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Anatomy Exam

Introduction To Anatomy (Western Sydney University)

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Histology: Is the study of tissues

a) Epithelia: Sheets of tissue covering sheets of tissue e.g. skin

- Simple squamous: delicate, located in organs where diffusion & absorption takes place e.g. kidney
- Simple cuboidal: Line exocrine glands & ducts e.g. pancreatic ducts
- Stratified squamous: where chemical or mechanical stresses are severe e.g. skin, throat, esophagus, and
vagina
- Stratified cuboidal: Rare, found in sweat & mammary gland

b) Connective tissue:
Involved in the connection, support & protection of other tissues & organs
- Loose: Provide padding e.g. tissue, fat
- Supporting: Protect soft tissues & support body weight e.g. cartilage & bone

c) Nervous tissue:
Specialized tissue for the conduction of nerve impulses to & away from the CNS e.g. spinal cord

d) Muscle tissue:
Specialized for contraction
- Smooth: Found in tubular structures such as blood vessels & digestive tract
- Skeletal: Found in areas of the body that can deliberately move. Connected to bone e.g. biceps &
hamstrings
- Cardiac: Muscle that is specific to the heart

Examples of where you find tissue in the Human body:

a) Epithelia:
Skin and lining of the digestive tract

b) Connective tissue:
Ligaments (dense), Hyaline cartilage (supporting)

c) Nervous tissue:
Brain, Spinal cord

d) Muscle tissue:
Heart (cardiac), inside wall of blood vessels (smooth)

 ANATOMICAL POSITION
Person is standing, feet parallel, eyes forward; arms lie to the side palms facing out & fingers pointing down

Definition of body planes:

- Median (sagittal) plane: divides the body into left and right sides

- Coronal (frontal) plane: divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

- Horizontal (transverse) plane: divides the body into superior and inferior parts

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SYSTEM MJOR COMPONENTS MAIN FUNCTIONS

Skeletal Bone, cartilage, ligaments Support & protection of tissues, mineral storage &
blood formation
Muscular Muscles, tendons Locomotion, support, heat production

Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, Transport messages to & and from CNS

Cardiovascular Heart, vessels, blood Distribute oxygen, nutrients, water, and heat
throughout body. Transfer waste products
Respiratory Trachea, lungs, alveoli, vessels Delivery of air to sites where gas exchange can
occur between air & circulating blood
Digestive Teeth, mouth, esophagus, Processing of food & absorption of nutrients,
stomach, liver, small & large minerals, vitamins & water
intestine
Urinary Kidney, ureters, bladder Elimination of excess water, salts & control of PH

Reproductive Internal & external repro organs Production of sex cells & hormones

Cartilage occurs only in isolated areas such as the nose, parts of the ribs & joints

Three types of cartilage:

1. Hyaline (articular): found mostly in mobile joints

2. Fibrocartilage: pressure & shock absorbers places found e.g. feet, spine

3. Elastic cartilage: flexibility e.g. ear

Bone function:

Support: provides framework, support for soft parts & points for muscle attachment
Protection: Protects many internal organs from injury
Movement: Lever system enable movement of body & its parts also enables breathing

Bones comprise 2 major types of tissue

1. Compact
2. Spongy

Compact bone is dense with few air spaces & forms the external layer of all bones of the body.

Spongy (cancellous bone) has a honeycomb appearance & is made up of bars (trabecular) of bone with
marrow specs in between. These marrow cavities are filled with red marrow.

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SHAPE FUNCTION EXAMPLE

Flat Protective Parietal bone, sternum, rib, scapulae

Long Transmit force Arm, thigh, leg, finger, palm, toes

Irregular Varied Spinal vertebrae, bones of pelvis

Short Support, stability, movement Wrist (carpal bone), ankle (tarsal bone)

Sesamoid Protect tendons Knee cap, near joints

There are 2 types of bone formation:

 Endochondral (inside cartilage) ossification &

 Intramembranous (means inside membrane) ossification

In Endochondral ossification the bone infiltrates a cartilage model of the final structure, e.g. femur &
humorous

In Intramembranous ossification the bone develops directly on or within fibrous connective tissue
membranes e.g. the skull

Tuberosity:
A rough surface

Sinus:
Air filled space in bone

Foramen:
Hole through bone, usually round

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Joints exhibit a variety of forms and functions:

- Supports the body

- Permits effective movement
- Protects softer organs

Classes of joints:

 Bony joints - no mobility, created when to bones fuse together

 Fibrous joints – least mobile, held together by connective tissue
 Cartilaginous joints, held by cartilage
 Synovial joints - most mobile

LIGAMENTS:

- Ligaments Prohibit movements in undesirable directions

- Limit the range of normal movements

- May exist to protect or hold some important structure in position

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

The 6 fundamental classes of synovial joints are:

1. Plane: e.g. Intercarpal joints

2. Pivot: e.g. proximal radio ulnar joint
3. Hinge: e.g. elbow & knee
4. Condyloid: e.g. Metacarpal phalangeal joints (knuckles)
5. Saddle: e.g. thumb
6. Ball and socket: e.g. Shoulder & hip

Described with reference to 3 perpendicular planes:

Uniaxial - plane, hinge, pivot = Sliding, flexion/extension, rotation

Biaxial – ellipsoid/condyloid = Flexion/extension, abduction/adduction

Multiaxial – saddle, ball & socket = Flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, rotation

Muscle function: Allow body movement, protection, support and heat production

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3 Major types of muscle tissue:

Cardiac – Found in the heart where contractions propel blood

Skeletal - Found on the skeleton, the contractions then stabilize the position of bones or internal organs

Smooth - Found in walls of blood vessels, and in circulatory and digestive tracts.

Structure of Skeletal muscle

1. Individual muscle fiber

2. Fascicle (bundle of muscle fibers
3. Skeletal muscle (bundle of fascicles)

Connective Tissues include:

 LIGAMENT: IS BONE TO BONE

 TENDON: IS MUSCLE TO BONE

APONEUROSIS: IS A TENDON (TENDONOUS SHEET) ATTACHES MUSCLE TO BONE …

FASCIA: A sheet or band of fibrous connective tissue separating, or binding muscles together

4 MAJOR ARRANGEMENTS DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

PARALLEL Fascicle run parallel to axis Biceps brachii

PENNATE Fibers run at oblique angle Deltoid, rectos femoris

CONVERGENT Triangular Pectoralis major

CIRCULAR Fibers around opening Orbicularis oris

Fibrous pericardium

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Attaches to roots of the great vessels & the Central tendon of the diaphragm

 Maintains the position of the heart

Serous Pericardium

 Outer parietal layer and inner visceral layer

 Lubrication allowing free movement of heart

The heart wall has three layers!

1. Epicardium Outermost
2. Endocardium Lines the interior heart chambers
3. Myocardium Thickest

Right and left sides of heart are separated by the anterior interventricular sulcus/septum

Atria and ventricles separated by valves

- Right coronary artery Supplies right atrium, ventricle and ‘pacemaker’

- Left coronary artery Supplies left atrium, ventricle and septum

Arteries: Convey blood away from the heart

Veins: Carry blood back to the heart

Capillaries: Connection between smallest arteries and veins

Superior vena cava Receiving blood from head, neck and upper limb

Inferior vena cava Receiving blood from lower limbs, pelvic organs and abdominal organs
(eventually)

Function of nose:
Provides airway for respiration & cleans foreign particles

Two functions of Larynx

1. Prevents ingested substances from entering the lower respiratory system during (swallowing).

2. Produces sound for speech.

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Lung has three surfaces

1. Costal (lateral)
2. Mediastinal
3. Diaphragmatic surface (base)

3 lobes on the right

2 lobes on the left

Fissures:

 2 on the right
 1 on the left

Ganglion: a collection of cell bodies located in the PNS that have a similar function

Nucleus: a collection of cell bodies located in the CNS that have a similar function

Brain made up of neurons, axons and glial cells

Grey matter contains neuron cell bodies, dendrites & glial cells

White matter surrounds nerve axons

Brain is protected by skull and 3 layers of meninges

- Dura mater (outer)

- Arachnoid mater
- Pia mater (inner)

CNS has 4 main parts:

- Cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum

CSF provides buoyancy and protection for the brain!

CSF similar to blood plasma except:

 very little protein

 no red blood cells
 very few white cells
 glucose 50% of serum

Thalamus lies on the 3rd ventricle, thalamus composed of 12 nuclei

The hypothalamus lies anterior and inferior to the thalamus.

Functions of cerebellum are balance, locomotion and tasks

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ANS is the visceral motor system, and regulated by hypothalamus and brainstem

ANS controls digestion, respiration, body temperature & sexual function

Mouth first part of digestive system

Salivary glands & Liver are accessory digestive organs

Esophagus connection between mouth & stomach

Stomach has 3 layers, and 3 digestive functions

Duodenum is attached to the posterior abdominal wall

Liver has 4 Lobes (right largest) and 3 ligaments

Function of liver is the production & secretion of bile & breakdown of fats

Pancreas secrete juice into duodenum and breakdown of lipids n proteins

Ileum longest part of small intestine

Function of large intestine is reabsorption & compaction with 3 major parts: caecum, colon, rectum

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