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Algebra PDF
Abstract. These are the notes prepared for the course MTH 751 to
be offered to the PhD students at IIT Kanpur.
Contents
1. Rings 1
2. Quotient Rings 4
3. Hilbert Basis Theorem 7
4. Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz 8
References 11
1. Rings
A ring is a set with two binary structures, say, + and ×, which satisfy:
(1) (R, +) is an abelian group with identity 0.
(2) (R, ·) is an associative binary structure with identity 1.
(3) For all a, b, c ∈ R,
(a + b) · c = a · c + b · c, c · (a + b) = c · a + c · b.
A subset S of R is a subring if S is closed under addition, subtraction and
multiplication, and contains 1.
Remark 1.1 : If 1 = 0 then R = {0} : Note first that 0 · a = 0. Hence, if
a ∈ R then a = 1 · a = 0 · a = 0.
Exercise 1.4 : Show that the set of algebraic numbers is at most countable.
Clearly, Φ is unique.
Corollary 1.8. There exists a unique isomorphism between the polynomial
ring R[x, y] and the ring R[x][y] of polynomials in y with coefficients from
R[x], which is identity on R, and which sends x to x and y to y.
Proof. Consider the inclusion map φ : R → R[x][y]. By the Substitution
Principle 1.7, there exists a unique homomorphism Φ : R[x, y] → R[x][y],
POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES 3
defines a left ideal of R. We will refer to < a1 , · · · , ak > as the left ideal
generated by a1 , · · · , ak .
For example, if R := R[x1 , · · · , xk ] and ai = xi for i = 1, · · · , k then
< a1 , · · · , ak > is the kernel of the homomorphism of the evaluation at 0.
The ideal I in R is principal if there exists a ∈ R such that I =< a > .
Every ideal in Z is of the form nZ for some integer n.
2. Quotient Rings
Let I be an ideal of a ring R. Since I is an additive group, so is the quotient
R/I. Further, if a + I, b + I ∈ R/I then R/I is a ring with multiplication:
(a + I) · (b + I) is the (unique) coset a · b + I which contains it. Note that as
subsets of R, (a + I) · (b + I) may be strictly contained in the coset a · b + I.
The additive identity of R/I is I and the multiplicative identity is 1+I. The
quotient map q : R → R/I given by q(a) = a + I is a ring homomorphism
with kernel I.
Example 2.1 : Consider the ring C of convergent sequences of real numbers
with termwise addition and multiplication. The mapping lim : C → R given
by lim{cn } = limn→∞ cn defines a ring homomorphism. The kernel of lim is
the ideal N of null convergent sequences in C. It is easy to see that C/N is
isomorphic to R.
Example 2.6 : Consider the quotient ring Q[x]/I, where I =< x2 + 1 > .
The mapping p → p(i) is an isomorphism between Q[x]/I and C. In partic-
ular, Q[x]/I is a field. One can use this identification to find the inverse of a
given coset in Q[x]/I. For example, the inverse of (x4 − x3 + x − 5) + I is the
preimage of the inverse of i4 − i3 + i − 5 = −4 + 2i under this isomorphism.
Now the inverse of −4 + 2i is −2−i
√ . Hence the inverse of (x4 − x3 + x − 5) + I
2 5
−2−x
is the coset √
2 5
+ I.
The first isomorphism theorem for rings says that for a surjective ring
homomorphism φ : R → R0 , the quotient ring R/ ker φ is isomorphic to R0 .
We skip its routine verification.
Example 2.7 : Consider the ring homomorphism φ : R[x, y] → R[t] given
by φ(x) = t2 , φ(y) = t and φ(a) = a for a ∈ R. We claim that the quotient
ring R[x, y]/I is isomorphic to R[t], where I =< x − y 2 > . By the first
isomorphism theorem, it suffices to check that ker φ = I. Clearly, x − y 2 ∈
ker φ, and hence I ⊆ ker φ. To see that ker φ ⊆ I, let f ∈ ker φ. Consider the
quotient ring R[x, y]/I and the coset f +I. Since R[x, y] = R[x][y] (Corollary
1.8), f (x, y) = 2k i
P
i=0 fi (x)y for f1 , · · · , f2k ∈ R[x]. It follows that
2k
X
f (x, y) = fi (x)y i
i=0
= f0 (x) + (f1 (x) + f3 (x)y 2 + · · · + f2k−1 (x)y 2k−2 )y
+ (f2 (x)y 2 + f4 (x)y 4 + · · · + f2k (x)y 2k ).
Thus f + I is same as the coset containing the polynomial
f0 (x)+(f1 (x)+f3 (x)x+· · ·+f2k−1 (x)xk−1 )y+(f2 (x)x+f4 (x)x2 +· · ·+f2k (x)xk ),
which is of the form p(x) + yq(x) for some polynomials p, q ∈ R[x]. Thus
f (x, y) = p(x) + yq(x) + h(x, y) with h ∈ I. Now since f, h ∈ ker φ, we
obtain 0 = φ(f (x, y)) = p(φ(x)) + φ(y)q(φ(x)) + φ(h(x, y)) = p(t2 ) + tq(t2 ).
Since there are no common powers in the polynomials p(t2 ) and tq(t2 ), this
is possible provided p = 0 = q. Thus f = h belongs to I, and the claim
stands verified.
6 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES
Example 2.8 : Consider the quotient ring Z[i]/I, where I =< 1 + 3i > .
In this quotient ring, 1 + 3i = 0, that is, i = 3 or 10 = 0. Indeed, Z[i]/I
is isomorphic to the quotient ring Z/10Z. To see this, define the ring ho-
momorphism φ : Z → Z[i]/I by φ(n) = n + I. By the first isomorphism
theorem, the image of φ is isomorphic to Z/ ker φ. We check that φ is sur-
jective and ker φ = 10Z. Since a + bi and a + 3b belong to the same coset in
Z[i]/I, φ(a + 3b) = a + ib. Thus φ is surjective. Note further that if n ∈ 10Z
then n = 10m for some integer m, and hence φ(n) = 10m + I = I. Also, if
n ∈ ker φ then n ∈ I, that is, n = (a + ib)(1 + 3i) = (a − 3b) + (3a + b)i for
some integers a, b, and hence 3a + b = 0 forcing n = a − 3b = 10a ∈ 10Z.
Exercise 2.9 : Let I (resp. J) denote the ideal < x3 + x + 1, 5 > (resp.
< x3 + x + 1 >) in Z[x]. Verify:
Proof. Suppose that f, g ∈ R[x]. Suppose the degree of f is p and the degree
of g is q. If R is an integral domain then the degree of f g is p + q. In
particular, R[x] is an integral domain. The desired conclusion now follows
from Corollary 1.8 by a finite induction.
Example 2.12 : The ideal I =< x − y 2 > in R[x, y] is a prime ideal. This
follows from Example 2.7, where we observed that R[x, y]/I being isomorphic
to R[t] is an integral domain.
POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES 7
4. Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz
We start with the easier half of Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz.
n
X n
X
f (z) = f (a) + βi (zi − ai ) + γi,j (zi − ai )(zj − aj ) + · · · .
i=1 i≤j=1
The right hand side of the last identity consists only finitely many terms as
f is a polynomial. It is now clear that f ∈ ker ea if and only if f ∈ Ia .
The other half of Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz is quite difficult and needs more
preparation. The following change of variable makes life easy.
1
fd (λ1 , · · · , λn−1 , 1) = fd (w1 /wn , · · · , wn−1 /wn , 1) = fd (w),
wnd
(d + e) × (d + e) matrix
f0 f1 ··· fd 0 0 ··· 0
0 f0 ··· fd−1 fd 0 ··· 0
.. ..
. .
0 ··· 0 f0 f1 · · · fd−1 fd
g0 g1 ··· ge−1 ge 0 ··· 0
.. ..
. .
0 ··· 0 g0 g1 · · · ge−1 ge
Note that the conclusion of Remark 4.5 raises the following interesting
question: If I is a proper ideal of C[z1 , · · · , zn ] and J denotes the ideal of
all polynomials vanishing on Z(I), then clearly I ⊆ J. Note also that if
f ∈ C[z1 , · · · , zn ] such that f m ∈ I for some positive integer m then f ∈ J.
It is evident that, in general, I ( J (e.g. I =< z 2 > then J =< z > in
C[z]). How to obtain J from I ?
Corollary 4.8. (Hilbert Nullstellensatz) Suppose that I is a proper ideal of
C[z1 , · · · , zn ]. Let J denote the ideal of all polynomials vanishing on Z(I).
Then J = {f ∈ C[z1 , · · · , zn ] : f m ∈ I for some positive integer m}.
POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES 11
References
[1] E. Arrondo, Another Elementary Proof of the Nullstellensatz, Amer. Math. Monthly,
February, 2006, 169-171.
[2] M. Artin, Algebra, Eastern Economy Edition, 1996.
[3] S. Kumaresan, How to work with quotient rings: Expository Articles (Level 2), pri-
vate communication.
[4] D. Patil and U. Storch, Introduction to algebraic geometry and commutative algebra,
IISc Lecture Notes Series, 2010.
[5] K. Pommerening, Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz over the complex numbers, available on-
line, 1982.