CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The main emphasis of this thesis was to present simpler approaches for nonlinear analysis of
transmission line towers in Pakistan. This chapter includes the literature which led to
identification of the problem statement of this research work and helped developing the
conception of nonlinear/inelastic analysis methods such as NSPA and IDA.

2.2 ELASTIC ANALYSIS

Transmission line towers design and construction are based on specialized design codes like
ASCE Manual No. 74 (1991). In Pakistan, the transmission line towers are designed according to
NTDC/WAPDA Design Standards Specification (P-163;82 amended upto 1988) which infact is
an adaptation of IEC Standard 60286. All such standards/codes propose the applicable design
wind speeds according to basic wind speed maps, factors to account for gust effect and other
wind related load factors for the design of transmission line towers.

The gust response factor is intended to approximately include into the equivalent static wind load
the effect of overall wind load which includes both the fluctuating and mean component of wind.
Also, the recommended design wind load is base on the general assumption that the transmission
line tower will behave elastically during a wind event. The elastic methods are only limited to
the prediction of elastic capacity of structure and they cannot predict the failure mechanism of a
structure and also do not account for the redistribution of forces that takes place with the
progress of yielding phenomena.

Lee and McClure (2007) have recommended that the consideration of inelastic response of tower
is important as the elastic design approach do not provide any insight into the response of
structure in the inelastic range. The significance of the inelastic response of tower is also
validated by Li (2000) and Savory, et al. (2001) who have documented failure of towers due to
extreme wind events. Therefore, considering both elastic and inelastic responses is pertinent for
reliable capacity assessment of the transmission line towers.

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2.52.3 TRANSMISSION LINE TOWER STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR

A two-dimensional truss is one of the simplest load bearing structure but structural analysis of a
three-dimensional truss tower model by Finite Element Method poses serious challenges
concerning to the mechanical instability of the structure resulting from the occurrence of the so-
called out-of-plane nodes. In a linear elastic analysis, the members of lattice steel towers using
the finite element method, commonly modeled using truss elements (pin end conditions). Figure
2.1 shows the main leg joints of an actual 220 kV tower.

Figure 2-1: Main leg Joint of a 220 kV tower.

Da Silva, et al. (2005) is of the view that the actual behaviour of lattice tower element joints is
similar to semi-rigid joint behaviour. The same researchers have proposed the use of great
number of dummy bars of low/negligible stiffness than the tower members in an elastic analysis
to prevent the occurrence of structural mechanisms by stabilizing the out-of-plane nodes but this
procedure makes modeling of structure extremely tedious and can become a potential source of
error if the rigidities and number of dummy bars were not adequately considered (De Oliveira,et
al, 2007).

However, Lee and McClure (2007) have concluded that for achieving better numerical accuracy
of non-linear/inelastic response, consideration of frame elements (fixed end conditions) of a
lattice tower provide better results.

Some researchers have utilized a mixed approach in which the tower is modeled by assigning the
Brace Elements with hinge ends and main elements with fixed end condition. Azam Isalm,(2000)

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have used the same approach for elastic analysis of transmission line towers and De Oliveira,et
al, (2007) utilized inelastic analysis of telecom towers.

2.62.4 INELASTIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR WIND LOADS.

The inelastic behaviour of structures subjected to severe seismic loading has been
comprehensively examined using nonlinear static and dynamic analysis methods but the
assessment of inelastic response of a structure under wind loading is not often carried out.

To characterize structural capacity under seismic load, a simple nonlinear static method is
frequently employed, termed as nonlinear static pushover analysis (NSPA) method ( Krawinkler
and Seneviratna 1998). Alternatively, a dynamic non-linear analysis approach known as the
incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) method (as presented by Vamvatsikos and Cornell 2002)
has become a common choice in recent years. Both of these methods are usually applied to plot
the structural capacity curves generated for seismic excitations.

S.S Banik et al, (2010) have compared the capacity curves of a transmission line tower under
wind loading by implying NSPA and IDA methods on SAP 2000 software. They have generally
performed two dimensional analyses on 25m high tower model by neglecting the secondary
bracing elements. Their finding revealed that the capacity curves extracted from NSPA and IDA
were similar.

2.72.5 NON-LINEAR STATIC PUSHOVER ANALYSIS (NSPA)

The NSPA is an approximate method which is popularly and commonly implied method for
assessment of seismic performance of structures. According to (Krawinkler and Seneviratna
1998), the method is anticipated to capture the vital features of the structure that appreciably
affect its response and behaviour. The analysis assumes that the structural vibration mode
remains unchanged and independent of its deformed shape; due to this fact the method is suitable
if the response of a multi-degree-of-freedom structure is dominated by its first-mode.

There are two approaches to pushover analysis namely force-controlled or displacement

controlled. The force-controlled pushover approach is suited when the magnitude of load is
known such as gravity loads but inaccuracy in results occurs in case of the lateral displacements
due to mechanism development in the structure.

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To overcome these problems, usually, pushover analysis is performed as displacement-

controlled. In displacement-controlled approach, the magnitude of lateral load is gradually
increased until the displacement reaches a specified target value. Generally, the center of mass of
structure at roof level is selected as a point of control displacement.

In NSPA, the lateral forces are increased monotonically according to predetermined load pattern
until some members yield. After each loading step, the structural model is altered in such a
manner in order to make up for the reduced stiffness of yielded members and then lateral forces
are further enhanced so that additional members yield. This process is persisted until the
displacement at the top level of the structure reaches a limiting level of deformation or
mechanism is reached. The Global Capacity curve of a structure is characterized by plotting of
roof displacement with base shear as shown in Figure 2-2.

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Figure 2-2 Global Capacity (Pushover) Curve of a Structure

2.5.1 IDEALIZED CAPACITY CURVE

The Global capacity curve needs to be replaced with an idealized bilinear relationship to
calculate the effective yield strength (Vy) of the structure. Line segments on the idealized
capacity curve shall be located by approximately balancing the area above and below the curve
as shown in Figure 2-4. The elastic lateral stiffness (Ki) is the slope of the line tangent to the
initial potion of the curve.

Figure 2-3 Idealized Force-Displacement Curves (FEMA-356)

The effective lateral stiffness (Ke), is taken as the secant stiffness calculated at a base shear force
equal to 60% of the effective yield strength (Vy) of the structure. The post-yield slope (α) is
determined by a line segment that passes through the actual capacity curve at predetermined
target displacement (t). The effective yield strength cannot be taken greater than the maximum
base shear force at any point along the actual capacity curve.

By following the above procedure, the result is a simplified bilinear capacity curve as shown in
figure 2-3 which can be used to evaluate the strength of a structure.
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Figure 2-4 Simplified Capacity Curve

2.5.2 LATERAL LOAD PATTERN OF WIND AND SEISMIC LOADING

The selected lateral load distribution pattern varying with height, in the NSPA, is anticipated to
present the distribution of inertial forces in an earthquake event. In application of seismic
loading, rectangular load pattern, inverted triangular load pattern and a load pattern in
accordance to the first mode of vibration are applied.

The nature of wind is fairly different from earthquakes. The intensity of wind is zero at the
ground level; increases exponentially with height but on the other hand seismic loads are
transferred from ground level to the top of structure making the load intensity maximum at the
bottom and minimum at the top as a seismic event extend to few seconds, on the other hand.

2.5.3 NSPA UNDER WIND LOADING

The NSPA is seldom applied for appraising the structural capacity under wind loading.. It is
noted that Lee and Rosowsky (2006) had presented an example of NSPA application on wooden
frame structures subjected to lateral wind loading. S.S Banik et al (2010) have applied NSPA for
a variety of static wind load profile to transmission line tower.

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2.5.4 DRAWBACKS OF NSPA

The procedure is mainly based on the arguable assumptions that the inelastic response of MDOF
structure can be assessed by an equivalent SDOF structure. Since it is a static procedure, the
lateral loading pattern remains the same throughout the response history of the structure and also
the procedure also disregards the continuous changes in the dynamic properties after yielding
and the duration of the applied loads.

2.82.6 INCREMENTAL DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA) is a numerical method consisting of a series of

independent nonlinear analyses in which the structure is subjected to sufficient number of scaled
ground motions records or time histories of earthquake events. The scale factor is increased
successively from a small initial value. It is used to assess the global behavior of the structure by
capturing global dynamic instabilities through progressive yielding and non-linear response as
presented in literature such as FEMA-356 (2000), Vamvatsikos and Cornell (2002), (2005);
Giovenale, et al. (2004).

For seismic loading, the IDA procedure requires a series of linear or nonlinear dynamic analyses
carried out for a number of selected ground motion records which are scaled up by gradually
increasing the scale factor. The response for each analysis is noted and finally, the results are
utilized to portray the capacity curve in terms of the acceleration, base shear versus top
displacement or drift ratio. Note that although the IDA has only been used for structures under
earthquake loading, but S.S Banik et al (2010) have utilized this method with very minor
alteration, for the appraisal of structural capacity subjected to wind loading using a one minute
time history of a wind event.

The non-linear time history analysis is the most perfect approach to forecast the force and
deformation demands at various component levels of the structure. The use of inelastic time
history analysis is limited because it requires proper modeling of cyclic load deformation
characteristics considering deterioration properties of all important components. Further, it
necessitates the availability of a set of representative time history records to accounts for
uncertainties and differences in severity, frequency and duration characteristics. In a nutshell,
IDA is extremely laborious as it involves longer computation time, time required for preparation

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of input data and interpreting voluminous output data rendering inelastic time history analysis
impractical.

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