assumption, as when there is no
magnetizing current, and consequently no m.m.f., there will be no flux (See
Fig. 1.7) For present purposes Ior is considered to be sinusoidal, although this
is not the case for the saturation values normally employed in practice.
The pulsation of the flux in the core is productive of core loss, due to
hysteresis and eddy-currents. The continuous loss of energy to the core,
which produces heat eventually dissipated from the transformer, requires a
continuous supply from the electrical source to which the primary is
connected. Since the only way in which an electric circuit can furnish energy
is for a current to flow under the influence of a voltage, there must be a
current component Ioa which supplies the losses. The product E1 Ioa thus
represents the power input to supply core loss. The voltage E1 is concerned
(rather than V1) because this is the voltage directly associated with the
magnetic flux.
 Figure 1.7 No-Load Phasor Diagram

On no load, the currents Ior for magnetization and Ioa for losses will flow.
The currents are in phase quadrature, since one is in phase with Ф while the
other is in the direction of E1, which in turn is in phase-quadrature to Ф. The
components Ioa and Ior, have as resultant the no-load current Io, so that
Io = Ior 2
+ Ioa 2

The reactive component of the no-load current, Ior cannot physically be

dissociated from the active component Ioa, for the latter is an essential part of
the magnetization of the core, accounting for the hysteresis and eddy-current
effects which modify and complicate the phenomenon of magnetization in a
ferrous metal.
The no-load current makes a phase-angle фo of the order of arc (cos 0.2)
with the applied voltage V1.

6. Voltage Drop in Resistance and Leakage Reactance

The practical transformer has coils of finite resistance. In large transformers
the effect of the resistance in causing a voltage drop is nearly negligible, but
the I2R loss due to the same cause is of great importance in design, as
producing the major portion of the load losses that must be dissipated by the
cooling and ventilating system.
The resistance of the transformer windings is actually distributed uniformly,
but may conveniently be conceived as concentrated. The drop across the
resistance r1 of the primary winding is then I1r1 and this has to be provided
for by a component of the applied voltage under all conditions in order that
the current can be made to circulate through the winding. Similar
considerations apply to the secondary resistance voltage I2r2.
The leakage reactance is not so readily appreciated. Magnetic flux cannot be
confined into a desired path so completely as an electric current. The greater
proportion (i.e. the mutual flux) is

Figure 1.8 Leakage Flux

produced in the core provided for it, but a small proportion (Fig. 1.8) called
the leakage flux links one or other winding, but not both, so that it does not
contribute to the transfer of energy from primary to secondary. On account
of the leakage flux, however, both primary and secondary windings have
leakage reactance, that is, each will become the seat of an e.m.f of self-
induction, of magnitude a small fraction (e.g. 3 per cent) of the e.m.f. due to
the main flux. The terminal voltage V1 applied to the primary must therefore
have a component I1x1 to balance the primary leakage e.m.f. In the
secondary, similarly, an e.m.f. of self-induction is developed, which can be
considered as additional to E2; alternatively, the reversed drop I2x2 can be
introduced to take account of the leakage reactance.
The primary and secondary coils in Fig. 1.8 are shown on separate limbs, an
arrangement that would result in an exceptionally large leakage. Physically
the leakage flux is the result of the opposing ampere-turn distributions of
both windings, and its subdivision into separate components, one for each
winding, though arbitrary, is convenient.

Leakage between primary and secondary could be eliminated if the windings

could be made to occupy the same space. This, of course, is physically
impossible, but an approximation to it is achieved if the coils of primary and
secondary are sectionalized and interleaved: such an arrangement leads to a
marked reduction of the leakage reactance. If, on the other hand, the primary
and secondary are kept separate and widely spaced, there will be much more
room for leakage flux and the leakage reactance will be greater. It is thus
possible to control the reactance within limits.

7. The Equivalent Circuit

The transformer shown, diagram in Fig. 1.9 (a) can be resolved into an
equivalent circuit (b) in which the resistance and leakage reactance of
primary and

Figure 1.9 Equivalent Circuit

secondary respectively are represented by the "lumped r1, x1, r2 and x2 and,
as if these were external to a transformer of which the windings were
without resistance and leakage. Similarly a shunt circuit ro and xo can be
introduced such that E1/ro =Ioa and E1/xo =Ior the two quadrature components
of the magnetizing current. The windings of the transformer are now “ideal,"
and represent the seat of the induced e.m.f’s E1 and E2, which are related by
the expression E1/E2 =N1/N2 the turn-ratio.
Suppose N1=N2, then E1 =E2, and the two sides of the transformer may be
joined in parallel (c) and the energy transmitted from primary to secondary
without a transformer at all (d). The circuit. Fig. 1.9 (d), represents exactly
the electrical characteristics of a transformer with unity turn-ratio: that is, the
resistance and reactance voltages, no-load current, core and I2R losses, are
reproduced and give the same characteristics as the transformer.
An equivalent circuit is useful for calculations of regulation, parallel
operation, ete. Since in the majority of cases the turn-ratio is not unity, it is
necessary to imagine the actual secondary winding of N1 turns replaced by
an equivalent winding of N2 turns, for which the I2R loss and the per unit or
percentage reactance voltage must be the same as in the actual secondary.
For this, the equivalent secondary must have resistance r2’ and leakage
reactance x 2’ such that
r1’ = r2 (N1/N2)2
x1’ = x2 (N1/N2)2

The current I2’ in the equivalent secondary is very nearly I1 for in Fig. 1.9(d)
the shunt current Io is, at normal loads, only a small fraction of I1.
The equivalent secondary is thus obtained from the actual secondary by
multiplying its resistance and reactance by the square of the turn-ratio. The
output voltage V2’ is N1/N2 times as great as the actual secondary voltage V2
on account of the change in turn-ratio to unity.
The argument above can be reversed if it be desired to consider a
transformer as comprising the actual secondary winding and an equivalent
primary of N2 turns.

Example
The full-load of loss on the HV side of a 300KVA, 11000/550V, delta/star
three-phase transformer is 1.86KW; and on the LV side it is l.44KW
Calculate:
(a) r1, r2 and r2’ for phase values throughout.
(b) The total reactance is 4 per cent: find x1, x2 and x2’ if the reactance is
divided in the same proportion as the resistance.
Solution
Do it your self
8. Transformer on Load
It would be inconvenient to draw the diagram of a transformer using the
actual numerical values of current and voltage, particularly if the step-up or
step-down ratio were large. The diagram is drawn for the equivalent
transformer, making the voltages and currents of primary and secondary
comparable.
In Fig. 1.10, then, the Фm represents the main or mutual flux, considered to
be of constant peak value: a close approximation to actuality in transformers
of normal design. The e.m.f’s induced in the primary and equivalent
secondary windings are respectively E1 and E2 which lag by 90° on Фm and
are equal in magnitude by definition of equivalence. The current Io is that
which,

flowing in the N1 turns of the primary, produces the requisite exciting

ampere-turns, and which contains an active component to supply the core
loss.
The load connected to the secondary terminals is assumed to be such as to
permit the current I’2 to flow in the equivalent secondary circuit. The
primary current must be such as to balance on the magnetic circuit the
ampere-turns of the secondary, leaving as resultant the essential Io. Thus the
primary current will be the vector sum of Io and -I’2 indicated in Fig. 16 by
I1.
It is now possible to obtain the terminal voltage. On the primary side, the
applied voltage V1 must have the components: (a) –E1 to neutralize E1 the
e.m.f. due to induction by Фm; (b) I1r1 to circulate the current through the
resistance of the primary winding; and (c) I1x1 a component to overcome the
e.m.f. Ex1 of leakage reactance. Ex1 is due to the pulsation of the primary
leakage flux, which is in phase with (and due to) the primary current.
Building up these three components, then V1 is obtained as the primary
applied voltage: it makes the angle Ф1 with the primary current.
On the secondary side it must be observed that the e.m.f. E’2 resembles that
of a generator, since the current I’2 in the secondary circuit is circulated by
it, against the load impedance together with the resistance and leakage
reactance of the secondary winding. Thus E’2 comprises three components:
(a) the terminal voltage V’2; (b) the resistance voltage I’2r’2 and (c) leakage
reactance voltage I’2x’2, which opposes the e.m.f. Ex2 of secondary leakage.
The phase relationships of the secondary resistance and reactance voltages to
the secondary current are naturally the same as those of the primary drops
and current. The drops are such as to reduce V1 to E1 and E’2 to V’2.
The secondary terminal phase-difference Ф2 between V’2 and I’2 is settled by
the impedance of the secondary load. The angle was presumed known in
drawing the diagram, and inspection of Fig. 1.10 will show that, since V1 and
not Фm (and E1) is known to start with, the diagram would involve
geometrical construction if drawn strictly from measurable values.
For a power transformer of more than a few KVA., the magnitudes of the
voltage drops and the no-load current in Fig. 1.10 are exaggerated. On full
load, the resistance and reactance voltages of each winding are generally of
the order of ½ and 2.5 per cent (0-005 and 0-025 p.u.) respectively, and the
no-load current about 5 per cent (0.05 p.u.) of the full-load current. For
miniature
transformers of a few volt-amperes, considerable increases in these figures
may be expected.
 Figure 1.10 Phasor Diagram of Transformer On Load

9. Efficiency
The transformer is not called upon to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy or vice versa, and consequently has no moving parts. The
losses are confined to;
Core Loss, due to the pulsation of the magnetic flux in the iron producing
eddy-current and hysteresis losses.
I2R Loss, due to the heating of the conductors by the passage of the current;
Stray Loss, due to stray magnetic fields causing eddy currents in the
conductors or in surrounding metal (e.g. the tank);
Dielectric Loss in the insulating materials, particularly in the oil and the
solid insulation of high-voltage transformers.
No Load Losses
On no load the secondary circuit is open, and the primary current is Io only.
The I2R loss due to this is in most oases quite negligible: e.g. the I2R loss at
full load may be of the order of 1 per cent of the rated capacity; since the no-
load current is only about one-twentieth of the full-load current, the I2R loss
due to it is only (with these figures) 1/400 of 1 per cent.
The power input on no load is consequently concerned with the core and
dielectric loss, the latter being negligible except for very high voltage
transformers for testing. The induced e.m.f E1 is almost equal numerically
to the applied voltage V1.

Figure 1.11 Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Diagram: No Load

Short Circuit Losses

Consider the phasor diagram in Fig. 1.12. Suppose the voltage V1 be reduced
to a small fraction of normal value (for safety) and the secondary terminals
be short-circuited. A current will circulate in the secondary winding, but the
terminal voltage V’2 will vanish by reason of the short circuit. E’2 will be
concerned solely in neutralizing the small impedance voltage I’2z’2 (since V1
and therefore E2 and Фm are small). On the primary side, the current I1 is
roughly equal and in phase opposition to I2, while Io almost vanishes when
the flux is so reduced. The applied voltage has components I1r1, I1x1 and
-E1= -E’2 =-I’2z’2. The conditions are shown in Fig. 1.12.
The applied voltage on short circuit is seen to be, very nearly;
V1=I1z1 + (-E1) = I1z1 + (-I’2z’2)
=I1 (z1 +z’2) =I1Z1
since I1 =- I’2, Reference to the equivalent circuit of Fig. 15 (d), assuming
the secondary terminals short-circuited and the shunt circuit xo, ro absent,
shows that the simple circuit remaining has a voltage V1 applied to an
impedance z1 and z2 in series, so that;

V1=I1 (z1_z’2)
which is the same as the previous phasor expression.

If V1 be adjusted so that I1, has its full load value (requiring the applied
voltage to be 0.05 – 0.1 p.u. of rated value), the e.m.f. E1 and E2 are very
small (0.025 – 0.05 p.u. of normal no-load values) and the flux is
proportionally reduced.

Figure 1.12 Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Diagram: Short Circuit

The core loss, which is proportional approximately to the square of the flux-
density, is consequently negligible, and so is the magnetizing current.
The omission of the shunt part of the equivalent circuit is therefore justified
for a consideration of short-circuit conditions. The power input on short-
circuit is absorbed in heating the coils: i.e. the I2R loss of both primary and
secondary windings together. In any measurement of short-circuit power
input, the stray loss is included, because with normal currents circulating in
the windings, the leakage fluxes are also normal (or nearly so), and the stray
eddy losses produced by them will be included in the power input.

Efficiency on Load
With transformers of normal design, the flux varies only a few per cent
between no-load and full-load conditions. Consequently it is permissible to
regard the core loss as constant, regardless of load. Let this loss be Pi.
If the short-circuit loss in I2R with full-load S KVA be Pc the loss for any
other load (neglecting magnetizing current) will be x2Pc, where x is the per-
unit load considered. Thus at half full-load, the I2R loss will be ¼ Pc.

The total loss at any load xS KVA at power factor cos Ф is Pi +x2Pc, and the
efficiency is;

η = (xS cos Ф )/ ((xS cos Ф ) +Pi + x2Pc)

= 1- ( Pi + x2Pc) /(xS cos Ф )+ Pi + x2 Pc))
The second form is better for the purposes of calculation, since transformer
efficiencies are very high and it is easier to figure the divergence from unity.
In a case such as this, where the loss comprises a constant part and a part
varying as the square of the load, differentiation shows that maximum
efficiency occurs when the variable loss is equal to the constant loss, i.e.
x2Pc = Pi.

Fig 1.13 Efficiency Curve

Maximum efficiency therefore occurs at the fraction x of the full-load rating

S where
x = √Pi/Pc per-unit
Generally x < 1, so that maximum efficiency occurs below full load. The
choice of x is a matter for the designer, and depends on the service for which
the transformer is to be designed. Thus with P = 3Pi, the load for maximum
C

efficiency is √(l/3) = 0.58 of full load.

Theses equations show that the efficiency is dependent on the power factor
cos Ф of the load. Greatest efficiency is obtained naturally when the load is
non-reactive. If the load is purely reactive, or approximates to tills (as in
cable testing), the efficiency may be very low. This emphasizes the fact that
a.c. machines are built to produce voltage and current, and their size depends
on the voltage and current values demanded, not upon the phase relationship
between them. Fig. 1.13 is a typical efficiency characteristic. It is drawn for
a transformer with 0.005 p.u. core loss. and 0.015 p.u. full-load I2R loss, for
loads of power factor unity, 0-8 and 0-6 respectively, and is constructed
from calculations based on the above equations, as follows;

Example A 300KVA. transformer has a core loss of 1.5 KW. and full load
I2R loss of 4.5KW. calculate the efficiency for ¼ , ½ , ¾, 1 and 1.25 times
full load output at power factors of (a) unity, (b) 0.8, and (c) 0.6
respectively,

Do it your self
Regulation
The regulation of a transformer refers to the change of secondary terminal
voltage between no-load and load conditions; it is usually quoted as a per
cent or per-unit value for full-load at given power factor.

On no load, V1 = E1=E’2 = V’2 numerically, as will be seen from the diagram

in Fig, 1.11. Thus the voltage at the secondary terminals on no load is
obtained from V’2 (or V1) by multiplying by the turn-ratio N1/N2.
On load, the drop I1z1 is subtracted from V1 to obtain E1= E’2, then a further
drop I’2z’2 is deducted to obtain V’2. Neglecting the no-load current, I’2 = I1,
and both drops in the form I1(z1+z’2) may be deducted directly from V1 to
obtain V’2. This process is illustrated by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 1.14
(a), which neglects the shunt circuit carrying Io, and in which it is obvious
that V’2 =V1 – (I1(z1 +z’2)

Thus the regulation is given by the numerical difference V1 –V’2. The phasor
diagrams, Fig. 1.14(b), are drawn to show the conditions obtaining in the
equivalent circuit, and in these diagrams the regulation is greatly
exaggerated. In all normal transformers the drop I1(z1 +z’2) for full-load
current is only a small fraction of V1. A diagram drawn more nearly in
proportion is given in Fig. 1.15(a).
Assuming that the angle Θ between V’2 and V1 is negligible, the numerical
voltage difference between V1 and V’2 can be written;
 V1 –V’2 =I1 (r1 +r’2) cos Ф + I1( x1 +x’2) sin Ф
=I1R1 cos Ф + I1X1 sin Ф
where R1=(r1+r’2), is the total resistance in primary terms
and X1= (x1+x’2), is the total reactance in primary terms

Figure 1.15 Regulation

 Figure 1.16 Calculation of Regulation

The per-unit regulation, for full-load rated output S and full-load current I1
is;

ε = (I1R1 cos Ф +I1X1 sin Ф)/V1

= (I1R1cos Ф)/V1 + (I1X1 sin Ф)/V1

In the first of these terms I1R/V1 = I12R/V1I1 = Pc/S = εr

In the second term I1Z1/V1 εx

The per-unit regulation is therefore

ε = εr cos Ф + εx sin Ф
and the angle Ф refers to the load phase-angle at the secondary terminals.
The full-load regulation at various power-factors is shown for a typical case
in Fig.1.17.

Figure 1.17 Regulation Curve