1.

Logic
Main article: Mathematical logic
Logic is the study of the principles of valid reasoning and inference, as well as of consistency, soundness,
and completeness. For example, in most systems of logic (but not in intuitionistic logic) Peirce's law (((P→Q)→P)→P) is a
theorem. For classical logic, it can be easily verified with a truth table. The study of mathematical proof is particularly
important in logic, and has applications to automated theorem proving and formal verification of software.
Logical formulas are discrete structures, as are proofs, which form finite trees[13] or, more generally, directed acyclic
graph structures[14][15] (with each inference step combining one or more premise branches to give a single conclusion).
The truth values of logical formulas usually form a finite set, generally restricted to two values: true and false, but logic can
also be continuous-valued, e.g., fuzzy logic. Concepts such as infinite proof trees or infinite derivation trees have also
been studied,[16] e.g. infinitary logic.
2. proposition has a broad use in contemporary analytic philosophy. It is used to refer to some or all of the following:
the primary bearers of truth-value, the objects of belief and other "propositional attitudes" (i.e., what is believed, doubted,
etc.), the referents of that-clauses, and the meanings of declarative sentences. Propositions are the sharable objects of
attitudes and the primary bearers of truth and falsity. This stipulation rules out certain candidates for propositions,
including thought- and utterance-tokens which are not sharable, and concrete events or facts, which cannot be false.[1]

3. Tautology is a logical statement in which the conclusion is equivalent to the premise. More colloquially, it is formula in propositional calculus
which is always true (Simpson 1992, p. 2015; D'Angelo and West 2000, p. 33; Bronshtein and Semendyayev 2004, p. 288).

If is a tautology, it is written . A sentence whose truth table contains only 'T' is called a tautology. The following sentences are examples
of tautologies:

(1)
(2)
(3)

(Mendelson 1997, p. 26), where denotes AND, denotes "is equivalent to," denotes NOT, denotes OR, and denotes implies.

4. argument form, or argument for short, is a sequence of statements. All statements but the last one
are called premises or hypotheses. The final statement is called the conclusion, and is often preceded
by a symbol `` ''.
An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises are true.

5. Proof theory is a major branch[1] of mathematical logic that represents proofs as formal mathematical objects,
facilitating their analysis by mathematical techniques. Proofs are typically presented as inductively-defined data
structures such as plain lists, boxed lists, or trees, which are constructed according to the axioms and rules of inferenceof
the logical system. As such, proof theory is syntactic in nature, in contrast to model theory, which is semantic in nature.
Some of the major areas of proof theory include structural proof theory, ordinal analysis, provability logic, reverse
mathematics, proof mining, automated theorem proving, and proof complexity. Much research also focuses on
applications in computer science, linguistics, and philosophy.
6. set is a collection of distinct objects, considered as an objectin its own right. For example, the numbers 2, 4, and 6 are
distinct objects when considered separately, but when they are considered collectively they form a single set of size three,
written {2,4,6}. The concept of a set is one of the most fundamental in mathematics. Developed at the end of the 19th
century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of mathematics, and can be used as a foundation from which nearly all of
mathematics can be derived. In mathematics education, elementary topics from set theory such as Venn diagrams are
taught at a young age, while more advanced concepts are taught as part of a university degree.

7. Definition of subset
A set AA is a subset of another set BB if all elements of the set AA are elements of the set BB. In other words, the set AA is
contained inside the set BB. The subset relationship is denoted as A⊂BA⊂B.
8. element, or member, of a set is any one of the distinct objects that make up that set.
9. Venn diagram (also called primary diagram, set diagram or logic diagram) is a diagram that
shows all possible logical relations between a finite collection of different sets. These diagrams depict elements as points
in the plane, and sets as regions inside closed curves. A Venn diagram consists of multiple overlapping closed curves,
usually circles, each representing a set. The points inside a curve labelled S represent elements of the set S, while points
outside the boundary represent elements not in the set S. This lends to easily read visualizations; for example, the set of
all elements that are members of both sets S and T, S ∩ T, is represented visually by the area of overlap of the
regions Sand T. In Venn diagrams the curves are overlapped in every possible way, showing all possible relations
between the sets. They are thus a special case of Euler diagrams, which do not necessarily show all relations. Venn
diagrams were conceived around 1880 by John Venn. They are used to teach elementary set theory, as well as illustrate
simple set relationships in probability, logic, statistics, linguistics, and computer science.
10. power set (or powerset) of any set S is the set of all subsets of S, including the empty set and S itself, variously
denoted as P(S), 𝒫(S), ℘(S) (using the "Weierstrass p"), P(S), ℙ(S), or, identifying the powerset of S with the set of all
functions from S to a given set of two elements, 2S. In axiomatic set theory (as developed, for example, in
the ZFC axioms), the existence of the power set of any set is postulated by the axiom of power set.[1]

on whether or not they make true predictions.

Note that many sentences are not propositions, for example: “Can I go out and play?” or “Do your homework first.” or
“Fuck you, mom!” These sentences are not true or false; they are used to express other types of meaning.

Types of propositions
There are many types of propositions. The first is the definition. For example: “Cats are felines.” This is true simply
because we’ve defined it to be true, like “2 + 2 = 4.”
We can also make stipulative definitions, as in: “For the purposes of this debate, ‘God’ is defined as the all-knowing, all-
powerful, all-loving personal being who created the universe.” This is true because we defined it to be true for this
particular situation. (And then, the debaters would commence arguing about whether God, so defined, actually exists.)
Another type of proposition is the descriptor, for example: “Cats are mammals.” This means that cats have the qualities
that are associated with mammals: a skeleton, mammary glands, hair, a nervous system, DNA, etc.
Perhaps surprisingly, Carrier says that propositions can also express opinions, as long as we remember that an opinion
says something that is true or false about an individual’s feelings. For example: “Cats are cute” is true if we understand it
to mean something like, “Cats are charmingly attractive to the speaker.” This kind of statement can also be false, for
example if I tell a girl I think her swollen belly is cute even though it is not charmingly attractive to me.
There might also be moral propositions, but we’ll get to those when I review Richard’s sections on morality.

Facts
The final type of proposition is the factual claim, which is a “hypothesis” that predicts something about human
experience.
That’s how Carrier puts it on page 40, anyway. But remember, Carrier said earlier that allpropositions make predictions
about human experience. As Carrier explains on page 41:
All the other types of proposition can actually be described as types of hypothesis, as different kinds of claims to fact. For
they all make predictions. References (lexical definitions) predict that if any copy of the implied lexicon is consulted… the
stated meaning will be experienced. So “cats are felines” is true if the code word ‘cat’ is actually found to be equivalent to
the code word ‘feline’ in some actual lexicon…

Descriptions… predict that if the thing being described is experienced, the features stated in the description will also be
experienced. [If "Roses are red," then wherever roses are experienced, redness should also be experienced. Of course this
is false, as some roses are not red. Also, I'd like to clarify for Carrier that "Roses are red" may have to be taken to mean
something like "Rose petals are red when they are biologically normal and white light is shining on them."]

In the case of opinions, they claim that someone actually has the stated opinion.

Through some unnecessary mental gymnastics, Carrier also asserts that wishes and commands are propositions, but I
don’t think it’s useful to think of them as such.

Anyway: to Carrier, all propositions are factual claims, which have meaning and make predictions.

Truth
So then, if we have properly understood the meaning of a proposition, and we know what predictions it would entail, how
do we tell if the proposition is true or false? Carrier says, “a statement is true if the experiences it predicts will actually be
experienced under the implied conditions… given the absence of errors, interfering circumstances, and so on, and
accounting for modifiers where appropriate (like ‘sometimes’ or ‘often’ or ‘probably’).”