Pern een AJ Lb ISLAMIC STAR PATTERNS. ‘The geometrical ormament of Iain hae fascinated Western observers for well over 8 century, and con tinues to provide material for namerovs wien t= tempting to explain its nature in esthetic, mathernae seal, mystical, or even comological terms. The "geo" ietical” content of this ormament i obvious, but in spite af the fet that many works have been published fon the construction and analysis of Hlamie pater none bas delved very deeply ito the subject, and no comprehensive work has yet appeared dealing i9 a fomparatve and aystematic manner with the whole range of paterns, both geographically and historically.” “There is dearly 4 need for a more scientifically based sccount ofthese patterns, though it not 0 mich he Theoretical Knowledge of the professional mathemati can that is required for such a study, asthe precise mathematiea! language and rigor which e might bring to bear on the subjec. There is sll no-gevevaly accepted terminology for the many diferent kinds of motifs used in Islamic geometrical ornament, noe for the metheds of forming repeating pater fox them Tn the absence ofa definitive work along these nes, 1 ‘will ateaspt ere t show ways in wich some of the sitmper patterns might be develeped from x numberof ‘ementary principe, Opinions hive diferd_as co the part played by mathematics in the genesis, development, and con struction of the more complicated Islamic pater.” Some have seen a gradual, convergent evoltion from ‘many different typer of prelsamic _ormament, Clminatingin the often bewildering completes ofthe Jater, fly lifereniated Intamie patterns. According 10 this view ic was presumably the widening practical experience of skilled rafismen which alone chove the Dts taken at each level of increasing elaboration, (thers. an the contrary have seen clear evidence for the intervention of the profesional mathematician in the design and invention ofthese patterns, or atleast Ihave ateibed tothe arian themselves considerable Inowielge of thecrtial geometry and an ability to apply this knowledge tothe development of ew Kinds of geomeeeal ornaient We shall perhaps never havea final answer to thie controversial question? yet it seems that Western erties have serioury underestimated the ability of hatve craftsmen to rei large amounts of empirical Inowledge on pattern design and construction in the Absence of any undershnding ofthe theoretical back ‘gonnd which a. professional matheratcia might bring to beat on these froblems It may be an advan tage for 3 modern atthor to develop a systematic analyst of Islamic pacene in purely mathematical teem, but a Kaowledge of pire mathematics of seomeuy is unnecessrs for those who wish merely raw Islamic patterns o iavent new ones theoretical Dackground will often dlow the artist to see number cof combinaterial possibies more quickly than the use fof tiakand-eror methods, but it forms no ubstute {or tre critvity. Its prhape sigan that a geo fine application of mathematial insight to a eysematic analysis of Islamic geometrical patterns reveal far freater range of pombe than were cverdacovered By the Mins themadves 'A great deal ofthis ormament is immediately and unmistakably recogniasle a "Tslamie," and yet in ts fentrety it doct not fort such an easily dsinguishable body of geometrical omament Ia fact dhe whole range oflslamie patterns represents sn amalgam of many di ferent yes, some singly adapted and absorbed from lassi sources and fem various culkures with which Islam eame into conti during is early expansion Since itt not possible» coverall types of Tne pat terns here, [wl init myself tan exansinaion of eer tain ofthe more inereting and ‘ypicl of them, “There is one clans of geometial patterns which Islam has made its ows. ‘Tie group comprives what ‘one might term the sur patterns," since they indude starlike moti, linked or oriented according t certain Precise rules to produce endlessly repeating two ‘mensional patterns. The sat patterns are noques: Yionably the most beautiful and inricate of all Islamic patterns, and they ove their beauty in no small rearure to a high degree of symmetry at all levee, Thue, the star motif toemelves invariably posses{old rotational symmetry, # representing a range of whole numbers from 3 to almost 100. Although any pattern which repeats in two. dizections must of ecesity pertn to one or another of 17 fundamentally Gitinct arrangements? # claafcation by means of fuck symmetry groupe i of Kile use sn a detailed fnalyst of dame geometrical patterns. A given Islamic pattern wil equetdy employ a small number of precaly determined shapes, some of which become ‘repeated within the pattera in many ways nt allowed {or under the four elementary operations, or isometries, of classical lane symmetry; each ofthe latter must act fon the whole two-dimensional plane, noc merely locally fon small parts of it. Simiaey, although many mois ‘themselves possess higher than 6-old rotational sym- retry, they cannot form repeated centers of similar rotational symmetry in the plane a 4 whol, since the yermilted centers can have wo more than 2 5,4, or Gold symmetry (such rotocenters” are termed respectively dads, wads, eras, and lexads), On the surface ofthe spre the restrictions are somewhat di Ferent, whereas. in the hyperbolic plane. viewally Anything is posible? In their simplest form all Islamic geometrical pat tems are examples of period tilings (or esllasons) ofthe twovdimensiona plane, consaing of polygonal ‘reas or cals of various shaped abating on neighboring ‘ells lines termed the edges ofthe tiling, and with Ure oF more cals meeting at points termed the vee tices, or nodes, ofthe ting In genera, the cells ae not Fequied to be convex polygons, nor the edges to be straight lines, and there is no resection onthe number of edges of cells meeting at each vertex." From the eaves timer Islamic ornament adopted the widespread inteaing band form of linear decoea ion, whereby the original Hiner of the patern are represented by straps or hand, executed ia such a way fr to give the impression of weaving alternately over tnd under one anoher. This style of ornament had its ‘origins in antiquity. and must ultimately derive by imitacion from various types of weaving, plaiting, or bbrketwork. Ae an arti device it serves to give coe: ion to.s whole design. We may note that an inter Tacing-band style can only be achieved. when the ‘riginal ting consists entirely of way nodes, ti four edges (and therefore cll) meet a every node Weally, opposite angles at each node shouldbe equal, whic meus thatthe four edges esting atcha node Thecome a ait of fines intersecting ata comover point Paterns consisting entirely of fay nodes may be 18s referred to as tru iaring atoms, whether or not they are deawn au intestacing bands Trtcrlacing patterns have another important prop- ety: in ther linear, af epponed to interlacing-band, form che cell of any pater may be colored aernately Jn two modes—say, bck and white—so that no eo calls of the same mode meet at a shated edge. A chessboard i familia sxample. Strictly speaking, the possbilty of « ¢wo-mole coloring i inherent in any ‘ling in which an een numberof eels or elges mecte at every node Nowinaring atin conti least ome nodes which are rot way. It some of these are fodd-oummbered, then a re-mode coloring is no longer posse. The sar patens in general include examples from oun interlacing and non-interlacing eategorie lamic star motifs owe this beauty and regularity to 4 featare which they share with the regular convex polygons: all derive fom sete of points equally ‘stituted around the dreamference of circle, When Pris of adjacent points im any such set ate joa by Straight Hines anil a single circuit incompleted, the ‘result isa regular conves polygon. However itis post ble to continue joining up every other point, or every ‘hind point, and 0 0n,w produce many best stat like figures In loose sense chee may al be termed “star polygons,” altkagh a star polygon, properly speaking, celts only ven all the lines «0 produce form 2 single circuit strounding the center of the Figure more than once. The set of pots om the initia ireumference comprises the eter ofthe star polygon, bat the sides ofa star palygon intersect one anther at various addional pois, which are not counted as ver= ‘ies, although they dive each side into a number of segments “The earliest Islamic sar motif were based on » star polygonal construction, but complete star polygons were rarely weed ss ornamental motif Casall in iol ‘don, st medallions). Intilly nich constrution pro- duces a space at the center ofthe figure, i the shape ofa regular polygon (fg 1). In authentic Islan orn tment this cenval space is usualy transformed into star-shaped area by the sisson of one of more of the riddle segments on allies ofthe star polygon. Us ally ll but the lst two segments each end of side fre omitted, thus producing the typical Iai star mot fig. 2. This figue therefore consists ofan inner call, or central star, anda number of outer ells in the ‘shape of kites. Occasionally all but the outermost seg ren are omited (fg. 3), ad we thereby artive at he Simplest form ofa reguar geometrical sares Star moti of these types canbe ditinguished by 2 concize notation, giving data on three quantities: the ‘puber of initial verties; the meted of pining up the vetices to produce the original star polygon (ie. #60 by two, three hy three, andl soon}; sd te number of end segments remaining at each end of ee sides ofthe ‘sar polygon, Those three quantities ca be represented by md, and s,respctvey, and dhe complete symbol forthe basic Islamie sar as afd. Thus, the star shown in fig. 2 ca be designate an (892 (this may be ead san “eight over thee, two-segment tar”). Obviously this notation, whichis derived fem the mathematical sotation for sar polygons, is appliable to any Larmic "ar construct by drawing straight lines between pals of points on a circle. Indeed, it may even be adapted fo certain other types af construction, Hf we allow non Integral values for ‘Motif bated directly on star polygons (sens. lat.) are ‘eadly constructed uring a single sce and a nambce of prints equally ditributed on the citeumnference ofthat Sle. Noe inal construction is necesary. Many later Isamie star mosis, however, are not derive in this way, although they thay sl consi of central tar land surrounding kites, In there later star mots the lope ofthe ines forming the sar esc tha they can ‘ot be constacted siemply by joining pairs of points on the cieumscbing cede of the moti. Th these eases, ‘one oF mare additional concentric ctcles are needed 10 ‘determine the inner point of the star motif and hence te complete the lines (ig. 4), Islamic snr motte are of ‘any diferent sypes, and the main varieties will be indieated belo, but ll include a simple nae a8 8 cen teal cel, The precise metrical properties of any star ‘motif may sometimes be arbitrarily chosen, but fe ‘quently depend on geometrical considerations concera~ ‘ing the relation of the mif to otber elements in pattern "The tymaetscal properties of any rgular pointed star motit oe wsided regular polygon (» being sy ‘whole number greater than two) can be represented as 1 aystemn of 2n rad diverging from the geometecal enter ofthat moi, This figure convenienly tered ‘iar; iconsists of wprincipal rai, dough the tain, ater point ofthe mot, ad w secondary rai iterating with them. The continuing invention of fundamentally new star patterns ental a search for ll suitable areangement of sar-centers in the two-dimen ‘Sonal plane, but dhe tunuber of possibiides i imited bythe precise way in which cach sarscenter must be coviented in relation eo ite nearest neighbors. I the fof bes Cex Fr OUW®€X method of linking starcenters that is preferred above {il others jn Islamic pattern, one radius fom cach tarcenter of neighbering pair x coinident with the ‘trsight line joining thr centers. Inthe case of a pair fof sar motif, their cenvers and shared point of contact, Tie om a single straight line (ig. 3). This i therefore termed a cling link ‘Another sceeptable method of linking nearby star cemters is by having their eaves adit parallel, rather than calliear. In thi cae the straight ine joining ee ‘enters no longer coincides with» radius of either star; ch a relation may be termed a pall! fink (Hg. 8) Parallel inks between tar mous are principally found in certain derivative puter (described below) which ate usually fx more lieu to costeuct with ruler Sn compast than thee wing collinear links. (I is probable that mow of tase derivatives were originally Composed cough cearangements of certain elemen tary mova shaper-for example, cit tiles or pieces of ‘wood inlay) Rules sich a these for linking adjacent star motifs swore never expicily stted by Muslin artists, but were {plied probably unccnsciously, in large numbers of ‘aried pateras througout Islam. Ideed, the employ ‘nent felines Hinks join star= or Newer ike motifs