Acoustic Emission

How does it work?

When a load is applied to a solid structure (e.g. by internal pressure or by external
mechanical means), it begins to deform elastically. Associated with this elastic
deformation are changes in the structure's stress distribution and a storage of elastic strain
energy. As the load increases further, some permanent microscopic deformation may
occur, which is accompanied by a release of stored energy, partly in the form of
propagating elastic waves termed 'Acoustic Emission' (AE). If these emissions are above
a certain threshold level they can be detected and converted to voltage signals by
sensitive piezoelectric transducers mounted on the structure's surface.

A typical AE system consists of signal detection, amplification, data acquisition,

processing and analysis. Various parameters are used in AE to identify the nature of the
source, including: count, duration, amplitude, rise-time, energy, frequency and RMS
(Root Mean Square).

An important aspect of AE testing is signal processing. There is a need to separate

genuine stress-wave emissions, originating from within the material, from external
signals, such as environmental noise (rain, wind with sand particles), mechanical noise
(movement of the component during testing), electric noise, etc. Much of this is achieved
by careful electronic filtering of the received AE data but best practice is still to identify
and remove as many sources of extraneous noise as possible prior to testing.

The frequency of the stress waves emitted is normally in the range 30 kHz to 1 MHz.
Triangulation and other techniques can give positional information and localise the
sources of the emissions.

Some European standards and codes of practice exist for AE testing: Acoustic Emission
Terminology (EN1330-9); General Principles (EN 13544); Equipment Description (EN
13477-1); Equipment Characterisation (EN 13477-2); and Examination of Metallic
Pressure Equipment during Proof Testing (prEN14584).

What will it find?

Sources of acoustic emission are:

• Plastic deformation, dislocation motion, rupture of the inclusion, phase

transformation, twin/slip deformation;
• Different stages of crack propagation (static, fatigue, stress corrosion). AE is
sensitive enough to detect newly formed crack surface down to a few hundred
square micrometers and less.
• The weld defects: lack of penetration and fusion, cracks, inclusion and porosity;
• Corrosion: localised corrosion / pitting corrosion. Detecting and monitoring of
active corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, corrosion fatigue, and intergranular
stress corrosion cracking. Hydrogen embrittlement; dissolution of metal;
hydrogen gas evolution; the breakdown of thick surface-oxide films;
• Friction;
• Mechanical impact;
• Leaks (liquid or gas);
• External noise (mechanical, electrical, and environmental).

What kind of Materials can be monitored by AE?

Acoustic emission can be used in non-destructive monitoring of different kinds of
materials such as:

• Metals: steels, stainless steel, carbon steel, alloy, ferritic steel, aluminium,
aluminium alloys, magnesium alloys, and others (e.g., copper and its alloys,
uranium alloys, titanium, and zirconium alloys);
• Composite materials and polymer: sandwich composite, glass-reinforced plastic
(GRP) and carbon fibre;
• Concrete, reinforced concrete;
• Rocks;
• Woods.

Where is it used?
• Pressure equipment: Fundamental research and development efforts in the control
of the damage in materials by acoustic emission have grown in the last twenty
years. This technique has become a reliable and standard method of non-
destructive testing for pressure vessels. AE is used to monitor flaws, corrosion,
and leakage in pressure vessels, LPG, tanks, piping systems, steam generators;
• Aircraft and aerospace: aerospace structures, wings, bulkhead, fuel tanks, Rocket
engine, real time monitoring;
 • Petrochemical and chemical: storage tanks, reactor vessels, offshore and onshore
platforms, drill pipe, pipeline;
• Marine: corrosion, composite shell, engine and power plant;
• Civil engineering: bridges, dams, suspension cable bridges, concrete structure
reinforced by composite;
• Research and development: acoustic emission is a good technique to monitor and
study the damage in materials and their mechanical properties (new materials,
smart materials, Shape memory alloys (SMA)).

What are its advantages?

Acoustic emission testing offers a distinct advantage over more conventional non-
destructive techniques:

• Real time monitoring in service structures;

• Cost reduction;
• Time reduction;
• High sensitivity;
• Defect localisation;
• Global structures monitoring;
• Control of non accessible zones;
• No intentional injection of an acoustic signal into the component under test are
needed;
• Can be used with other destructive and non destructive techniques.

Further information
TWI offers training courses on acoustic emission.
Use the SEARCH box above to identify other relevant information and knowledge.
TWI Industrial Members have unrestricted access to all TWI content. You can use the
Weldasearch literature database to supplement what you find in JoinIT.

EDDY CURRENT
An eddy current is the current is induced in little swirls ("eddies") on a large conductor (picture a sheet of
copper).

If a large conductive metal plate is moved through a magnetic field which intersects perpendicularly to the
sheet, the magnetic field will induce small "rings" of current which will actually create internal magnetic
fields opposing the change. This is why a large sheet of metal swung through a strong magnetic field will
stop as it starts to move through the field. All of its kinetic energy will cause a major change in the
magnetic field as it enters it which will induce rings of current which will oppose the surrounding magnetic
field and slow the object down. In effect, the kinetic energy will go into driving small currents inside the
metal which will give off that energy as heat as they push through the metal.
If this isn't a satisfying answer, consider a simple wire loop being moved through a magnetic field. If
you've learned anything about motors and/or generators, you will have probably learned that a current will
be induced in this loop in a similar fashion. Likewise, a wire loop being pushed into a magnetic field will
induce a current which will make it difficult to continue pushing. Likewise, it will resist being pulled out as
well. An eddy current does the same thing, but instead of being forced in the path of the loop, it is allowed
to travel in the "eddy" pattern that nature provides.

To get rid of eddy currents, slits can be cut in metals so that large eddies cannot occur. This is why the
metal cores of transformers are often assembled in small laminations with an insulator in between. This
prevents AC energy from being lost to eddies generated within the magnetic core (which typically is also
conductive because it is a metal like iron).

Now, sometimes eddy currents are a good thing. Mentioned above, eddy currents help turn kinetic energy
quickly into other forms of energy. Because of this, braking systems have been created which take
advantage of it. Adding a magnetic field around a spinning piece of metal will cause eddy currents in that
metal to create magnetic fields which will slow the object spinning down quickly as long as the magnetic is
strong enough.

Now, this can be taken one step farther and a circuit can be built which shuffles kinetic energy turned into
electrical energy back into a battery. This is what many Hybrid cars do (and Dean Kamen's "Segway" not
only when it is stopping but when it is going downhill).

MAGNETIC PRINCIPLE
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for
detecting surface and subsurface discontinuities in ferrous materials. The process puts a
magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect
magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed through
the test object and a magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect magnetization
occurs when no electric current is passed through the test object, but a magnetic field is
applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the
direction of the electric current which may be either alternating current (AC) or some
form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).

The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the magnetic
flux to leak. Ferrous iron particles are applied to the part. The particles may be dry or in a
wet suspension. If an area of flux leakage is present the particles will be attracted to this
area. The particles will build up at the area of leakage and form what is known as an
indication. The indication can then be evaluated to determine what it is, what may have
caused it, and what action should be taken if any.

Types of electrical currents used

There are several types of electrical currents used in MPI. For a proper current to be
selected one needs to consider the part geometry, material, the type of discontinuity
you're looking for, and how far the magnetic field needs to penetrate into the part.

• Alternating current (AC) commonly used to detect surface discontinuities. Using

AC to detect subsurface discontinuities is limited due to what is known as the skin
effect, where the current runs along the surface of the part. Because the current
alternates in polarity at 50 to 60 cycles per second it does not penetrate much past
the surface of the test object. This means the magnetic domains will only be
aligned equal to the distance AC current penetration into the part. The Frequency
of the Alternating Current decides how deep the penetration.
• Direct current (DC, full wave DC) Used to detect sub surface discontinuities
where AC can not penetrate deep enough to magnetize the part at the depth
needed. The amount of magnetic penetration depends on the amount of current
passed through the part.[1] DC is also limited on very large cross sectional parts
how effective it will magnetize the part.
• Half wave DC (HWDC, pulsating DC) work similar to full wave DC with sightly
more magnetic penetration into the part. HWDC is known to have the most
penetrating ability in magnetic particle testing.[1] HWDC is advantageous for
inspection process because it actually helps move the magnetic particles over the
test object so that they have the opportunity to come in contact with areas of
magnetic flux leakage. The increase in particle mobility is caused by the pulsating
current which vibrates the test piece and particles.

Each method of magnetizing has its pros and cons. AC is generally always best for
discontinuities open to the surface and some form of DC for subsurface.

Equipment

A wet horizontal MPI machine with a 36 in (910 mm) coil

An automatic wet horizontal MPI machine with an external power supply, conveyor, and
demagnetizing system; its used to inspect engine cranks.

• A wet horizontal MPI machine is the most commonly used mass production
inspection machine. The machine has a head and tail stock where the part is
placed to magnetize it. In between the head and tail stock is typically an induction
coil, which is used to change the orientation of the magnetic field by 90° from
head stock. Most of the equipment is customized and built for a specific
application.
• Mobile power packs: Are custom built magnetizing power supplies used in wire
wrapping applications.
• Magnetic yoke: is a hand held devices that induces a magnetic field between two
poles. Common applications are for outdoor use, remote locations, and weld
inspection. The draw back of magnetic yokes are they only induce a magnetic
field between the poles so inspection is time consuming are on large parts. For
proper inspection the yoke needs to be rotated 90 degrees for every inspection
area to detect horizontal and vertical discontinuities. Yokes subsurface detection
is limited. These systems used dry magnetic powders, wet powders, or aerosol
cans.

Demagnetizing parts

A pull through AC demagnetizing unit

After the part has been magnetized its needs to be demagnetized. This requires special
equipment that works the opposite of magnetizing equipment. Magnetizing is normally
done with high current pulse that very quickly reaches a peak current and instantaneously
turns off leaving the part magnetized. To demagnetize a part the current or magnetic field
needed, has to be equal or greater than the current or magnetic field used to magnetized
the part, the current or magnetic field then is slowly reduced to zero leaving the part
demagnetized.

• AC demagnetizing
o Pull through AC demagnetizing coils: seen in Fig 3 are AC powered
devices that generate a high magnetic field where the part is slowly pulled
through by hand or on a conveyor. The act of pulling the part through and
away from coil's magnetic field slows drops the magnetic field in the part.
Note many AC demagnetizing coils have power cycles of several seconds
so the part must be passed through the coil and be several feet (meters)
away before the demagnetizing cycle finishes or the part will have residue
magnetism.
o AC step down demagnetizing: This is built in only a few MPI equipment,
the process is where the part is subjected to equal or greater AC current,
the current is reduced by X amps in several sequential pulses till zero
current is reached. The number of steps required to demagnetizing a part is
a function of amount current to magnetize the part.
• Reversing DC demagnetizing: The simply reverses the current flow of
magnetizing pulse canceling the magnetic flow. Note: This is built in the MPI
equipment by the manufacturer.

Magnetic particle powder

The particles used to detect cracks is commonly iron oxide for both dry and wet systems.

• Wet system particle range in size from <0.5 to 10 micrometres for use with water
or oil carriers. Particles used in wet systems have pigments applied that fluoresce
at 365 nm ( Ultraviolet A) requiring 1000 µW/cm2 (10 W/m2) at the surface of
the part for proper inspection. If the particles do not have the correct light applied
in a Dark Room the particles can not be detected/seen. Its industry practices to
use UV goggles/glasses to filter the UV light and amplify the visible light
spectrum normally Green and Yellow created by the fluorescing particles. Green
and Yellow fluorescence was chosen because the human eye reacts best to these
colors.
• Dry particle powders range in size from 5 to 170 micrometres, designed to be
seen in white light conditions. The particles are not designed to be used in wet
environments. Dry powders are normally applied using hand operated air powder
applicators
• Aerosol applied particles are similar to wet systems, sold in premixed aerosol
cans similar to hair spray.
Magnetic particle carriers

It is common industry practices to use specifically designed oil and water-based carriers
for magnetic particles. Deodorized kerosene, and mineral spirits have not been commonly
used in the industry for 40 years. It is very dangerous to use kerosene or mineral spirits as
a carrier to due to their low flash points, and inhalation of fumes by the operators.

ULTRASONICS
Ultrasonics is a trade term coined by the Ultrasonic Manufacturers Association and used
by its successor, the Ultrasonic Industry Association, to refer to the use of high-intensity
acoustic energy to change materials. This usage is contrasted to ultrasound, which is
generally reserved for imaging, as in sonar, materials examination (NDI), and diagnostics
(mammography, doppler bloodflow, etc.). However, in spite of this distinction, much
technical material on ultrasound imaging actually uses the term ultrasonics, for example

• Ultrasonic Flaw Detection for Technicians, 3rd ed., 2004 by J. C. Drury

• Ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation : engineering and biological material
characterization, Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, c2004, by Tribikram Kundu

Ultrasonication offers great potential in the processing of liquids and slurries, by

improving the mixing and chemical reactions in various applications and industries.
Ultrasonication generates alternating low-pressure and high-pressure waves in liquids,
leading to the formation and violent collapse of small vacuum bubbles. This phenomenon
is termed cavitation and causes high speed impinging liquid jets and strong
hydrodynamic shear-forces. These effects are used for the deagglomeration and milling
of micrometre and nanometre-size materials as well as for the disintegration of cells or
the mixing of reactants. In this aspect, ultrasonication is an alternative to high-speed
mixers and agitator bead mills. Ultrasonic foils under the moving wire in a paper machine
will use the shock waves from the imploding bubbles to distribute the cellulose fibres
more uniform in the produced paper web, which will make a stronger paper with more
even surfaces. Furthermore, chemical reactions benefit from the free radicals created by
the cavitation as well as from the energy input and the material transfer through boundary
layers. For many processes, this sonochemical (see sonochemistry) effect leads to a
substantial reduction the reaction time, like in the transesterification of oil into biodiesel.
Ultrasonication can easily be tested in lab scale for its effect on various liquid
formulations. Equipment manufacturers have developed a number of larger ultrasonic
processors of up to 16 kW power.[1] Therefore volumes from 1mL up to several hundred
gallons per minute can be sonicated today in order to achieve all kinds of results from the
link that is shown below.

Ultrasonic technology was for over 40 years employed in the steel industry, initially with
flaw detection and later joined by wall thickness measurement.
For the past 15 years the plastics industry has used ultrasonic testing in the field of wall
thickness measurement of pipe extrusions.

Quality considerations and material savings serve as arguments for investment in and
protection against the increasingly important aspect of product liability. Also,
Automation increasingly is being used in order to facilitate the use of data to recalculate
the production costs of individual products and optimize the entire plant from this.

- Material Saving - Automation - Quality Control In the last few years, considerable
efforts were made to utilize ultrasonic wall thickness measuring systems in the pipe
extrusion. This ultimately was demonstrated by a multitude of key patents.

In practice, the following points are important:

Where: at which point in the extrusion line can the ultrasonic technology be utilized
advantageously? Is it better to measure near the die or away from the die, where is it
worthwhile to use which control, etc.?

How: Here various measuring principles will be compared e.g. using fixed and reversing
transducers through a water path ; or direct contact, with manual or automatic calibration,
etc. will be compared.

The goal of this tutorial is to present an introduction to ultrasonics but with a

concentration on the application. This information gives extruding company personnel
practical guidelines for discussions with distributors of ultrasonic technology.

DYE PENETRANT
Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) or
penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to
locate surface-breaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
The penetrant may be applied to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous materials, but for
inspection of ferrous components magnetic-particle inspection is also preferred for its
subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to detect casting, forging and welding surface
defects such as cracks,suface porosities, and leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on
in-service components.

Principles
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean
and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component
by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the
excess penetrant is removed, a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw
penetrant out of the flaw where a visible indication becomes visible to the inspector.
Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white light, depending upon the type of dye
used - fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).

Materials
Penetrants are classified into sensitivity levels. Visible penetrants are typically red in
color, and represent the lowest sensitivity. Fluorescent penetrants contain two or more
dyes that fluoresce when excited by ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation (also known as black
light). Since Fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed in a darkened environment,
and the excited dyes emit brilliant yellow-green light that contrasts strongly against the
dark background, this material is more sensitive to small defects.

When selecting a sensitivity level one must consider many factors, including the
environment under which the test will be performed, the surface finish of the specimen,
and the size of defects sought. One must also assure that the test chemicals are
compatible with the sample so that the examination will not cause permanent staining, or
degradation. This technique can be quite portable, because in its simplest form the
inspection requires only 3 aerosol spray cans, some lint free clothes, and adequate visible
light. Stationary systems with dedicated application, wash, and development stations, are
more costly and complicated, but result in better sensitivity and higher sample through-
put.

Inspection steps
Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:

1. Pre-cleaning:

The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that
could either keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false indications.
Cleaning methods may include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapor degreasing, or
media blasting. The end goal of this step is a clean surface where any defects present are
open to the surface, dry, and free of contamination. Note that if media blasting is used, it
may "work over" small discontinuities in the part, and an etching bath is recommended as
a post-bath treatment.

2. Application of Penetrant:

The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The penetrant is
allowed time to soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30 minutes)is called dwell time. The
dwell time mainly depends upon the penetrant being used, material being testing and the
size of flaws sought. As expected, smaller flaws require a longer penetration time. Due to
their incompatible nature one must be careful not to apply solvent-based penetrant to a
surface which is to be inspected with a water-washable penetrant.
3. Excess Penetrant Removal:

The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is controlled
by the type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-
emulsifiable, or hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiers
represent the highest sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to
make it removable with a water spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it
is important to not spray the solvent on the test surface directly, because this can remove
the penetrant from the flaws. If excess penetrant is not properly removed, once the
developer is applied, it may leave a background in the developed area that can mask
indications or defects. In addition, this may also produce false indications severely
hindering your ability to do a proper inspection.

4. Application of Developer:

After excess penetrant has been removed a white developer is applied to the sample.
Several developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry
powder, water suspendable, and water soluble. Choice of developer is governed by
penetrant compatibility (one can't use water-soluble or suspendable developer with water-
washable penetrant), and by inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous wet
developer (NAWD) or dry powder, the sample must be dried prior to application, while
soluble and suspendable developers are applied with the part still wet from the previous
step. NAWD is commercially available in aerosol spray cans, and may employ acetone,
isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant that is a combination of the two. Developer should form
a semi-transparent, even coating on the surface.

The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible
indication, commonly known as bleed-out. Any areas that bleed-out can indicate the
location, orientation and possible types of defects on the surface. Interpreting the results
and characterizing defects from the indications found may require some training and/or
experience [the indication size is not the actual size of the defect]

5. Inspection:

The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or 1100 lux
is typical) for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of adequate intensity
(1,000 micro-watts per centimeter squared is common), along with low ambient light
levels (less than 2 foot-candles) for fluorescent penetrant examinations. Inspection of the
test surface should take place after a 10 minute development time. This time delay allows
the blotting action to occur. The inspector may observe the sample for indication
formation when using visible dye. It is also good practice to observe indications as they
form because the characteristics of the bleed out are a significant part of interpretation
characterization of flaws.

6. Post Cleaning:
 The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects, especially if
post-inspection coating processes are scheduled.

Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages of DPI are the speed of the test and the low cost. The main
disadvantages are that it only detects surface flaws and it does not work on very rough
surfaces. Also, on certain surfaces a great enough color contrast cannot be achieved or the
dye will stain the workpiece.[1]

Limited training is required for the operator — although experience is quite valuable.
Proper cleaning is necessary to assure that surface contaminants have been removed and
any defects present are clean and dry. Some cleaning methods have been shown to be
detrimental to test sensitivity, so acid etching to remove metal smearing and re-open the
defect may be necessary.[citation needed]

7)
MONITORING CORROSION OF PIPING
SYSTEMS

For most property owners, managers, or plant engineers, a corrosion monitoring program exists
for the primary purpose of verifying the effectiveness of the chemical water treatment
contractor. Although a performance standard is rarely established or held to, corrosion
coupon results are generally used in deciding if any changes should be made to the treatment
program, and of whether a corrosion threat exists.

Since corrosion coupons typically return favorable results due to various reasons, but
mostly their isolation from the main piping system, they more often provide steady
reassurance that conditions are acceptable, and that there is no need for further concern.
Rarely do they show true system conditions, or provide a critical look at corrosion control
 effectiveness. Read more about the limitations of corrosion coupons. Often secondary in
importance is the interest to track the accumulated metal loss from the piping interior, gauge
its remaining service life, check for deposit build-up, and judge whether interior pipe
conditions are improving, declining, or remaining equal.

Corrosion monitoring is fulfilled to varying degrees of success through the use of different
methods and procedures - each of which offers benefits and advantages over the others. For
the greatest accuracy, reliability and safeguard against unexpected operating problems,
more than one corrosion monitoring method should always be employed - this following a
thorough evaluation of where potential problems might exist. Review a summary of common
corrosion areas for various piping systems. Some available methods of testing for corrosion
and piping condition are:

Installed in an isolated loop, corrosion coupons never suffer the same environmental
effects as the pipe itself, and rarely provide accurate test results. Hardened deposits,
electrical activity, under deposit corrosion, microbiological buildup, flow effects, and other
common environmental factors do not exist for corrosion coupons.

A flow requirement, by definition, prevents their installation in precisely those locations

traditionally showing the highest corrosion threat.

In addition, installing corrosion coupon racks at multiple points throughout a circulating

system is not practical and is almost never performed - thereby forcing the questionable
assumption that the test results shown for one specific location are representative over the
entire piping system.

Periodically cutting out samples of pipe for metallurgical analysis is extremely expensive,
usually requires a system shutdown, is rarely carried out for large diameter piping. For
any critical or 24/7 operation, is virtually impossible to perform. Combined maintenance
and metallurgical costs can easily exceed $4,000 per sample.

Metallurgical analysis does offer valuable information unavailable through any other
means, and in the case of an MIC or underdeposit problem, is critical if a slution is
desired. Its use as a random diagnostic tool is generally limited, however, due to its cost
and inconvenience.

Spool pieces provide valuable information regarding the actual net effect of corrosion
activity against the pipe surface, but again are only applicable for smaller diameter piping
separate from the main lines.

Properly installed, corrosion coupons offer a true inside look at deposits, surface pitting,
inhibitor and cleanout effectiveness, as well as provide samples for microbiological
cultures. Like corrosion coupon racks, however, they are rarely installed throughout a
piping system, and therefore enjoy limited use.

Ultrasonic wall thickness testing provides the greatest volume of reliable data, and will
typically produce a thorough corrosion evaluation as long as a sufficient number of test
points are taken over a wide enough range. The method of analysis and presentation of
the test data is equally as important as the wall thickness measurements themselves.

Ultrasound is often used as a prerequisite to other testing methods due to its low cost and
wide coverage, or as a confirmation that wall thickness conditions known to exist in one
area do or do not exist elsewhere within the piping system.

It is most often used as a tool to identify the extent of an already recognized leak or
rusting problem, and long term corrosion monitoring using ultrasound requires
establishing specialized testing procedures. Read more about ultrasonic pipe testing.

The insertion of a remotely controlled camera into the pipe offers a valuable thought very
limited inspection option. Its use requires the system to be out of service and drained, and
is greatly limited by access into the piping system. Pipe size, physical configuration,
internal conditions and length of travel offer further restrictions in its use.

Remote Video Inspection (RVI) cannot provide any wall thickness data, but can quickly
locate those internal indications that wall loss has occurred - such as tubercular deposits
or suspected MIC growths.
 Combined with ultrasound or metallurgical testing, RVI can quickly document whether a
documented conditions exist similarly in other areas of a piping system.

X-ray offers limited application for a piping evaluation primarily due to its high cost and
safety concerns. While x-ray can provide the wall thickness values necessary for a true
pipe condition analysis, it is most often used for the inspection of weld integrity or for
identifying cracks, voids, or a major localized deterioration in a pipe material.

Cost, health, difficulty of use, and environmental issues severely restrict its use in all but
the most critical of applications.

Similar technology also exists for an excellent but rarely used tool in measuring a wide
variety of piping related problems. Its use of safe, low powered gamma radiation rapidly
identifies areas of higher wall loss - quickly locating those areas in need of further
investigation.

By detecting variations in metal density, this hand held device can also detect pipe
blockages, identify wet insulation, show liquid level, or confirm pipe schedules, etc.

And, of course, the new CorrView ® monitor offers a unique method of measuring the
longer term corrosion activity common to most systems due to the cumulative effects of
microbiological growths and interior surface deposits over time. Review the benefits
available through using CorrView ®

A spool piece is a section of the same pipe, integral to the operating system, which has either been
installed or modified so that it can be periodically isolated and removed for visual inspection
and/or analysis. A spool piece often provides the only means capable of revealing the actual
corrosion conditions at the inside of a piping system - in effect a temporary window.
 Spool pieces are an excellent though less often used corrosion monitoring tool. They are
typically established once a problem condition has been realized, and even then, are used
ineffectively in many examples.

Spool pieces provide valuable information on many aspects of pipe wall loss due to most
common forms of corrosion, and can add greatly to the understanding of interior pipe
conditions. How much information they provide, however, is greatly dependant upon the way
they are installed and monitored.

Measuring the effectiveness of a chemical cleaning operation will often utilize similar testing
procedures. And since a chemical treatment program by definition involves the inhibition of
new corrosion activity, any testing program will provide information on that new corrosion
activity as well.

For any older and deposit fouled system, two separate objectives exist.

The first is to remove any built-up deposits so that chemical inhibitors can better protect
the base metal. Surface deposits substantially increase overall corrosion rate and pitting,
and exist as a far greater threat than simply the problems caused to flow rate and heat
transfer.

As deposits are removed, an increase in heat transfer efficiency is often noted first. Lower
pressure drops across the equipment is also a frequent finding. Lower energy costs are
guaranteed from any cleanout operation, although difficult to observe and quantify in
most cases.

It is important to remember that even a low to mild corrosion rate will produce thousands
of pounds of internal deposits over decades of operation. Therefore, any cleanout effort
will take substantial effort over an extended period of time. See Technical Bulletin # C-1
for the actual pounds of metal lost and deposits created at various corrosion rates.

A second objective is to reduce the chemical corrosion rate at both those areas of pipe
which have been cleaned of deposits, as well as continue to prevent the formation of new
 iron oxide deposits throughout the system overall.

Depending on the cleanout method used, the interior pipe surface may be quite vulnerable
to new and higher corrosion rates. Therefore, special emphasis is needed to ensure that an
even worse pipe corrosion condition is not created.

Fundamentally, the spool piece must exist within the normal flow path, and must be
representative of the overall piping system in flow rate, hours of operation, and usage. A
spool piece installed in a by-pass configuration to the main recirculating loop is often nothing
more than a larger version of a standard corrosion coupon - providing the same limited
information of questionable accuracy.

Any spool piece should be 2 in. or larger in order to best allow a view into its interior - a 4
in. or 6 in. diameter is ideal. Where the flow can be periodically shut down and drained, a set
of Victaulic fittings or standard unions, and a second temporary replacement pipe, is all that
is required - often a simple in-house piping job. For more critical 24/7 operations, valves and
tees must be installed with a by-pass loop around the spool piece location. Of course, the
more spool pieces installed, the more representative and reliable the information gained.

Where the interest exists to evaluate the effectiveness of an on-line deposit cleaning
program, the actual spool piece should be cut away from an existing section of fouled pipe,
fitted with valves and quick connections, and return back into service in the same location
and with the same flow and spatial orientation. In this way, the current condition of the pipe
can be viewed, photographed, ultrasonically measured, returned into service, and then
compared at later dates for its improvement or further deterioration.

Since the fundamental goal of any chemical water treatment program is to reduce wall
loss and prevent deposits from even forming, CVI also recommends the installation of
similar spool pieces having new sections of pipe. This provides information regarding the
effectiveness of the overall corrosion inhibitor program to protect any new pipe, and will also
indicate if the deposit cleaner alone is possibly too aggressive, not sufficiently inhibited, or
otherwise contributing its own effort to the wall loss at the pipe.

An easy argument can be made that the most effective iron deposit removal program is
worthless if the chemical treatment alone cannot prevent such deposits from reforming.
Were the original chemical treatment program effective, there would, in fact, be no need for
a cleanout program.
 As stated above, the primary function of a good corrosion control program is to reduce wall loss
to an acceptable or tolerable level. Second is it's ability to prevent iron oxide, microbiological
growths, and other foreign materials from depositing within the system. As shown elsewhere
on this site, a substantial volume of interior deposits can be created even under reasonably
low corrosion rates, and such deposits can produce significant secondary corrosion and flow
problems if allowed to accumulate. See Technical Bulletin C-4 about the problems associated
with interior deposits.

Under normal operating conditions, a good chemical water treatment program will
minimize both corrosion and surface deposits at the pipe. Although a light layer of rust
product might be expected, moderate to heavy deposits signal that not only is the corrosion
control ineffective, but that a downward spiral of greater corrosion activity, deposits and
wall loss exists as well. Unlike ultrasound or most other testing methods which cannot
provide a view into the pipe interior, a spool piece will visually show the result of any
chemical treatment protection (or lack of it) over time, and provide the visual confirmation
often desired.

Methods used in the cleaning of interior pipe deposits are primarily chemical. While the
composition of the deposits themselves greatly influence the decision of the chemical agents used, it
is often the speed at which removal is planned that determines the chemical cleanout procedure.
Chemical agents range from highly aggressive and quick acting acids, to more selective chelating
agents, to low level and slow acting dispersants.

The fact is that a deposit fouled piping system also defines a physically weakened piping system.
Even though a corrosion failure in progress will take place eventually, a multitude of piping
failures occurring throughout a building property, and within minutes of adding an acid or
aggressive cleaner to a piping system, is something to avoid by all means. A "Controlled Disaster,"
termed by some chemical cleanout companies to define a limited pipe failure threat, is still a
disaster by any definition once the water begins pouring down.

For that reason, any cleaning effort must be preceded by a thorough piping evaluation with the
purpose of identifying all weakened and failure prone areas. Ultrasonic testing is the most ideal and
cost effective diagnostic tool for this purpose, followed by metallurgical analysis.

Where an aggressive cleaner is used, the piping system is often drained and flushed repeatedly
to remove the loosened or dissolved deposits. For milder on-line cleanings performed over an
extended period of time, good filtration is an absolute must in order to remove the high volume of
loosened deposits that should be expected. A 10 mil per year corrosion rate, left to occur over a
number of years at a typical high rise office building, will produce literally thousands of pounds of
iron oxide debris to be removed.

One excellent alternative to the more aggressive acid type cleaner is the use of high pressure
water jet. Although greatly limited by the physical layout of the piping, available entry points, and
requiring shutdown and other special preparations - high pressure water jet does offer the benefit
of thoroughly stripping off all deposits in one quick step, and without the use of any dangerous
chemicals. See Technical Bulletin M-3 for more about high pressure water jet for deposit removal.

Overall, spool pieces provide invaluable information to any property owner or process plant
operator. For their relatively low cost, spool pieces will provide years of advance notice of an
internal corrosion problem, and help avoid the enormous inconvenience and remediation costs
involved with cleaning up a deposit fouled piping system.