CH 04

4.
1: PROBLEM DEFINITION
Situation:
Unsteady flow.
Find:
Identify five examples of an unsteady flow explain what features classify them as
unsteady?
SOLUTION
1. Gust of wind blowing past a pole.
2. Flow next to a rock in a natural river.
3. Flow past the lips due to inhaling and exhaling.
4. The motion of water at the center of a boiling pot.
5. At the outlet hose of a manual tire pump.
1
4.2: PROBLEM DEFINITION
Situation:
Pouring a heavy syrup on pancakes.
Find:
Would the thin film of syrup be a laminar or turbulent flow?
SOLUTION
The velocity is very low, the viscosity is high and the thickness of the layer is thin.
These conditions favor laminar flow.
2
Situation:
Breathing through your mouth.
Find:
Sense the air flow patterns near your face. Discuss the type of flow associated with
these flow processes.
Why is it easier to blow out a candle by exhaling than by inhaling?
SOLUTION
The main point to this question is that while inhaling, the air is drawn into your
mouth without any separation occurring in the flow that is approaching your mouth.
Thus there is no concentrated flow; all air velocities in the vicinity of your face are
relatively low. However, when exhaling as the air passes by your lips separation
occurs thereby concentrating the flow of air which allows you to easily blow out a
candle.
3
Situation:
The valve in a system is gradually opened to have a constant rate of increase in
discharge.
Find:
Describe the flow at points A and B.
SOLUTION
A: Unsteady, uniform.
B: Non-uniform, unsteady.
4
Situation:
Water flows in a passage with flow rate decreasing with time.
Find:
Describe the flow.
SOLUTION
(b) Unsteady and (d) non-uniform.
5
Situation:
A flow pattern has converging streamlines.
Find:
Classify the flow.
SOLUTION
Non-uniform; steady or unsteady.
6
Situation:
A fluid flows in a straight conduit. The conduit has a section with constant
diameter, followed by a section with changing diameter.
Find:
Match the given flow labels with the mathematical descriptions.
SOLUTION
Steady flow corresponds to ∂Vs /∂t = 0.
Unsteady flow corresponds to ∂Vs /∂t 6= 0.
Uniform flow corresponds to ∂Vs /∂s = 0.
Non-uniform flow corresponds to ∂Vs /∂s 6= 0.
7
Situation:
A series of flows are either one, two or three dimensional.
Find:
Classify the flows as one, two or three dimensional.
(a) Water flow over the crest of a long spillway of a dam.
(b) Flow in a straight horizontal pipe.
(c) Flow in a constant-diameter pipeline that follows the contour of the ground in
hilly country.
(d) Airflow from a slit in a plate at the end of a large rectangular duct.
(e) Airflow past an automobile.
(f) Air flow past a house.
(g) Water flow past a pipe that is laid normal to the flow across the bottom of a
wide rectangular channel.
SOLUTION
a. Two dimensional e. Three dimensional

b. One dimensional f. Three dimensional
c. One dimensional g. Two dimensional
d. Two dimensional
8
Situation:
Path of a fluid particle.
Find:
If a light was attached to a fluid particle and take a time exposure, would the image
you photographed be a pathline or streakline?
SOLUTION
The pathline is defined as the path taken by a fluid particle moving through a field.
The photograph would yield this line.
9
Situation:
Smoke rising from a chimney.
Find:
The pattern produced by smoke rising from a chimney on a windy day is analogous
to a pathline or streakline?
SOLUTION
The streakline is defined as a line generated by a tracer injected into flow at starting
point. The tracer is the smoke and the starting point is the chimney so smokes pattern
is analogous to a streakline. The diffusion of the smoke prevents achieving a fine line.
10
Situation:
Dye is injected into a flow field and produces a streakline.
Pathline starts at t = 4 s, ends at t = 10 s. Flow speed is constant.
Find:
Draw a pathline of the particle.
SOLUTION
The streakline shows that the velocity field was originally in the horizontal direction
to the right and then the flow field changed upward to the left. The pathline starts
off to the right and then continues upward to the left.
Streakline
Pathline
11
Situation:
A dye streak was started, and a particle was released.
For 0 ≤ t ≤ 5 s, u = 2 m/ s, v = 0.
For 5 < t ≤ 10 s, u = 3 m/ s, v = −4 m/ s.
Find:
For t = 10 s, draw to scale the streakline, pathline of the particle, and streamlines.
SOLUTION
From 0<t<5, the dye in the streakline moved to the right for a distance of 10 m. At
the same time a particle is released from the origin and travels 10 m to the right.
Then from 5<t<10, the original line of dye is transported in whole downward to the
right while more dye is released from the origin. The pathline of the particle proceeds
from its location at t=5 sec downward to the right.
At 10 sec, the streamlines are downward to the right.
12
Situation:
A dye streak is produced in a flow that has a constant speed.
Find:
Sketch a streamline at t = 8 s.
Sketch a particle pathline at t = 10 s for a particle that was released from point A
at time t = 2 s.
Sketch:
SOLUTION
At 8 seconds (near 10 sec) the streamlines of the flow are horizontal to the right.
Streamlines at t = 8 s
Initially the flow is downward to the right and then switches to the horizontal direction
to the right. Thus one has the following pathline.
Particle pathline for a particle released at t = 2 s
13
Situation:
Acceleration.
Find:
Is the acceleration vector always aligned with the velocity vector?
SOLUTION
No. For flow along a curved path, there is a centripetal acceleration which is normal
to the velocity vector.
14
Situation:
Rotating bodies.
Find:
Is the acceleration toward the center of rotation a centripetal or centrifugal accel-
eration?
SOLUTION
The acceleration toward the center of rotation is centripetal acceleration. "Petal"
comes from Latin word"petere" which means to move toward so "centripetal" means
moving toward center. "Fugal" comes from Latin "fugere" which means to flee so
"centrifugal" means moving from center.
15
Situation:
Flow past a circular cylinder with constant approach velocity.
Find:
Describe the flow as:
(a) Steady or unsteady.
(b) One dimensional, two dimensional, or three dimensional.
(c) Locally accelerating or not, and is so, where.
(d) Convectively accelerating or not, and if so, where.
SOLUTION
(a) Steady.
(b) Two-dimensional.
(c) No.
(d) Convective acceleration is present at each where a fluid particles changes speed
as it moves along the streamline. Centripetal acceleration, which is also a form of
convective acceleration occurs where there is stfreamline curvature.
16
Situation:
A path line is given with velocity as a function of distance and time.
V = s2 t1/2 , r = 0.5 m.
s = 2 m, t = 0.5 s.
Find:
Acceleration along and normal to pathline (m/s2 ).
PLAN
Apply Eq. 4.5 for acceleration along pathline.
SOLUTION
Equation 4.5 µ ¶
∂V ∂V V2
a = (V + )et + en
∂s ∂t r
Evaluation of velocity and derivatives at s = 2 m and t = 0.5 sec.
V = s2 t1/2 = 22 × 0.51/2 = 2.83 m/s

∂V
= 2st1/2 = 2 × 2 × 0.51/2 = 2.83 1/s
∂s
∂V 1 2 −1/2 1
= st = × 22 × 0.5−1/2 = 2.83 m/s2
∂t 2 2
Evaluation of the acceleration
µ ¶
2.832
a = (2.83 × 2.83 + 2.83)et + en
0.5
a = 10.8et + 16.0en (m/s2 )
17
Situation:
Air is flowing around a sphere in a wind tunnel.
u = −Uo (1 − ro3 /x3 ).
Find:
An expression for the acceleration of a fluid particle on the x-axis. The form of the
answer should be ax = ax (x, ro , Uo ).
PLAN
Use Eq. 4.5 along x-axis which is a pathline. Replace V with u and s with x.
SOLUTION
∂u ∂u
ax = u +
∂x µ ∂t ¶ µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
r03 ∂ r03 ∂ r03
= −U0 1 − 3 −U0 1 − 3 + −U0 1 − 3
x ∂x x ∂t x
µ 3
¶µ 3
¶
r r
= U02 1 − 03 −3 04 + 0
x x
r03 r03
ax = −(3 U02 )(1 − )
x4 x3
18
Situation:
Flow occurs in a tapered passage. The velocity is given as
V = 5 m/ s − 2.25 tto m/ s, ∂V /∂s = +2 s−1 , t0 = 0.5 s.
Find:
(a) local acceleration at section AA ( m/ s2 ).
(b) Convective acceleration at section AA ( m/ s2 ).
SOLUTION
a) Local acceleration
∂V 2.25
al = =−
∂t t0
2.25
= −
0.5
al = −4.5 m/s2
b) Convective acceleration
∂V
ac = V
∂s
0.5
= (5 − 2.25 × ) m/s × 2 1/s
0.5
ac = 5.5 m/s2
19
Situation:
One-dimensional flow occurs in a nozzle.
Vtip = 4 ft/ s, Vbase = 1 ft/ s, L = 1.5 ft.
Find:
Convective acceleration ( ft/ s2 ).
SOLUTION
Velocity gradient.
dV Vtip − Vbase
=
ds L
(4 − 1) ft/ s
=
1.5 ft
−1
= 2s
Acceleration at mid-point
(1 + 4) ft/ s
V =
2
= 2.5 ft/s
dV
ac = V
ds
= 2.5 ft/ s × 2
ac = 5 ft/ s2
20
Situation:
One-dimensional flow occurs in a nozzle and the velocity varies linearly with dis-
tance along the nozzle.
Vtip = 4t ft/ s, Vbase = 1t ft/ s, t = 2 s.
Find:
Local acceleration midway in the nozzle ( ft/ s2 ).
SOLUTION
∂V
a =
∂t
t + 4t
V =
2
= 2.5t (ft/s)
Then
∂
a = (2.5t)
∂t
a = 2.5 ft/s2
21
Situation:
Flow in¡ a ¢two-dimensional
³ ´ slot.
V = 2 qbo tto , x = 2B, y = 0 in.
Find:
An expression for local acceleration midway in nozzle.
SOLUTION
µ ¶µ ¶
qo t
V = 2 but b = B/2
b to
µ ¶µ ¶
4qo t
V =
B to
∂V
al =
∂t
4qo
al =
Bto
22
Situation:
Flow in a two-dimensional slot and velocity varies as
¡ qo ¢ ³ t ´
V =2 b to
, x = 2B, y = 0 in.
Find:
An expression for convective acceleration midway in nozzle.
SOLUTION
V ∂V
ac =
∂x
The width varies as
x
b=B−
8
µ ¶ ³
q0 x ´−1
V = 2t B −
t 8
µ 0¶ µ ¶³
∂V q0 1 x ´−2
= 2t B−
∂x t0 8 8
2 2
V ∂V (q0 /t0 ) 4t (1/8)
ac = =
∂x (B − (1/8)x)−3
At x = 2B
µ ¶2
q0 t2
ac = (1/2)
t0 ((3/4)B)−3
µ ¶2 2
q0 t
ac = 32/27
t0 B3
23
Situation:
Water flow in a nozzle with
2t
V =
(1 − 0.5x/L)2
L = 4 ft, x = 0.5L, t = 3 s.
Find:
Local acceleration ( ft/ s2 ).
Convective acceleration ( ft/ s2 ).
SOLUTION
a = ∂V /∂t
= ∂/∂t[2t/(1 − 0.5x/L)2 ]
= 2/(1 − 0.5x/L)2
= 2/(1 − 0.5 × 0.5L/L)2
a = 3.56 ft/s2
ac = V (∂V /∂x)
= [2t/(1 − 0.5x/L)2 ]∂/∂x[2t/(1 − 0.5x/L)2 ]
µ ¶
4t2 0.5
= (−2) −
L(1 − 0.5x/L)5 L
2
4×3
=
4 × (1 − 0.5 × 0.5L/L)5
ac = 37.9 ft/s2
24
Situation:
State Newton’s second law of motion.
Find:
Are there any limitations on the use of Newton’s second law?
SOLUTION
Newtons second law states
F = ma
where m is the mass of the system. The velocity (and acceleration) must be measured
with respect to an inertial reference frame and the mass must be constant.
25
Situation:
Force weight and force pressure.
Find:
What is the difference between a force due to weight and a force due to pressure?
SOLUTION
The force due to weight is the gravitational attraction on the mass and the magnitude
of the force depends on the mass. The force due to pressure is the force acting on a
surface and depends on the magnitude of the pressure and the area of the surface.
26
Situation:
Flow through an inclined pipe at 30o from horizontal.
a = −0.3g.
Find:
Pressure gradient in flow direction.
PLAN
Apply Euler’s equation.
SOLUTION
o
30
Euler’s equation
∂
(p + γz) = −ρa
∂
∂p ∂z
+γ = −ρa
∂ ∂
∂p ∂z
= −ρa − γ
∂ ∂
γ
= − × (−0.30g) − γ sin 30◦
g
= γ(0.30 − 0.50)
∂p
= −0.20γ
∂
27
Situation:
Kerosene is accelerated upward in vertical pipe.
S = 0.81, az = 0.3g.
Find:
Pressure gradient required to accelerate flow ( lbf/ ft3 ).
Properties:
γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN Apply Euler’s equation.
SOLUTION Applying Euler’s equation in the z direction.
∂(p + γz) γ
= −ρaz = − × 0.30g
∂z g
∂p
+ γ = −0.30γ
∂z
∂p
= γ(−1 − 0.30)
∂z ¡ ¢
= 0.81 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (−1.30)
∂p
= −65.7 lbf/ft3
∂z
28
Situation:
A hypothetical liquid flows through a vertical tube.
v = 0.
Find:
Direction of acceleration.
Properties:
γ = 10 kN/ m3 , pB − pA = 12 kPa.
PLAN Apply Euler’s equation.
SOLUTION Euler’s equation
∂
ρa = − (p + γz)
∂
µ ¶
1 ∂p ∂z
a = − −γ
ρ ∂ ∂
Let be positive upward. Then ∂z/∂ = +1 and ∂p/∂ = (pA − pB )/1 = −12, 000
Pa/m. Thus
g
a = (12, 000 − γ)
γ
µ ¶
12, 000
a = g −1
γ
a = g(1.2 − 1.0) m/s2
a has a positive value; therefore, acceleration is upward. Correct answer is a).
29
Situation:
A piston and water accelerating upward at 0.5g.
a = 0.5g, z = 2 ft.
Find:
Pressure in water column (psfg).
Properties:
ρ = 62.4 lbm/ ft3 , γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation
∂
ρa = − (p + γz)
∂
Let be positive upward.
∂p ∂z
ρ(0.5g) = − −γ
∂ ∂
γ ∂p
( )(0.5g) = − − γ(1)
g ∂
∂p
= −γ(0.5 + 1) = −1.5γ
∂
Thus the pressure decreases upward at a rate of 1.5γ. The pressure at the top is
atmospheric. At a depth of 2 ft.:
p2 = (1.5γ)(2) = 3γ
= 3 ft. × 62.4 lbf/ft3
p2 = 187 psfg
30
Situation:
Water stands with depth of 10 ft in a vertical pipe open at top and supported by
piston at the bottom.
z = 0 ft, z2 = 10 ft.
Find:
Acceleration of piston ( ft/ s2 ).
Properties:
γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 , ρ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 .
p1 = 8 psig, p2 = 0 psig.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation
∂
(p + γz) = −ρas
∂s
Take s as vertically upward with point 1 at piston surface and point 2 at water surface.
−∆(p + γz) = ρas ∆s

−(p2 − p1 ) − γ(z2 − z1 ) = ρas ∆s
−(0 − 8 psig × 144 in2 / ft2 ) − 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 10 ft = 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 10as
(8 psig × 144 in2 / ft2 − 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 10 ft)
as =
19.4 slug/ ft3
as = 27.2 ft/s2
31
Situation:
Water accelerates in a horizontal pipe.
as = 6 m/ s2 , ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
Find:
Pressure gradient ( N/ m3 ).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation with no change in elevation
∂p
= −ρas
∂s
= −1, 000 kg/ m3 × 6 m/ s2
∂p
= −6, 000 N/m3
∂s
32
Situation:
Water accelerated from rest in horizontal pipe.
L = 100 m, D = 30 cm, as = 5 m/ s2 .
Find:
Pressure at upstream end ( kPa).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , pdownstream = 90 kPa.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation with no change in elevation
∂p
= −ρas
∂s
= −1, 000 kg/ m3 × 5 m/ s2
= −5, 000 N/m3
∂p
pdownstream − pupstream = ∆s
∂s ¡ ¢
pupstream = 90, 000 Pa + 5, 000 N/ m3 (100 m)
= 590, 000 Pa, gage
pupstream = 590 kPa, gage
33
Situation:
Water stands in a vertical pipe closed at the bottom by a piston.
z = 10 ft.
Find:
Maximum downward acceleration before vaporization ( ft/ s2 ).
Assumptions:
Vapor pressure is zero.
Properties:
ρ = 62.4 lbm/ ft3 = 1.94 slug/ ft3 , γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Applying Euler’s equation in the z-direction with p = 0 at the piston surface
∂
(p + γz) = −ρaz
∂z
∆(p + γz) = −ρaz ∆z
(p + γz)at water surface − (p + γz)at piston = −ρaz (zsurface − zpiston )
patm − pv + γ(zsurface − zpiston ) = −12 ρaz
¡ ¢
14.7psi (144psf/psi) − 0 + 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (10 ft) = −10 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 × az
az = −141 ft/s2
34
Situation:
A liquid flows through a conduit.
Find:
Which statements can be discerned with certainty:
(a) The velocity is in the positive direction.
(b) The velocity is in the negative direction.
(c) The acceleration is in the positive direction.
(d) The acceleration is in the negative direction.
Assumptions:
Viscosity is zero.
Properties:
pA = 170 psf, pB = 100 psf, γ = 100 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation
∂
−(p + γz) = ρa
∂
∂p ∂z
− −γ = ρa
∂ ∂
where ∂p/∂ = (pB − pA )/ = (100 − 170)/2 = −35 lb/ft3 and ∂z/∂ = sin 30◦ = 0.5.
Then
1
a = (35 lb/ ft3 − (100)(0.5))
ρ
1
= (−15 ) lbf/ft3
ρ
• Because a has a negative value we conclude that Answer ⇒ (d) the accelera-
tion is in the negative direction .
• Answer ⇒ The flow direction cannot be established; so answer (d) is the only
answer that can be discerned with certainty.
35
Situation:
Velocity varies linearly with distance in water nozzle.
L = 1 ft, V1 = 30 ft/ s, V2 = 80 ft/ s.
Find: Pressure gradient midway in the nozzle (psf/ft).
Properties:
ρ = 62.4 lbm/ ft3 = 1.94 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation
∂
(p + γz) = −ρax
∂x
but z =const.; therefore
∂p
= −ρax
∂x
∂V
ax = aconvective = V
∂x
∂V
= (80 − 30)/1 = 50 s−1
∂x
Vmid = (80 ft/ s + 30 ft/ s)/2 = 55 ft/s
= (55 ft/s)(50 ft/s/ft) = 2, 750 ft/s2
Finally
∂p
= (−1.94 slug/ft3 )(2, 750 ft/s2 )
∂x
∂p
= −5, 330 psf/ft
∂x
36
Situation:
Closed tank is full of liquid.
L = 3 ft, H = 4 ft, ax = 0.9g.
a = 1.5g, S = 1.2.
Find:
(a) pC − pA (psf).
(b) pB − pA (psf).
Properties:
ρ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation. Take in the z-direction.
dp d
− − γ = ρal
d d
dp
= −ρ(g + a )
d ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= −1.2 1.94 slug/ ft3 (32.2 ft/ s2 − 1.5 32.2 ft/ s2 )
= 37.5 psf/ft
pB − pA = −37.5 psf/ft × 4 ft
pB − pA = −150 psf
Take in the x-direction. Euler’s equation becomes

dp
− = ρax
dx
pC − pB = ρax L
= 1.2 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 0.9g × 3 ft
= 202.4 psf
pC − pA = pC − pB + (pB − pA )
pC − pA = 202.4 − 150
pC − pA = 52.4 psf
37
Situation:
Closed tank is full of liquid.
L = 2.5 m, H = 3 m, ax = 2/3g, a = 1.2g, S = 1.3.
Find:
(a) pC − pA ( kPa).
(b) pB − pA ( kPa).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation in z direction
dp
+ γ = −ρaz
dz
dp
= −ρ(g + az )
dz
dp ¡ ¢
= −1.3 1, 000 kg/ m3 (9.81 m/ s2 − 6.54 m/ s2 )
dz
= −4, 251 N/m3
¡ ¢
pB − pA = 4, 251 N/ m3 (3 m)
= 12, 753 Pa
pB − pA = 12.7 kPa
Euler’s equation in x-direction

dp
− = ρax
dx
pC − pB = ρax L
= 1.3 × 1, 000 × 9.81 × 2.5
= 31, 882 Pa
pC − pA = pC − pB + (pB − pA )
pC − pA = 31, 882 + 12, 753
= 44, 635 Pa
pC − pA = 44.6 kPa
38
Situation:
Stirring a liquid in a cup.
Find:
Report on the contour of the surface. Provide an explanation for the observed
shape.
SOLUTION
Stirring the cup of liquid creates a surface depressed at the center and higher at the
wall of the cup. The difference in depth between the wall and the cup center creates
an inward radial force to keep the fluid moving in a circle.
39
Situation:
A cyclonic separator separates solid particles from a gas stream by inducing a spin
in the gas stream
Find:
Explain the mechanism by which the particles are separated from the gas.
SOLUTION
With no particles in the separator, the pressure gradient in the gas is just sufficient
to provide a force equal to the centripetal acceleration and keep the gas moving in
a circle. The pressure force is insufficient to keep the heavier particles moving in a
circle and they migrate to the outer walls.
40
Situation:
A closed tank filled with water is rotated about a vertical axis.
D = 4 ft, ω = 10 rad/ s.
Find:
Pressure at bottom center of tank (psig).
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the equation for pressure variation equation- rotating flow.
SOLUTION
Pressure variation equation- rotating flow
ρr2 ω 2 ρrp2 ω 2
p + γz − = pp + γzp −
2 2
where pp = 0, rp = 3 ft and r = 0, then
ρ
p = − (rω)2 + γ(zp − z)
µ2 ¶
1.94 slug/ ft3 ¡ ¢
= (3 ft × 10)2 + 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (2.5 ft)
2
= −717 psfg = −4.98 psig
p = −4.98 psig
41
Situation:
A tank of liquid is rotated on an arm.
S = 0.80, D = 1 ft.
h = 1 ft, r = 2 ft.
VA = 20 ft/ s, pA = 25 psf.
Find:
Pressure at B (psf).
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation- rotating flow from point A to point B.
SOLUTION
2 2
ρrA ω ρr2 ω2
pA + γzA − = pB + γzB − B
2 2
ρ 2 2 2
pB = pA + (ω )(rB − rA ) + γ(zA − zB )
2
where ω = VA /rA = 20/1.5 = 13.333 rad/s and ρ = 0.8 × 1.94 slugs/ft3 . Then
£ ¤ £ ¤
pB = 25psf + 1.94 slug/ ft3 (0.80/2) (13.33 rad/ s2 ) (2.5 ft)2 − (1.5 ft)2 + 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (0.8) (−1)
= 25 + 551.5 − 49.9
pB = 527 psf
42
Situation:
A cream separator is in operation.
D = 20 cm, f = 9000 rpm.
Find:
Centripetal acceleration (m/s2 ).
RCF.
SOLUTION
The centripetal acceleration is
V2
ar = = ω2r
r
The rotational rate of the separator is
µ ¶
9000rpm
ω = 2π = 942.5 rad/s
60 s/ min
The radius of the separator is 10 cm or 0.1 m. The acceleration is
ar = (942.5 rad/ s)2 (0.1 m)

ar = 88831 m/s2
The RCF is
RCF = 88831 m/s2 /9.81 m/s2

RCF = 9055
43
Situation:
A closed tank with liquid is rotated about the vertical axis.
ω = 10 rad/s, rB = 0.5 m, az = 4 m/ s2 .
Find:
Difference in pressure between points A and B (kPa).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , S = 1.2.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow between points B & C. Let
point C be at the center bottom of the tank.
SOLUTION
2 2
ρrB ω ρr2 ω2
pB − = pC − C
2 2
where rB = 0.5 m, rC = 0 and ω = 10 rad/s. Then
ρ 2 2
pB − pC = (ω )(r )
2
1200 kg/ m3
= (100 rad2 / s2 )(0.25 m2 )
2
= 15, 000 Pa
pC − pA = 2γ + ρaz
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 2 11, 772 N/ m3 + 1, 200 kg/ m3 4 m/ s2 (2)
= 33.1 kPa
Then
pB − pA = pB − pC + (pC − pA )
= 15, 000 Pa + 33, 144 Pa
= 48, 144 Pa
pB − pA = 48.1 kPa
44
Situation:
A U-tube rotating about the leg on the right side.
r1 = 0.5 m, z1 = 0.5 m.
z2 = 0 m, r2 = 0 m.
Find:
Maximum rotational speed so that no liquid escapes from the leg on the left side
(rad/s).
PLAN
Since the fluid is in rigid body rotation, apply the pressure variation equation for
rotating flow. At the condition of imminent spilling, the liquid will be to the top of
the left leg and at the bottom of the right leg. Thus, locate point 1 be at top of the
left (outside) leg. Locate point 2 at the bottom of the right (inside) leg.
SOLUTION

ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2 (1)
2 2
Term-by-term analysis
p1 = p2 = 0 kPa-gage
z1 = 0.5 m
r1 = 0.5 m
z2 = 0m
r2 = 0m
Substitute values into Eq. 1.
ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2
2 2
2 2 2
ρ (0.5 m ) ω
0 + ρg (0.5 m) − =0+0−0
2
(0.52 m2 ) ω 2
g (0.5 m) − =0
2
ω 2 = 4g
√
ω=2 g
ω = 6.26 rad/s
45
Situation:
A stagnation tube in a tank is rotated.
ω = 100 rad/ s, r = 20 cm, γ = 10000 N/ m3 .
Find:
Location of liquid surface in central tube.
PLAN
Pressure variation equation for rotating flow from pt. 1 to pt. 2 where pt. 1 is at
liquid surface in vertical part of tube and pt. 2 is just inside the open end of the
Pitot tube.
SOLUTION
1 0
2
10 cm
Elevation view Plan view
p1 V12 p2 V22
− + z1 = − + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
p2 r2 ω2
0 − 0 + (0.10 + ) = − −0 (1)
γ 2g
where z1 = z2 . If we reference the velocity of the liquid to the tip of the Pitot tube
then we have steady flow and Bernoulli’s equation will apply from pt. 0 (point ahead
of the Pitot tube) to point 2 (point at tip of Pitot tube).
p0 V02 p2 V22
+ + z0 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
0.1γ r2 ω2 p2
+ = +0 (2)
γ 2g γ
Solve Eqs. (1) & (2) for

= 0 liquid surface in the tube is the same as the elevation as outside liquid surface.
46
Situation:
A U-tube partially full of liquid is rotating about one leg.
f = 50 rpm, S = 3.0, r1 = 1 ft.
Find:
Specific gravity of other fluid.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow between points 1 & 2.
SOLUTION
2 1
S=3.0
ρr22 ω 2 ρr12 ω 2
p2 + γz2 − = p1 + γz1 −
2 2
where z2 = z1 , r1 = 0, r2 = 1 ft. and ω = (50/60) × 2π = 5.236 rad/s. Then
£ ¡ 3
¢¤ 2 (5.236 rad/ s)
2
p2 = 3 1.94 slug/ ft (1 ft) = 79.78 psfg (1)
2
Also, by hydrostatics, because there is no acceleration in the vertical direction
1
p2 = 0 + × γf (2)
2
where γ f is the specific weight of the other fluid. Solve for γ f between Eqs. (1) &
(2)
γ f = 159.6 lbf/ft3
γf
S =
γ H2 O
159.6
=
62.4
S = 2.56
47
Situation:
A manometer is rotated about one leg.
∆z = 20 cm, r = 10 cm, S = 0.8.
Find:
Acceleration in g’s in leg with greatest amount of oil.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow between the liquid surfaces of
1 & 2Let leg 1 be the leg on the axis of rotation. Let leg 2 be the other leg of the
manometer.
SOLUTION
ρr12 ω2 ρr22 ω2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 −
2 2
γ r22 ω 2
0 + γz1 − 0 = γz2 −
g 2
2 2
r2 ω
= z2 − z1
2g
an = rω 2
(z2 − z1 )2g
=
r2
(0.20)(2g)
=
0.1
an = 4g
48
Situation:
A fuel tank rotated in zero-gravity environment.
f = 3 rpm, r1 = 1.5 m, zA = 1 m.
Find:
Pressure at exit (Pa).
Properties:
ρ = 800 kg/ m3 , p1 = 0.1 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow from liquid surface to point
A. Call the liquid surface point 1.
SOLUTION
ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 + γz1 − = pA + γzA − A
2 2
2
ρω 2
pA = p1 + (r − r12 ) + γ(z1 − zA )
2 A
However γ(z1 − zA ) = 0 in zero-g environment. Thus
µ ¶2
800 kg/m3 6π
pA = p1 + ((1.5 m)2 − (1 m)2 )
2 60 rad/s
= 100 Pa + 49.3 Pa
pA = 149 Pa
49
Situation:
A rotating set of tubes has liquid in the bottom of it.
D1 = 2d, D2 = d.
r2 = , z2 = 4 .
Find:
Derive a formula for the angular speed when the water will begin to spill.
PLAN
Start with pressure variation equation for rotating flow. Let point 1 be at the liquid
surface in the large tube and point 2 be at the liquid surface in the small tube.
SOLUTION
ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2
2 2
3.75 l
The change in volume in leg 1 has to be the same as leg 2. So
∆h1 d21 = ∆h2 d22

µ 2¶
d2
∆h1 = ∆h2
d21
∆h2
=
4
The elevation difference between 1 and 2 will be
3
z2 − z1 = 3 +
4
= 3.75
Then p1 = p2 = 0 gage, r2 = , and z2 − z1 = 3.75 so
50
ρr22 ω 2
= γ(3.75 )
2
γ 2 2
( )ω = 3.75γ
2g
7.5g
ω2 =
r
7.5g
ω=
51
Situation:
Water fills a tube that is closed at one end.
D = 1 cm, r = 40 cm, ω = 50 rad/s.
Find:
Force exerted on closed end (N).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow from the open end of the tube
to the closed end.
SOLUTION
ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 = γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2
2 2
where z1 = z2 . Also let point 2 be at the closed end; therefore r1 = 0 and r2 = 0.40
m.
ρ
p2 = (0.4 m)2 (50 rad/s)2
2 ¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 500 kg/ m3 0.16 m2 2500 rad2 / s2
= 200 kPa
Then
F = p2 A = 200, 000 Pa(π/4)(.01 m)2

F = 15.7 N
52
Situation:
Water sits in a U-tube that is closed at one end.
D = 1 cm, L = 40 cm, ω = 50 rad/s.
Find:
Rotational speed when water will begin to spill from open tube (rad/s).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , γ = 9810 N/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow between water surface in leg
A-A to water surface in open leg after rotation.
SOLUTION
When the water is on the verge of spilling from the open tube, the air volume in the
closed part of the tube will have doubled. Therefore, we can get the pressure in the
air volume with this condition.
pi V i = pf V f
and i and f refer to initial and final conditions
Vi 1
pf = pi = 101 kPa ×
Vf 2
pf = 50.5 kPa, abs = −50.5 kPa, gage

2 2
ρrA ω ρropen ω2
pA + γzA − = popen + γzopen −
2 2
2 2
ρ(6 ) ω
pA + 0 − 0 = 0 + γ × 6 −
2 µ 2¶
3 3
¡ 3
¢ 2 ω
−50.5 × 10 Pa = 9810 N/ m (6) (0.1 m) − 1000 kg/ m (0.6 m)
2
3 2
−50.5 × 10 = 5886 − 180ω
w2 = 313.3
ω = 17.7 rad/s
53
Situation:
Water is pumped from a reservoir by a centrifugal pump consisting of a disk with
radial ports.
r = 5 cm, f = 3000 rpm, z1 = 0 m.
Find:
Maximum operational height (m).
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow
Locate point 1 at the liquid surface where z = 0.
Locate point 2 at the outer edge of the rotating disk.
SOLUTION
Pressure variation equation
ρr12 ω2 ρr2 ω2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2
2 2
ρr22 ω2
0 + 0 − 0 = 0 + γz2 −
2
2 2
r ω
z2 = 2
2g
Rotational Rate
ω = (3000 rev/min)(1min/60 s)(2π rad/rev) = 314.1 rad/s
Find z2
r22 ω 2 (0.05 m)2 (314.1 rad/ s)2

z2 = = =
2g 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
z2 = 12.6 m
54
Situation:
A tank rotated about the horizontal axis and water in tank rotates as a solid body.
V = rω, z = −1, 0, +1 m, ω = 5 rad/ s.
Find:
Pressure gradient each value of z (kPa/m).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow.
SOLUTION
Pressure variation equation- rotating flow.
∂p ∂p
+γ = −ρrω2
∂r ∂r
∂p
= −γ − ρrω 2
∂z
when z = −1 m
∂p
= −γ − ρω 2
∂z µ ¶
ω2
= −γ 1 +
g
25
= −9, 810 N/ m3 (1 + )
9.81 m/ s2
∂p
= −34.8 kPa/m
∂z
when z = +1 m
∂p
= −γ + ρω 2
∂z µ ¶
ω2
= −γ 1 +
g
µ ¶
3 25
= −9810 N/ m × 1 −
9.81 m/ s2
∂p
= 15.2 kPa/m
∂z
55
At z = 0
∂p
= −γ
∂z
∂p
= −9.81 kPa/m
∂z
56
Situation:
A tank rotated about the horizontal axis and water in tank rotates as a solid body.
Find:
Derive an equation for the maximum pressure difference.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow.
SOLUTION
Below the axis both gravity and acceleration cause pressure to increase with decrease
in elevation; therefore, the maximum pressure will occur at the bottom of the cylin-
der. Above the axis the pressure initially decreases with elevation (due to gravity);
however, this is counteracted by acceleration due to rotation. Where these two ef-
fects completely counter-balance each other is where the minimum pressure will occur
(∂p/∂z = 0). Thus, above the axis:
∂p
= 0 = −γ + rω2 ρ minimum pressure condition
∂z
Solving: r = γ/ρω2 ; pmin occurs at zmin = +g/ω 2 .Using the equation for pressure
variation in rotating flows between the tank bottom where the pressure is a maximum
( zmax = −r0 ) and the point of minimum pressure.
ρr02 ω 2 ρr2 ω2
pmax + γzmax − = pmin + γzmin − min
2 2
2 2
ρr ω γg ρ(g/ω2 )2 ω2
pmax − γr0 − 0 = pmin + 2 −
2 ω 2
∙ ¸
ρω 2 2 ³ g ´2 ³ g´
pmax − pmin = ∆pmax = r0 − + γ r0 +
2 ω2 ω2
Rewriting
ρω 2 r02 γg
∆pmax = + γr0 + 2
2 2ω
57
Situation:
A tank 4 ft in diameter and 12 feet long rotated about horizontal axis and water
in tank rotates as a solid body. Maximum velocity is 25 ft/s.
V = rω, Vmax = 25 ft/ s.
D = 4 ft, L = 12 ft.
Find:
Maximum pressure difference in tank (psf).
Point of minimum pressure (ft).
Properties:
PLAN
Same solution procedure applies as in Prob. 4.55.
SOLUTION
From the solution to Prob. 4.55 pmin occurs at z = γ/ρω 2 where ω = (25 ft/s)/2.0 ft
= 12.5 rad/s. Then
γ
zmin =
ρω 2
g
=
ω2
32.2 ft/ s2
=
(12.5 rad/ s)2
zmin = 0.206 ft above axis
The maximum change in pressure is given from solution of Problem 4.55
ρω 2 r02 γg
∆pmax = + γr0 + 2
2 2ω ¡ ¢
1.94 slug/ ft (12.5 rad/ s)2 (2 ft)2
3
3 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (32.2 ft/ s2 )
= + 62.4 lbf/ ft (2 ft) +
2 2 (12.5 rad/ s)2
= 606.2 + 124.8 + 6.43
∆pmax = 737 psf
58
Situation:
High winds.
Find:
Applying the Bernoulli equation, explain how a roof might be lifted from a house.
SOLUTION
If a building has a flat roof as air flows over the top of the building separation will
occur at the sharp edge between the wall and roof. Therefore, most if not all of
the roof will be in the separation zone. Because the zone of separation will have a
pressure much lower than the normal atmospheric pressure a net upward force will
be exerted on the roof thus tending to lift the roof.
Even if the building has a peaked roof much of the roof will be in zones of separation.
These zones of separation will occur downwind of the peak. Therefore, peaked roof
buildings will also tend to have their roofs uplifted in high winds.
59
Situation:
Aspirators.
Find:
How does an aspirator work?
SOLUTION
Air is forced through a constriction in a duct There is a port at the smallest area
connected to a reservoir of fluid to be aspirated. The Bernoulli equation predicts
a minimum pressure at the contraction which pulls fluid into the air flow from the
reservoir and breaks it up into droplets that emerge from the aspirator.
60
Situation:
A water jet fires vertically from a nozzle.
V = 20 ft/ s.
Find:
Height jet will rise.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation from the nozzle to the top of the jet. Let point 1 be
in the jet at the nozzle and point 2 at the top.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
where p1 = p2 = 0 gage
V1 = 20 ft/s
V2 = 0
(20 ft/ s)2
0+ + z1 = 0 + 0 + z2
2g
400 ft2 / s2
z2 − z1 = h =
64.4 ft/ s2
h = 6.21 ft
61
Situation:
Water discharges from a pressurized tank.
z1 = 0.5 m, z2 = 0 m, V1 = 0 m/ s.
Find:
Velocity of water at outlet (m/s).
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C, 10 kPa), Table A.5: ρ = 998 kg/ m3 , γ = 9790 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the water surface in the tank (1) and the outlet
(2)
V2 V2
p1 + γz1 + ρ 1 = p2 + γz2 + ρ 2
2 2
Neglect V1 (V1 ¿ V2 ).Also p2 = 0 gage. The Bernoulli equation reduces to
V22
ρ = p1 + γ(z1 − z2 )
2 s
2 (p1 + γ(z1 − z2 ))
V2 =
ρ
Elevation difference z1 − z2 = 0.5 m. For water at 20o C, ρ = 998kg/m3 and γ = 9790

N/m3 .Therefore
s
2(10, 000 Pa + 9790 N/ m3 (0.5 m))
V2 =
998 kg/ m3
V2 = 5.46 m/ s
62
Situation:
Water flows through a vertical venturi configuration.
V1 = 10 ft/ s, ∆z = 0.5 ft.
Find:
Velocity at minimum area (ft/s).
Properties:
T = 68 ◦ F.
SOLUTION
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the pipe (1) and the minimum area (2)
V12 V2
p1 + γz1 + ρ = p2 + γz2 + ρ 2
2 2
From problem statement, V1 = 10 ft/s. Rewriting equation
V22 V2
ρ = ρ 1 + (p1 + γz1 ) − (p2 + γz2 )
2 2
The difference in the elevation in piezometers gives the change in piezometric pressure,
(p1 + γz1 ) − (p2 + γz2 ) = γ∆h so
s
q
2 2γ∆h
V2 = V1 + = V12 + 2g∆h
ρ
q ¡ ¢
= 102 (ft/s)2 + 2 32.2 ft/s2 (0.5 ft)
V2 = 11.5 ft/ s
63
Situation:
Kerosene flows through a contraction section and a pressure is measured between
pipe and contraction section.
V2 = 10 m/ s.
Find:
Velocity in upstream pipe (m/s).
Properties:
Table A.4: ρ = 814 kg/ m3 .
T = 20 ◦ C, ∆p = 20 kPa.
SOLUTION
Apply the Bernoulli equation between pipe (1) and contraction section (2)
V12 V2
p1 + γz1 + ρ = p2 + γz2 + ρ 2
2 2
2 2
V V
pz1 + ρ 1 = pz2 + ρ 2
2 2
The pressure gage measures the difference in piezometric pressure, pz1 −pz2 = 20 kPa.
Rewrite the Bernoulli equation for V1
V12 V2
ρ = ρ 2 − (pz1 − pz2 )
2 s2
2(pz1 − pz2 )
V1 = V22 −
ρ
The density of kerosene at 20o C is 814 kg/m3 .Solving for V1

s
2(20, 000 kPa)
V1 = (10 m/ s)2 −
(814 kg/ m3 )
V1 = 7.13 m/ s
64
Situation:
A Pitot tube on an airplane is used to measure airspeed
z2 = 10000 ft, hH2 O = 10 in.
T = 23 ◦ F, p = 10 psia.
Find:
Airspeed ( ft/ s).
Properties:
Water (23 ◦ F), Table A.5: γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
Air. Table A.2: R = 1716 J/ kg K.
PLAN
Since the airspeed can be found by applying the Pitot-static tube equation, the steps
to reach the goal are:
1. Find ∆pz by using the hydrostatic equation.
2. Find density by applying the ideal gas law.
3. Substitute values into the Pitot-static tube equation.
SOLUTION
1. Hydrostatic equation.
∆pz = γ H2 O hH2 O
10
= 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × ft
12
= 52 psf
2. Ideal gas law

p
ρ =
RT
(10psi)(144psi/psf)
=
((1, 716 lbf · ft/ slug · R)(483 R))
= 0.00174 slugs/ft3
3. Pitot-Static Tube equation.

s
2∆pz
V =
ρ
s
2 × 52 lbf/ft2
V =
(0.00174 slugs/ft3 )
V = 244 ft/s
65
Situation:
A glass tube with 90o bend inserted into a stream of water.
V = 4 m/ s.
Find:
Rise in vertical leg above water surface (m).
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation.
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic equation (between stagnation point and water surface in tube)
ps
=h+d
γ
where d is depth below surface and h is distance above water surface.
Bernoulli equation (between free stream and stagnation point)
ps V2
= d+
γ 2g
V2
h+d = d+
2g
2
V
h =
2g
(4 m/ s)2
h =
2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
h = 0.815 m
66
Situation:
A Bourdon tube gage attached to plate in an air stream.
D = 1 ft, V0 = 40 ft/ s.
Find:
Pressure read by gage (>, =, <) ρV02 /2.
SOLUTION
Because it is a Bourdon tube gage, the difference in pressure that is sensed will be
between the stagnation point and the separation zone downstream of the plate.
Therefore
∆Cp = 1 − (Cp,back of plate )

∆Cp = 1 − (neg. number)
∆p
∴ = 1 + positive number
ρV02 /2
µ 2¶
ρV0
∆p = (1 + positive number)
2
Case (c) is the correct choice.
67
Situation:
An air-water manometer is connected to a Pitot-static tube to measure air velocity.
T = 60 ◦ F, ∆h = 2 in.
Find:
Velocity ( ft/ s).
Properties:
Table A.2: R = 1716 J/ kg K.
Water (60 ◦ F, 15 psia), Table A.5: γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN Apply the Pitot tube equation calculate velocity. Apply the ideal gas law
to solve for density.
SOLUTION Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
15 psia × 144 in2 / ft2
=
(1, 715 J/ kg K)(60 + 460) K
= 0.00242 slugs/ft
Pitot tube equation

µ ¶1/2
2∆pz
V =
ρ
From the manometer equation
µ ¶
γa
∆pz = γ w ∆h 1 −
γw
but γ a /γ w ¿ 1 so
µ ¶1/2
2γ w ∆h
V =
ρ
" ¡ ¢ #1/2
2 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (2.0/12) ft
=
0.00242 slug/ ft
V = 92.7 ft/ s
68
Situation:
A flow-metering device is described in the problem.
V2 = 2V1 , ∆h = 10 cm.
Find:
Velocity at station 2 ( m/ s).
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation and the manometer equation.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 pt
+ = + =
γ 2g γ 2g γ
Manometer equation
neglect
z }| {
p1 + 0.1 × 9810 − 0.1 × 1.2 × 9.81 = pt
ρV12
pt − p1 = 981 N/m2 =
2
2
2 (981 N/ m )
V12 =
1.2 kg/ m3
V1 = 40.4 m/ s
V2 = 2V1
V2 = 80.8 m/ s
69
Situation:
A spherical Pitot tube is used to measure the flow velocity in water.
V2 = 1.5V0 , ∆h = 10 cm.
Find:
Free stream velocity ( m/ s).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , ∆p = 2 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the two points. Let point 1 be the stagnation
point and point 2 at 90◦ around the sphere.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
ρV12 ρV 2
pz1 + = pz2 + 2
2 2
ρ(1.5V0 )2
pz1 + 0 = pz2 +
2
pz1 − pz2 = 1.125ρV02
2, 000 Pa
V02 = = 1.778 m2 /s2
1.125 (1, 000 kg/ m3 )
V0 = 1.33 m/ s
70
Situation:
A device for measuring the water velocity in a pipe consists of a cylinder with
pressure taps at forward stagnation point and at the back on the cylinder.
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , ∆p = 500 Pa, Pressure Coefficient is -0.3.
Find:
Water velocity ( m/ s).
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the location of the two pressure taps. Let point
1 be the forward stagnation point and point 2 in the wake of the cylinder.
SOLUTION
The piezometric pressure at the forward pressure tap (stagnation point, Cp = 1) is
V2
pz1 = pz0 + ρ
2
At the rearward pressure tap
pz2 − pz0
V02
= −0.3
ρ 2
or
V02
pz2 = pz0 − 0.3ρ
2
The pressure difference is
V02
pz1 − pz2 = 1.3ρ
2
The pressure gage records the difference in piezometric pressure so
µ ¶1/2
2
V0 = ∆pz
1.3ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2
= (500 Pa)
1.3 (1000 kg/ m3 )
= 0.88 m/ s
V0 = 0.88 m/ s
71
Situation:
A Pitot tube measures the flow direction and velocity in water.
Find:
Explain how to design the Pitot tube.
SOLUTION
Three pressure taps could be located on a sphere at an equal distance from the
nominal stagnation point. The taps would be at intervals of 120o . Then when the
probe is mounted in the stream, its orientation could be changed in such a way as to
make the pressure the same at the three taps. Then the axis of the probe would be
aligned with the free stream velocity.
72
Situation:
Two Pitot tubes are connected to air-water manometers to measure air and water
velocities.
Find:
The relationship between VA and VW .
s
p 2∆pz
V = 2g∆h =
ρ
SOLUTION
The ∆pz is the same for both; however,
ρw >> ρa
Therefore VA > VW . The correct choice is b).
73
Situation:
A Pitot tube measures the velocity of kerosene at center of a pipe.
D = 12 in, ∆h = 4 in,
Find:
Velocity ( ft/ s).
Properties:
From Table A.4: ρker = 1.58 slugs/ft3 .
T = 68 ◦ F, γ ker = 51 lbf/ft3 , γ HG = 847 lbf/ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the Pitot tube equation and the hydrostatic equation.
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic equation
∆pz = ∆h(γ HG − γ ker )

4
= ft(847 − 51) lbf/ ft3
12
= 265.3 psf
Pitot tube equation
µ ¶1/2
2∆pz
V =
ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2 (265.3psf)
=
1.58 slug/ ft3
V = 18.3 ft/ s
74
Situation:
A Pitot tube for measuring velocity of air.
Find:
Air velocity ( m/ s).
Properties:
Air (20o C), Table A.3: ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 .
∆pz = 3 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the Pitot tube equation.
SOLUTION
Pitot tube equation
µ ¶1/2
2∆pz
V =
ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2 (3, 000 kPa)
=
1.2 kg/ m3
V = 70.7 m/ s
75
Situation:
A Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of air.
∆pz = 11 psf, T = 60 ◦ F.
Find:
Air velocity ( ft/ s).
Properties:
Air (60o F), Table A.3: ρ = 0.00237 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Pitot tube equation
s
2∆pz
V =
ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2 (11psf)
V =
0.00237 slug/ ft3
V = 96.3 ft/ s
76
Situation:
A Pitot tube measures gas velocity in a duct.
Find:
Gas velocity in duct ( ft/ s).
Properties:
∆pz = 1 psi, ρ = 0.12 lb/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Pitot tube equation The density is 0.12 lbm/ft3 /32.2 = 0.00373 slugs/ft3
s
2∆pz
V =
ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2 (1psi) (144psf/psi)
=
0.00373 slug/ ft3
V = 278 ft/s
77
Situation:
A sphere moving horizontally through still water.
V0 = 11 ft/ s, VA = 1 ft/ s.
Find:
Pressure ratio: pA /p0
PLAN
SOLUTION
1 ft/s
By referencing velocities to the spheres a steady flow case will be developed. Thus,
for the steady flow case V0 = 11 ft/s and VA = 10 ft/s. Then when Bernoulli’s
equation is applied between points 0 and A it will be found that pA /p0 > 1 (case c)
78
Situation:
A body moving horizontally through still water.
VA = 13 m/ s, VB = 5 m/ s, VC = 3 m/ s.
Find:
pB − pC ( kPa).
SOLUTION
ρ
pB − pC = (VC2 − VB2 ) (1)
2
Reference all velocities to an observer situated on the sphere. From this reference
frame, the flow is steady and the Bernoulli equation is applicable.
VC = 13 m/ s − 3 m/ s = 10 m/ s (2)
VB = 13 m/ s − 5 m/ s = 8 m/ s (3)
Combine Eqs. (1) to (3)

ρ 2
pB − pC = (V − VB2 )
2 C
1, 000 kg/ m3
pB − pC = ( )[(10 m/ s)2 − (8 m/ s)2 ]
2
= 18, 000 Pa
pB − pC = 18 kPa
79
Situation:
Water is in a flume with a pressure gage along the bottom.
Da = Db , Va = 0 m/ s, Vb = 3 m/ s.
Find:
If gage A will read greater or less than gage B.
SOLUTION
Both gage A and B will read the same, due to hydrostatic pressure distribution in
the vertical in both cases. There is no acceleration in the vertical direction.
80
Situation:
An apparatus is used to measure the air velocity in a duct. It is connected to a
slant tube manometer with a 30o leg with the indicated deflection.
D = 10 cm, Dstagn = 2 mm
1 = 6.7 cm, 2 = 2.3 cm.
Find:
Air velocity ( m/ s).
Properties:
Table A.2: R = 287 J/ kg K.
T = 20 ◦ C, pstagn = 150 kPa, S = 0.7
PLAN
SOLUTION
The side tube samples the static pressure for the undisturbed flow and the central
tube senses the stagnation pressure.
Bernoulli equation
ρV02
p0 + = pstagn. + 0
2 r
2
or V0 = (pstagn. − p0 )
ρ
But
pstagn. − p0 = ( 1 − 2 ) sin θ(γ m − γ air )

but γ m À γ air
¡ ¢
pstagn. − p0 = (0.067 m − 0.023 m) sin 30◦ (0.7) 9, 810 N/ m3 = 151.1 Pa
p 150, 000 Pa
ρ = = = 1.784 kg/m3
RT (287 J/ kg K) (273 + 20) K
Then
s
2
V0 = (151.1 Pa)
1.784 kg/ m3
V0 = 13.0 m/ s
81
Situation:
An instrument used to find gas velocity in smoke stacks.
CpA = 1, CpB = −0.3, ∆h = 5 mm.
Find:
Velocity of stack gases ( m/ s).
Properties:
T = 20 ◦ C, R = 200 J/ kg K.
Tgas = 250 ◦ C, pgas = 101 kPa.
SOLUTION
Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
101, 000 Pa
=
(200 J/ kg K) (250 + 273) K
= 0.966 kg/m2
Manometer equation
∆pz = (γ w − γ a )∆h
but γ w À γ a so
∆pz = γ w ∆h
= 9790 N/ m3 (0.005 m)
= 48.9 Pa
ρV02
(pA − pB )z = (CpA − CpB )
2
ρV02
(pA − pB )z = 1.3
2
2 (48.9 Pa)
V02 =
1.3 (0.966 kg/ m2 )
V0 = 8.82 m/s
82
Situation:
The wake of a sphere which separates at 120o .
V0 = 100 m/ s.
V = 1.5V0 , θ = 120 ◦ .
Find:
(a) Gage pressure ( kPa).
(b) Pressure coefficient.
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation from the free stream to the point of separation and the
pressure coefficient equation.
SOLUTION
Pressure coefficient
p − p0
Cp =
ρV 2 /2
Bernoulli equation
ρU 2 ρu2
p0 + = p+
2 2
ρ 2
p − p0 = (U − u2 )
2
or ³ u ´2
p − p0
= (1 − )
ρU 2 /2 U
but
u = 1.5U sin θ
u = 1.5U sin 120◦
u = 1.5U × 0.866
83
At the separation point
u
= 1.299
U
³ u ´2
= 1.687
U
Cp = 1 − 1.687
Cp = −0.687
³ρ´
pgage = Cp U2
2
= (−0.687)(1.2 kg/ m3 /2)(100 m/ s)2
= −4, 122 Pa
pgage = −4.12 kPa gage
84
Situation:
An airplane uses a Pitot-static tube to measure airspeed.
z2 = 3000 m, Vind = 70 m/ s.
Find:
True air-speed (m/s).
Properties:
TSL = 17 ◦ C, T = −6.3 ◦ C.
pSL = 101 kPa, p = 70 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the Pitot-tube equation and correct for density change.
SOLUTION
The Pitot-static tube equation is
µ ¶1/2
2∆p
V =
ρ
Multiplying and dividing by the sea level density

µ ¶1/2 µ ¶1/2
2∆p ρSL
V =
ρSL ρ
³ ´1/2
2∆p
The factor ρSL
is the indicated airspeed so
µ ¶1/2
ρSL
Vtrue = Vind
ρ
From the ideal gas law
ρSL pSL T 101 kPa (273 − 6.3) K

= = = 1.327
ρ TSL p 70 kPa (273 + 17) K
True air speed

√
Vtrue = 70 m/s × 1.327
Vtrue = 80.6 m/ s
85
Situation:
An airplane uses a Pitot-static tube to measure airspeed.
z = 10000 ft.
Find:
Speed of aircraft (mph).
Properties:
T2 = 25 ◦ F, p = 9.8 psig, ∆p = 0.5 psid.
SOLUTION
The temperature is 25 degrees F and the pressure is 9.8 psia. The pressure difference
is 0.5 psid. The pressure is 144×9.8 = 1411 psfa. The temperature is 460+25=485
R. The gas constant is 1545/29=53.3 ft-lbf/lbm-R.
The density is
p 1411 psfa
ρ= = = 0.0546 lbm/ft3 = 0.00169 slugs/ft3
RT 53.3ft-lbf/lbm-R × 485 ◦ R
. The differential pressure is 0.5 × 144 = 72 psf.
The pitot equation is
µ ¶1/2 ∙ ¸1/2
2∆p 2 (72psf)
V = = = (8.52 × 104 )1/2 = 292 ft/s
ρ 0.00169 slug/ ft3
V = 199 mph
86
Situation:
Check equations for pitot tube velocity measurement provided by instrument com-
pany. p
V = 1096.7 hv /d, d = 1.325Pa /T .
Find:
Validity of Pitot tube equations provided.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation
SOLUTION
Applying the Bernoulli equation to the Pitot tube, the velocity is related to the change
in piezometric pressure by
V2
∆pz = ρ
2
3
where ∆pz is in psf, ρ is in slugs/ft and V is in ft/s. The piezometric pressure
difference is related to the "velocity pressure" by
2 γ w (lbf/ft3 )hv (in)

∆pz (lbf/ft ) =
12(in/ft)
62.4 × hv
=
12
= 5.2hv
The density in slugs/ft3 is given by
3 d (lbm/ft3 )
ρ(slug/ft ) =
gc (lbm/slug)
d
=
32.2
= 0.03106d
The velocity in ft/min is obtained by multiplying the velocity in ft/s by 60. Thus
r
2 × 5.2hv
V = 60
r0.03106d
hv
= 1098
d
This differs by less than 0.1% from the manufacturer’s recommendations. This could
be due to the value used for gc but the difference is probably not significant compared
to accuracy of "velocity pressure" measurement.
87
From the ideal gas law, the density is given by
p
ρ=
RT
where ρ is in slugs/ft3 , p in psfa and T in o R. The gas constant for air is 1716 ft-
lbf/slug-o R. The pressure in psfg is given by
Pa (in-Hg) × 13.6 × 62.4 (lbf/ft3 )

p (psfg) =
12(in/ft)
= 70.72Pa
where 13.6 is the specific gravity of mercury. The density in lbm/ft3 is
d = gc ρ
70.72Pa
= 32.2 ×
1716 × T
Pa
= 1.327
T
which is within 0.2% of the manufacturer’s recommendation.
88
Situation:
The flow of water over different surfaces.
Find:
Relationship of pressures.
(a) pC > pB > pA.
(b) pB > pC > pA.
(c) pC = pB = pA.
(d) pB < pC < pA.
(e) pA < pB < pC.
SOLUTION
The flow curvature requires that pB > pD + γd where d is the liquid depth. Also,
because of hydrostatics pC = pD + γd. Therefore pB > pC . Also pA < pD + γd so
pA < pC . So pB > pC > pA .
The valid statement is (b).
89
Situation:
Fluid element rotation.
Find:
What is meant by rotation of a fluid element?
SOLUTION
An arbitrary cubical element is selected in a flow. One side lies along the x-axis. As
the element moves through the flow it will be deformed. If the angle between the
bisectors of the sides and the x-axis does not change, there is no rotation.
90
Situation:
A spherical fluid element in an inviscid fluid.
Find:
If pressure and gravitational forces are the only forces acting on the element, can
they cause the element to rotate?
SOLUTION
The result force due to pressure passes through the center of the sphere so no moment
arm to create rotation. The resultant forces due to gravity also pass though the center
so cannot cause rotation.
91
Situation:
A two-dimensional velocity field is represented by the vector V = 10xi − 10yj.
Find:
Is the flow irrotational?
SOLUTION
In a two dimensional flow in the x − y plane, the flow is irrotational if (Eq. 4.34a)
∂v ∂u
=
∂x ∂y
The velocity components and derivatives are
∂u
u = 10x =0
∂y
∂v
v = −10y =0
∂x
Therefore the flow is irrotational.
92
Situation:
A flow field has velocity components described by u = −ωy and v = ωx.
Find:
Vorticity.
Rate of rotation.
SOLUTION
Rate of rotation
∂v ∂u
ωz = (1/2)( − )
∂x ∂y
1
= (ω − (−ω))
2
1
= (2ω)
2
ωz = ω
Vorticity is twice the average rate of rotation; therefore, the vorticity = 2ω
93
Situation:
A two-dimensional velocity field is given by:
u = (x2Cx
+y 2 )2
, v = (x2Cy
+y 2 )2
.
Find:
Check if flow is irrotational.
SOLUTION
Apply equations for flow rotation in x − y plane.
∙ ¸
∂v ∂u −2xCy 2yCx
− = − −
∂x ∂y (x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2
= 0
The flow is irrotational
94
Situation:
A two=dimensional flow field is defined by:
u = x2 − y 2 , v = −2xy.
x = 1 m, y = 1 m, t = 1 s.
Find:
If the flow is rotational or irrotational.
SOLUTION
Rate of flow rotation about the z-axis,
µ ¶
1 ∂u ∂v
Ωz = −
2 ∂y ∂x
1
= (−2y + 2y) = 0
2
Therefore, the flow is irrotational.
95
Situation:
Fluid flows between two stationary plates.
u = 2(1 − 4y 2 ), Vmax = 2 cm/ s.
Find:
Find rotation of fluid element when it moves 1 cm downstream
PLAN
Apply equations for rotation rate of fluid element..
SOLUTION
The rate of rotation for this planar (two-dimensional) flow is
1 ∂v ∂u
ωz = ( − )
2 ∂x ∂y
In this problem, v = 0 so
1 ∂u
ωz = −
2 ∂y
= 16y
The time to travel 1 cm is

1
∆t =
u
1
=
2(1 − 4y 2 )
The amount of rotation in 1 cm travel is
∆θ = ω z ∆t
8y
∆θ = (1−4y 2 )
96
Situation:
A velocity distribution is provided for a combination of free and forced vortex.
vθ = 1r [1 − exp(−r2 )], r = 0.5, 1.0, 1.5.
2θ̇z = dv
dr
θ
+ vrθ = 1r dr
d
(vθ r).
Find:
Find how much a fluid element rotates in one circuit around the vortex as a function
of radius.
SOLUTION
The rate of rotation is given by
11 d
θ̇ = (vθ r)
2 r dr
11 d
= [1 − exp(−r2 )]
2 r dr
= exp(−r2 )
The time to complete one circuit is
2πr
∆t =
vθ
2πr2
=
[1 − exp(−r2 )]
So, the total rotation in one circuit is given by
∆θ = θ̇∆t
∆θ exp(−r2 )
(rad) = r2
2π 1 − exp(−r2 )
A plot of the rotation in one circuit is shown. Note that the rotation is 2π for r→ 0
(rigid body rotation) and approaches zero (irrotational) as r becomes larger.
97
98
Situation:
Incompressible and inviscid liquid flows around a bend.
V = 1r , ri = 1 m, ro = 3 m.
Find:
Depth of liquid from inside to outside radius (m).
PLAN
Flow field is irotational so apply the Bernoulli equation across streamlines between
the outside of the bend at the surface (point 2) and the inside of the bend at the
surface (point 1).
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
p2 V22 p1 V12
+ + z2 = + + z1
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 V2
0 + 2 + z2 = 0 + 1 + z1
2g 2g
2
V V2
z2 − z1 = 1 − 2
2g 2g
where V2 = (1/3) m/s; V1 = (1/1) m/s. Then
1
z2 − z1 = ((1 m/ s)2 − (0.33 m/ s)2 )
2g
z2 − z1 = 0.045 m
99
Situation:
An outlet pipe from a reservoir.
V = 16 ft/ s, h = 15 ft.
Find:
Pressure at point A (psig).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation. Let point 1 be at surface in reservoir.
p1 V12 pA VA2
+ + z1 = + + zA
γ 2g γ 2g
pA (16 ft/ s)2
0 + 0 + 15 = + +0
62.4 lbf/ ft3 2 × 32.2 ft/ s2
pA = (15 ft − 3.98 ft) × 62.4 lbf/ ft3
pA = 688 psfg
pA = 4.78 psig
100
Situation:
An outlet pipe from a reservoir.
V = 6 m/ s, h = 15 m.
Find:
Pressure at point A (kPa).
Assumptions:
Flow is irrotational.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation. Let point 1 be at reservoir surface.
p1 V12 pA VA2
+ + z1 = + + zA
γ 2g γ 2g
pA (6 m/ s)2
0 + 0 + 15 = + +0
9810 N/ m3 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
¡ ¢
pA = (15 m − 1.83 m) 9810 N/ m3
pA = 129, 200 Pa, gage
pA = 129 kPa, gage
101
Situation:
Air flows past a cylinder. Highest velocity at the maximum width of sphere is twice
the free stream velocity.
V0 = 40 m/ s, Vmax = 2V0 .
Find:
Pressure difference between highest and lowest pressure (kPa).
Assumptions:
Hydrostatic effects are negligible and the wind has density of 1.2 kg/m3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between points of highest and lowest pressure.
SOLUTION
The maximum pressure will occur at the stagnation point where V = 0 and the point
of lowest pressure will be where the velocity is highest (Vmax = 80 m/s).
Bernoulli equation
ρVh2 ρV 2
ph + = p +
2 2
ρ 2
ph + 0 = p + (Vmax )
2
1.2 kg/ m3
ph − p = (80 m/ s)2
2
= 3, 840 Pa
ph − p = 3.84 kPa
102
Situation:
Velocity and pressure given at two points in a duct.
V1 = 1 m/ s, V2 = 2 m/ s.
Find:
Determine which is true:
(a) Flow in contration in nonuniform and irrotational.
(b) Flow in contration is uniform and irrotational.
(c) Flow in contration is nonuniform and rotational.
(d) Flow in contration is uniform and rotational.
Assumptions:
Elevations are equal.
Properties:
p1 = 10 kPa, p2 = 7 kPa.
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Check to see if it is irrotational by seeing if it satisfies Bernoulli’s equation.
SOLUTION
The flow is non-uniform.
Bernoulli equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
10, 000 Pa (1 m/ s)2 7, 000 Pa (2 m/ s)2
+ +0 = + +0
9, 810 N/ m3 2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) 9, 810 N/ m3 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
1.070 6= 0.917
Flow is rotational. The correct choice is c.
103
Situation:
Water flowing from a large orifice in bottom of tank.
VA = 8 ft/ s, VB = 20 ft/ s.
zA = 1 ft, zB = 0 ft.
Find:
pA − pB (psf).
Properties:
ρ = 62.4 lb/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
pA V2 pB V2
+ zA + A = + zB + B
γ 2g γ 2g
∙ 2 2
¸
(VB − VA )
pA − pB = γ − zA
2g
∙ 2 2
¸
3 (400 − 64) ft / s
= 62.4 lb/ ft − 1 ft
2 (32.2 ft/ s2 )
pA − pB = 263 psf
104
Situation:
A flow pattern past an airfoil.
V0 = 80 m/ s, V1 = 85 m/ s, V2 = 75 m/ s.
Find:
Pressure difference between bottom and top (kPa).
Assumptions:
The pressure due to elevation difference between points is negligible.
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
SOLUTION
The flow is ideal and irrotational so the Bernoulli equation applies between any two
points in the flow field
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
ρ 2
p2 − p1 = (V − V22 )
2 1
1.2 kg/ m3 2
p2 − p1 = (85 − 752 ) m/ s
2
= 960 Pa
p2 − p1 = 0.96 kPa
105
Situation:
Flow of water between parallel plates.
Find:
Is the Bernoulli equation valid between plates?
SOLUTION
The flow between the two plates is rotational. The Bernoulli equation cannot be
applied across streamlines in rotational flows.
106
Situation:
Category 5 hurricane.
Vmax = 175 mi/ h.
Find:
Calculate pressure at center (mbar).
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 , pcenter = 902 mbar, patm = 1 bar.
SOLUTION
The pressure change from the exterior to the core of a hurricane using the model of
a rotating core surrounded by a free vortex is
2
∆p = ρVmax
The speed of 175 mph in m/s is
miles 1 hr 5280 ft 1m
V = 175 × × × = 84.21 m/s
hr 3600 s 1 mile 3.048 ft
The pressure difference is
∆p = 1.2 × 84.212 = 8510 Pa
To convert to mbar, 1 mbar=102 Pa so the pressure difference is 85.10 mbar and the
estimated pressure at the center of the hurricane is
p = 1000 − 85.10
p = 914 mbar
This is slightly higher than the recorded pressure. The discrepancy probably lies in
the simplicity of the model. Also the presence of water droplets in the air will may
increase the effective density giving rise to a higher pressure difference.
107
Situation:
Pressure drop in a tornado.
Find:
Estimate maximum velocity (m/s).
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 , pcenter = 100 mbar.
SOLUTION
Assume an air density of 1.2 kg/m3 .The pressure depression in a tornado is estimated
as
2
∆p = ρVmax
so
s
∆p
Vmax =
ρ
s
0.1 (100, 000 Pa)
=
1.2 kg/m3
Vmax = 91.3 m/s
108
Situation:
A whirlpool modeled as free and forced vortex.
Vmax = 10 m/ s, r = 10 m.
Find:
Shape of the water surface to 50 meter radius.
Properties:
patm = 0.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation to the free vortex region.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
2
Vmax V2
z10 + =z+ =0
2g 2g
The elevation at the juncture of the forced and free vortex and a point far from the
vortex center where the velocity is zero is given by
2
Vmax
z10 = −
2g
In the forced vortex region, the equation relating elevation and speed is
2
Vmax V2
z10 − =z−
2g 2g
At the vortex center, V = 0, so
2
Vmax V2 V2 V2
z0 = z10 − = − max − max = − max
2g 2g 2g g
102
z = − = −10.2 m
9.81
In the forced vortex region
r
V = 10 m/s = r
10
so the elevation is given by
r2
z = −10.2 +
2g
In the free vortex region
109
10
V = 10
r
so the elevation is given by
µ ¶2
V2 100 10 −510
z = z10 + max − =
2g 2g r r2
-2
Elevation, m
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
0 10 20 30 40 50
Radius, m
110
Situation:
Tornado modeled as combination of forced and free vortex.
Vmax = 350 km/ h. r = 50 m.
Find:
Variation in pressure.
Properties:
patm = 100 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation-rotating flow to the vortex center and the
Bernoulli equation in the free vortex region.
SOLUTION
From the pressure variation equation-rotating flow, the pressure reduction from at-
mospheric pressure at the vortex center is
2
∆p = −ρVmax
which gives
1000 2
∆p = −1.2 × (350 × ) = −11.3 kPa
3600
or a pressure of p(0) = 100−11.3 = 88.7 kPa. In the forced vortex region the pressure
varies as
V2
p(0) = p − ρ
2
In this region, the fluid rotates as a solid body so the velocity is
r
V = Vmax = 1.94r
50
The equation for pressure becomes
p = 88.7 + 2.26r2 /1000 for r ≤ 50 m

The factor of 1000 is to change the pressure to kPa. A the point of highest velocity
the pressure is 94.3 kPa.
Bernoulli equation
1 2 1
p(50) + ρVmax = p + ρV 2
2 2
In the free vortex region so the equation for pressure becomes
111
∙ ¸
1 2 50 2
p = p(50) + ρVmax 1 − ( ) for r ≥ 50 m
2 r
∙ ¸
50 2
p = 94.3 + 5.65 × 1 − ( )
r
102
100
Pressure (kPa) 98
96
94
92
90
88
0 50 100 150 200 250
Radius (m)
112
Situation:
A weather balloon in a tornado modeled as a forced-free vortex.
Find:
Where the balloon will move.
SOLUTION
The fluid in a tornado moves in a circular path because the pressure gradient pro-
vides the force for the centripetal acceleration. For a fluid element of volume V the
relationship between the centripetal acceleration and the pressure gradient is
V2 dp
ρ =V
r dr
The density of a weather balloon would be less than the local air so the pressure
gradient would be higher than the centripetal acceleration so the
balloon would move toward the vortex center.
113
Situation:
The pressure distribution in a tornado.
Find:
If the Bernoulli equation over predicts or under predicts the pressure drop.
SOLUTION
As the pressure decreases the density becomes less. This means that a smaller pressure
gradient is needed to provide the centripetal force to maintain the circular motion.
This means that the Bernoulli equation will over predict the pressure drop.
114
Situation:
Flow over a sphere.
uθ = 1.5U sin θ, p = −2.5 in H2 O.
V = 100 ft/ s.
Find:
Angle of separation point.
Properties:
ρ = 0.07 lb/ ft3 .
SOLUTION
Since the fluid is air, neglect the contribution of hydrostatic in the Bernoulli equation
The pressure coefficient defined by
(p − p∞ )
Cp = 1
2
ρU 2
can be expressed in terms of velocities as

µ ¶2
V
Cp = 1 −
U
by application of the Bernoulli equation. The pressure in psfg at the stagnation point
is
1 ft lbf
psep = −2.5 inch H2 O × × 62.4 3
12 in ft
= −13.0 lbf/ft2
In order to have the correct units, the density has to be in slugs/ft3 .
lbm 1slug slugs

ρ = 0.07 3 = 0.00217
ft 32.2 lbm ft3
The dynamic pressure is
1 2 1 slugs ft2
ρV = × 0.00217 3 × 1002 2 = 10.85 psf
2 2 ft s
The pressure coefficient at the separation point is
−13.0
Cp = = −1.198
10.85
so µ ¶2
V
−1.198 = 1 − = 1 − 1.52 sin2 θ
U
115
Solving for sin θ gives
sin θ = 0.988
There are two solutions
θ = 81.1o , 98.9o
Separation occurs on windward side so
θsep = 81.1o
116
Situation:
Application of the Bernoulli equation between a point upstream and in the wake
of a sphere.
Find:
Is the Bernoulli equation valid between these two points?
SOLUTION
The flow in the wake is irrotational so the Bernoulii equation cannot be applied
between two arbitrary points
117
Situation:
A two dimensional flow in the x − y plane is described in the problem statement.
Find:
2 2
(a) Show that d( u +v
2
+ gh) = 0.
V2
(b) Show 2g+h is constant in all directions.
SOLUTION
a) Substituting the equation for the streamline into the Euler equation gives
u ∂u
∂x
dx + u ∂u
∂y
dy = −g ∂h
∂x
dx
∂v ∂v ∂h
v ∂x dx + v ∂y dy = −g ∂y dy
or
³ 2´
∂ u ∂ u2
∂x
dx + ( )dy = −g ∂h dx
³ 22 ´ ∂y 2 ∂x
∂ v ∂ v2
∂x 2
dx + ( )dy
∂y 2
= −g ∂h
∂y
dy
Adding both equations
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂ u2 + v 2 ∂ u2 + v2 ∂h ∂h
dx + dy = −g( dx + dy)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y
or
u2 + v 2
d( + gh) = 0
2
b) Substituting the irrotationality condition into Euler’s equation gives
u ∂u
∂x
∂v
+ v ∂x = −g ∂h
∂x
v ∂y + u ∂y dy = −g ∂h
∂v ∂u
∂y
or
∂ u2 +v 2
∂x
( 2 + gh) = 0
∂ u2 +v2
∂y
( 2 + gh) = 0
118

CH 04

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CH 04

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4.

1. Gust of wind blowing past a pole.

2. Flow next to a rock in a natural river.

3. Flow past the lips due to inhaling and exhaling.

4. The motion of water at the center of a boiling pot.

5. At the outlet hose of a manual tire pump.

a. Two dimensional e. Three dimensional

Particle pathline for a particle released at t = 2 s

V = s2 t1/2 = 22 × 0.51/2 = 2.83 m/s

PLAN Apply Euler’s equation.

SOLUTION Applying Euler’s equation in the z direction.

PLAN Apply Euler’s equation.

SOLUTION Euler’s equation

a has a positive value; therefore, acceleration is upward. Correct answer is a).

−∆(p + γz) = ρas ∆s

Take in the x-direction. Euler’s equation becomes

Euler’s equation in x-direction

The radius of the separator is 10 cm or 0.1 m. The acceleration is

ar = (942.5 rad/ s)2 (0.1 m)

RCF = 88831 m/s2 /9.81 m/s2

Pressure variation equation- rotating flow

Substitute values into Eq. 1.

Elevation view Plan view

Pressure variation equation- rotating flow

Solve Eqs. (1) & (2) for

The change in volume in leg 1 has to be the same as leg 2. So

∆h1 d21 = ∆h2 d22

Then p1 = p2 = 0 gage, r2 = , and z2 − z1 = 3.75 so

F = p2 A = 200, 000 Pa(π/4)(.01 m)2

Pressure variation equation- rotating flow

ω = (3000 rev/min)(1min/60 s)(2π rad/rev) = 314.1 rad/s

r22 ω 2 (0.05 m)2 (314.1 rad/ s)2

The maximum change in pressure is given from solution of Problem 4.55

Elevation diﬀerence z1 − z2 = 0.5 m. For water at 20o C, ρ = 998kg/m3 and γ = 9790

The density of kerosene at 20o C is 814 kg/m3 .Solving for V1

2. Ideal gas law

3. Pitot-Static Tube equation.

Bernoulli equation (between free stream and stagnation point)

∆Cp = 1 − (Cp,back of plate )

Case (c) is the correct choice.

SOLUTION Ideal gas law

Pitot tube equation

Therefore VA > VW . The correct choice is b).

∆pz = ∆h(γ HG − γ ker )

Pitot tube equation

Combine Eqs. (1) to (3)

pstagn. − p0 = ( 1 − 2 ) sin θ(γ m − γ air )

Multiplying and dividing by the sea level density

From the ideal gas law

ρSL pSL T 101 kPa (273 − 6.3) K

True air speed

2 γ w (lbf/ft3 )hv (in)

The density in slugs/ft3 is given by

Pa (in-Hg) × 13.6 × 62.4 (lbf/ft3 )

where 13.6 is the specific gravity of mercury. The density in lbm/ft3 is

Vorticity is twice the average rate of rotation; therefore, the vorticity = 2ω

Therefore, the flow is irrotational.

The time to travel 1 cm is

The amount of rotation in 1 cm travel is

where V2 = (1/3) m/s; V1 = (1/1) m/s. Then

Flow is rotational. The correct choice is c.

The speed of 175 mph in m/s is

∆p = 1.2 × 84.212 = 8510 Pa