COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

 Embryonic origin
- dermis arises from the dermatome
- segmented epimeres (somites) divide to give rise to the sclerotome medially and the dermatome laterally
- inner cells of the dermyotome becomes rearranged into the myotome

 Dermis
• The dermis of many vertebrates produces plates of
bone directly through intramembranous ossification.
• known as dermal bones
• prominent in the ostracoderm fishes
• collagen fibers - is the most conspicuous component;
may be woven into distinct layers known as plies.
• plies - collagen fibers which are woven into distinct
layers; found in amphioxus; laminated together like warp and weft of
threads to prevent the skin from sagging
• Fibrous Connective Tissue - most conspicuous component of the dermis;
composed mostly of collagen fibers
• Among sharks the bundles of collagen lie at angles to each other, giving the skin
a bias, like cloth
• the skin stretches when it is pulled at an angle oblique to the direction of the
bundles
• In fishes and aquatic vertebrates, including cetaceans and aquatic squamates
• collagen fibers of the dermis are usually arranged in orderly plies that form a
recognizable stratum compactum
• In terrestrial vertebrates
• stratum compactum is less obvious because locomotion on land depends more on
the limbs and less on the trunk
• any wrinkling of the skin is less disruptive to a terrestrial vertebrate moving through
air

 Epidermis
• epidermis of many vertebrates produces mucus to moisten the surface of the skin
• In fishes, mucus seems to afford some protection from bacterial infection and helps ensure the laminar flow of
water across the body surface.
• In amphibians, mucus probably serves similar functions and additionally keeps the skin from drying during the
animal’s sojourns on land.
• terrestrial vertebrates
• epidermis forms an outer keratinized or cornified layer
• to address life in a drying and abrasive terrestrial environment
• Keratinization and formation of a stratum corneum occur where friction or direct mechanical abrasion insult the
epithelium.
• The stratum corneum may be differentiated into hair, hooves, horn sheathes, or other specialized cornified
structures.
• keratinizing system - elaborate interaction of epidermis and dermis that produces the orderly transformation
• scales form within the integument of many aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates
• Scales are basically folds in the integument.
• If dermal contributions predominate the form of ossified dermal bone is termed a dermal scale.
• An epidermal fold, especially in the form of a thickened keratinized layer, produces an epidermal scale.

 Phylogeny of the Fish Integument

• the skin of most living fishes is non-keratinized and covered instead by mucus
• The “teeth” lining the oral disk of lampreys, the jaw coverings of some herbivorous minnows, and the friction
surface on the belly skin of some semi-terrestrial fish are all keratinized derivatives.
• in most living fishes, the epidermis is alive and active on the body surface, and there is no prominent keratinized
cells
• Surface cells are often patterned with tiny microridges that perhaps hold the surface layer of mucus.
• mucous cuticle
 • Mucous coat that resists penetration of the integument by infectious bacteria
• probably contributes to laminar flow of water across the surface
• makes the fish slippery to predators
• often includes chemicals that are repugnant, alarming, or toxic to enemies
• Two types of cells occur within the epidermis of fishes:
• epidermal cells
• specialized unicellular glands
• Unicellular glands are single, specialized, and interspersed among the epidermal cell population.
• club cell is an elongate, sometimes binucleate, unicellular gland
• granular cell is a diverse cell found in the skin of lampreys and other fishes
• goblet cell is absent in lamprey skin but is usually found in other bony and cartilaginous fishes
• sacciform cell that holds a large, membrane-bound secretory product that seems to function as a repellent
or toxin against enemies
• Collagen within the stratum compactum is regularly organized into plies that spiral around the body of the fish,
allowing the skin to bend without wrinklinag.
• In some fishes, the dermis has elastic properties.
• The dermis often gives rise to dermal bone, and dermal bone gives rise to dermal scales.
• The surface of fish scales is sometimes coated with a hard, acellular enamel of epidermal origin and a deeper
dentin layer of dermal origin
• Enamel was thought to give way phylogenetically to “ganoin” and dentin to “cosmine.”

 Integument of Fishes
Primitive Fishes
 In ostracoderms and placoderms, the integument produced prominent bony plates of dermal armor that
encased their bodies in an exoskeleton.
 Dermal bones of the cranial region form the head shields; but more posteriorly along the body, the dermal
bones tended to be broken up into smaller pieces, the dermal scales
 surface of these scales was often ornamented with tiny, mushroom-shaped tubercles.
 The dermal bone supporting these tubercles was lamellar, organized in a layered pattern.
 skin of living hagfishes and lampreys lack dermal bones
 skin surface is smooth and without scales
 Interspersed among them are unicellular glands, namely, the large granular cells and elongate club cells.
 skin of hagfishes includes thread cells that discharge thick cords of mucus to the skin surface when the fish
is irritated
 Within the dermis, hagfishes also possess multicellular slime glands that release their products via ducts to
the surface.

Chondrichthyes
• dermal bone is absent, but surface denticles, known as placoid scales, persist
• These scales give the rough feel to the surface of the skin.
• Recent evidence suggests that these tiny placoid scales reduce friction drag as the fish swims forward.
• denser than water, hence the tendency to sink
• members of this group have skeletons composed predominantly of cartilage impregnated with calcium.
• placoid scale itself develops in the dermis but projects through the epidermis to reach the surface
• A cap of enamel forms the tip, dentin lies beneath, and a pulp cavity resides within.
• Chromatophores occur in the lower part of the epidermis and upper regions of the dermis.
• placoid scales of chondrichthyans
• distinctive in that they are usually pointed or cone shaped
• show no signs of growth
• initially were form beneath the skin and erupt to the surface

Bony Fishes
• Dermis of bony fishes is subdivided into a superficial layer of loose connective tissue and a deeper layer of
dense fibrous connective tissue
• Chromatophores are found within the dermis.
• The scale most important structural product of the dermis.
• Dermal scales do not actually pierce the epidermis, but they are so close to the surface they give the
impression that the skin is hard
• Several types of scales are recognized among bony fishes:
 a) Cosmoid scale, seen in primitive sarcopterygians, resides upon a
double layer of bone, one layer of which is vascular and the
other lamellar
b) Ctenoid scale
c) Teleost scale
• Dentin- a layer on the outer surface of the bone dentin
• Enamel – a layer spread superficially on the dentin

 Integument of Amphibians
o most primitive tetrapods had scales like the fishes from which they arose
o Among living amphibians, dermal scales are present only as vestiges in some species of tropical caecilians
(Apoda).
o Frogs and salamanders lack all traces of dermal scales
o skin of the aquatic larvae of salamanders includes:
- a dermis of fibrous connective tissue, consisting of superficial loose tissue over a compact deep
layer
o Cellular components of the epidermis:
- surface apical cells
- deep basal cells
- Leydig cells
- scattered through out the epidermis
- thought to secrete substances that resist entry of bacteria or viruses
o In terrestrial adults
- dermis is similarly composed of fibrous connective tissue
- Presence of a thin stratum corneum:
protection from mechanical abrasion
retards loss of moisture from the body without unduly shutting off cutaneous gas exchange
o distinct regions of the epidermis:
- strata basale, spinosum, granulosum, and corneum
o breeding season, nuptial pads may form on digits or limbs of male salamanders or frogs
o Nuptial pads - raised calluses of cornified epidermis that help the male hold the female during mating
o two types of multicellular glands in the the skin of frogs and salamanders
 mucous glands
tend to be smaller,
each being made up of a little cluster of cells that release their product into a common duct
 poison glands (granular glands)
tend to be larger
often contain stored secretions within the lumen of each gland

 Integument of the Reptiles

o reflects their greater commitment to a terrestrial existence
o Keratinization is much more extensive
o skin glands are fewer than in amphibians
o Scales are present, but these are fundamentally different from the dermal scales of fishes, which are built
around bone of dermal origin.
o reptilian scale - a fold in the surface epidermis, hence, an epidermal scale
o hinge – junction between two adjacent scales
o Scute - large platelike epidermal scale
o epidermal scales may be modified into crests, spines, or hornlike processes
o gastralia
a collection of bones in the abdominal area are found in reptiles
not associated with dermal bones
o Osteoderms
dermal bones that support the epidermis
o Osteoderms are found in crocodilians, some lizards, and some extinct reptiles.
o The dermis of reptilian skin composed of fibrous connective tissue
o epidermis is generally delineated into three regions: stratum basale, stratum granulosum, and stratum
corneum
o stratum intermedium, a temporary layer between old and new skin which is invaded by WBC
 o Many lizards possess rows of femoral glands along the underside of the hindlimb in the thigh region.
o Crocodiles and some turtles have scent glands
o In alligators of both sexes, one pair of scent glands opens into the cloaca, another pair opens on the
margins of the lower jaw
o In some turtles, scent glands can produce quite pungent odors, especially when the animal is alarmed by
handling.
o Most integumental glands of reptiles are thought
to play a role in reproductive behavior
to discourage predators, but the glands and their social roles are not well understood

 Integument of the Birds

o The feathers of birds have been called nothing more than elaborate reptilian scales.
o the feather is as example of yet another more fundamental homology of the underlying interaction of the
epidermal-dermal layers producing such a skin specialization
o presence of epidermal scales along the legs and feet of birds testifies to their debt to reptiles
DERMIS
o near the feather follicles, is richly supplied with blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, and smooth muscles
o dermis in the breast of some birds becomes increasingly vascularized during the brooding season forming
a brood patch
- Provides warmth to the incubated eggs.
EPIDERMIS
o comprises of the stratum basale and the stratum corneum
o Between them is the transitional layer of cells transformed into the keratinized surface of the corneum

 MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF THE FEATHER

FEATHERS
o principally of the epidermis and the keratinizing system
o laid out along distinctive tracts, termed pterylae, on the surface of the body
o feathers are nonvascular and non-nervous products of the skin
o modern bird feather is built from a tubular central shaft, the rachis, which carries on either side a
vane a series of barbs with interlocking connections termed barbules (hooklets).
o The rachis and attached vanes constitute the spathe (figure 6.15b).
o The rachis continues proximally as the barbless calamus, or quill, which anchors the feather to the
body and often is moved by attached dermal muscles.
o Flight feathers are long and the vanes asymmetrical about the stiffening rachis;
o flight feathers on the wings are remiges (sing, remix) and those on the tail are rectrices (sing,
rectrix).
Contour feathers, or pennaceous feathers
o cover the body and usually have symmetrical vanes about a rachis.
Down feathers, or plumulaceous feathers
o lack a distinctive rachis and non-interlocking barbs extend out from the calamus as a fluffy feather
important in insulation

Functions of the Feathers:

• Contour feathers aerodynamically shape the surface of the bird.
• Down feathers lie close to the skin as thermal insulation.
• Filoplumes are often specialized for display, and flight feathers constitute the major aerodynamic surfaces.
• Flight feathers of the wings are a type of contour feather.
- characterized by a long rachis and prominent vanes
• primary function is locomotion
• for insulation
• Most feathers receive sensory stimuli and carry colors for display or courtship.
• chromatophores in the epidermis provide color to the feathers
• light refraction on the feather barbs and barbules creates some of the iridescent colors that feathers display

GLANDS
o uropygial gland
located at the base of the tail
 secretes a lipid and protein product that birds collect on the sides of their beak and then smear on
their feathers
o salt gland
located on the head of some birds
well developed in marine birds
excrete excess salt obtained marine foods and seawater

 Integumentary System of Mammals

Two general layers:
• epidermis
– sublayers/strata:
• Stratum corneum
• stratum lucidum
• stratum granulosum
• stratum spinosum
• stratum basale/germinativum
• dermis
– sublayers: papillary layer & reticular layer
Function of the dermis:
• produces dermal bones
Functions of the dermal bone:
– contribute to the skull and pectoral girdle
– rarely form dermal scales in the skin
• Glyptodon, a fossil mammal whose epidermis was underlaid by dermal bone

 living armadillo:
– These species represent secondary developments of dermal bone in the mammalian integument.

Hair /Fur or Pelage

Hair
• slender, keratinous filaments
Two general parts:
– hair shaft
– hair follicle
Fur or Pelage
Two general parts:
– guard hairs- guard hairs, the larger, coarse hairs, are the most apparent on the outer surface of the
fur
– underfur- underfur is stationed beneath the guard hairs and is usually much finer and shorter.

• Both function largely as insulators.

• In most marine mammals
– the underfur is reduced or lost entirely
– only a few guard hairs are evident

 Specializations of the Integument:

Nail, Claw and Hoof
• Nails are plates of tightly compacted, cornified epithelial cells on the surface of fingers and toes
• nail matrix forms the new nail
Functions of the Nails:
 protect the tips of digits from inadvertent mechanical injury.
 to stabilize the skin at the tips of the fingers and toes, so that on the opposite side the skin can establish a
secure friction grip on objects grasped
 for aesthetic reason

• other vertebrates
– keratinizing system produces the claws and the hooves
• Claws, or talons
– curved, laterally compressed keratinized projections from the tips of digits
 – seen in some amphibians and in most birds, reptiles, and mammals.
• Hooves
– enlarged keratinized plates on the tips of the ungulate digits
– The horse hoof consists of the hoof wall, sole and the frog
• hoof wall
– U-shaped and open at the heel
– consists of a keratinized stratum externa ( tectorium), a thin, shiny surface layer;
– stratum medium, thicker and also keratinized and permeated with coiled, tubular channels
– inner stratum internum ( lamellatum), a highly and regularly laminated, infolded layer that
interdigitates with the dermis ( corium) beneath
– The hoof wall grows out from its base, the germinal region (matrix cells), not from the underlying
dermis, at about 6 mm per month, taking 9 to 12 months overall for the toe to renew.
Parts of the horse hoof:
• sole
– fills the ground surface space between the wall and triangular frog
– consists of epidermis and thickened dermis
• digital cushion, or pad
– a fatty derivative of the hypodermis located deep to the sole

bottom of the hoof (ground surface) includes:

 Frog
 wedge-shaped, a mostly keratinized derivative of the integument that fills the opening in the heel of
the hoof wall
 “Horned” lizards have processes extending from behind the head that look like horns but are specialized,
pointed epidermal
scales.
 Mammals, dinosaurs, and extinct turtles are the only vertebrates with true horns or antlers.

 MODIFICATIONS:
o Presence or absence of bone in the dermis
o Glands in aquatic forms
o Specializations in epidermis of land dwellers
o protection
o respiration
o temperature control
o nourishment of the young
o locomotion and reproductive structures

Fish skin
• No stratum corneum
• Many unicellular glands
– Like goblet cells that secrete mucus
• Photophores

Dermal Scales
• Dermal bone plates
became the skull
• Ancient armor
– Rhomboid scales
• Modern fish
– Cycloid and ctenoid scales
– Placoid and ganoid scales

Amphibian skin
• Loses dermal scales
– Exception: caecilian
• Epidermal multicellular glands are abundant
• Stratum corneum
INTEGUMENTARY GLAND TYPE
• Simple tubular
– Plethodontid mental glands associated with courtship glands
• Simple coiled tubular
– Sweat glands
• Simple branched tubular
– Female plethodontid- spermatotheca
• Simple alveolar (acinar)
– Mucous glands
• Compound tubular
– Mammary glands of monotremes
• Compound branched alveolar
– Mammary glands of placentals
– Courtship glands

Plethodontid (lungless salamander) Mating

• Internal fertilization
• Male: mental glands on chin, cloacal glands to form spermatophore, and caudal courtship glands
• Female: spermatheca for sperm storage
• Glands secrete pheromones

MODES OF SECRETION:
• Merocrine
– Cell body not injured
– Release particles by exocytosis
– Most sweat glands in mammals

• Holocrine
– Cell body discharged with contents
– Whole cell dies
– Sebaceous glands
• Apocrine
– Cellular products gather on surface then pinched off
– Apical portion pinched off
– Axillary sweat glands

Reptile skin
• Few glands (dry skin)
• Thick stratum corneum with modifications
• Epidermal scales
• Some reptiles have remnants of dermal armor (osteoderms)
• Osteoderms beneath some epidermal scales
• Gastralia- large osteoderms
• Alligator and skinks
• True dermal bones
• Turtles
• Turtles have epidermal scutes- large epidermal scales
• Snakes have scutes on their belly
• Spikes and spines are epidermal
•

Turtles
• Shell of dermal bone
• Carapace (shell) – dorsal
• Plastron- ventral
– Mesoplastron additional bone on primitive, extinct turtles
• Nuchal- diagnostic bone
Reptile Integumentary Glands
• Femoral pores
– Ventrally located with waxy excretion
• Many lizards, turtles and snakes have scent or cloacal glands
– Snakes use forked tongue to pick up scent (Jacobson’s organ)

Musk Glands
• Scent glands
• Along carapace in turtles
• Under lower jaw in crocodiles
• Musk deer
– Take secretions to make perfume

Skin of Birds
• Few epidermal scales
– Legs and beak
• Dermal scales are absent
• Claws- diversified
• Few glands
– Uropygial gland- preening gland
• Dermal scales absent

Feathers
• Modification of reptilian scales
• 3 types
– Contour- flight feather
• provides wing shape
– Down- beneath contour feather
– Filoplume- long shaft
• lost its vane

Skin of mammals
• Modifications of stratum corneum
– Hair, claws, nails, hooves
• Hair
– Like filoplume feather
– lack detail
• Vibrissae
– Specialized hairs
– Tactile in function

Cornified Structures
• Baleen Plate
– Toothless whale’s horny sheets of oral ectoderm
– Not a bone
– Used for filter feeding
• Tori pads
– Epidermal pads

HORNS
– In Bovine family
– Outgrowth of dermal core
– Unbranched
– Covered by epidermal horny, keratinized sheath
– Permanent

ANTLERS
• Antlers and horns of giraffe and deer
– Dermal bone of antler attaches to skull bone
 – Shed off annually
– Outside layer is highly vascularized

DERMAL PIGMENTS
• Chromatophores
– contain pigment granules
– Melanophores (brown)
• Melanin granules
– Lipophores (yellow and red)
– Iridophores or guanophores (iridescent)
• Contain reflective guanine crystals