AZIONAMENTI ELETTRICI

(ELECTRIC DRIVES)

GENERAL INFORMATIONS

LM in INGEGNERIA ELETTROTECNICA
a. a. 2012/2013
OUTLINE OF THE COURSE

• Introduction and Transducers (1 CFU)

• DC Drives (2 CFU)
• PM Machines (2 CFU)
– DC Brushless drives
– Arbitrary Reference Frame Theory
– AC Brushless drives
• Induction Machines (3 CFU)
– Dynamic Modelling
– Scalar Control
– Vector Control
• Labs and exercises (1 CFU)
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TEXTBOOKS

• Notes from the lessons (to be taken directly by the

students)

• References
– P. C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, S. D. Sudhoff - “ANALYSYS
OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY” - Ed. IEEE Press
– P. Pillay et alii - “PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN OF
PERMANENT MAGNET AC MOTOR DRIVES” - IEEE
Industry Applications Society Tutorial Course, 1991
– D. W. Novotny, T. A. Lipo - “VECTOR CONTROL AND
DYNAMICS OF AC DRIVES” - Ed. Oxford Science
Publications

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EXAM

• The exam will consist in a colloquium on the topics

covered by during the lessons

EXPLANATIONS

• Students are welcome to come and ask for

explanations any time they need it.

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 AZIONAMENTI ELETTRICI
(ELECTRIC DRIVES)

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

LM in INGEGNERIA ELETTROTECNICA
a. a. 2012/2013
ELECTRIC DRIVE

• ELECTRIC DRIVE: a system that allows to obtain a

controlled electromechanical energy conversion
process

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COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTRIC DRIVE

• Electric Machine
• Power Electronics Converter
• Transducers
• Control Logic & Hardware
• Others:
– Mechanical coupling
– Filters
– Etc.

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APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC DRIVES

• Machining
– Turning
– Surface milling
– Drilling
• Robotics
• Electric propulsion
– Trains
– Cars
– Airplanes, ships
• Information Technology
• Home appliances
• Lifts, cranes, etc
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SPECIFICATIONS OF ELECTRIC DRIVES

• Mechanical requirements
– Torque, speed, position
– Motion profiles
– Static and dynamic performances (steady state error,
regulation bandwidth)
• Environmental requirements
– Drive protection against enviromental agents (IP grading)
– Risks related to explosion, aggressive enviroments
– Safety (Electric protection and grounding, EMC)
– Grid connection
• Life cycle
– Installation, operation, dismissing costs

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 AZIONAMENTI ELETTRICI
(ELECTRIC DRIVES)

TRANSDUCERS

TRANSDUCERS

LM in INGEGNERIA ELETTROTECNICA
a. a. 2012/2013
DEFINITIONS

• TRANSDUCER: a device that allows to convert a physical

quantity into another physical quantity (generally, an electrical
quantity), which is suitable for measurement
• SENSOR: a device that informs us that a physical quantity has
reached a specified value

• The transducer introduces a proportionality between physical

quantities that allows continuous measurement, while a
sensor does not provide any information until the physical
quantity has reached a specified value
• Physical quantities measured in an electric drive:
– Electrical, mechanical, thermal variables

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PERFORMANCES OF A TRANSDUCER
• Accuracy: measures how faithfully the output reproduces the
input. It is usually expressed in %.
• Dead band: measures the maximum input variation that is not
reflected in the output.
• Drift: measures the variation in the output that is not caused
by a variation in the input.
• Aging: measures the effect of time on the output.
• Linearity: measures how constant is the ratio between input
and output. It is usually expressed in %.
• Repetitivity: measures the closeness among different
measurements, maintaining the same input and conditions.
• Resolution: measures the minimum change in the input that
is reflected in the output.
• Sensitivity: measures the ratio between the change in the
output and the corresponding change in the input (gain)
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ERROR OF A TRANSDUCER
• Random error: measurement error that can affect with the
same probability both in increase and decrease the measured
value. Affects PRECISION
• Systematic error: deviation between the measured and the
actual value. Affects ACCURACY

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QUANTIZATION EFFECT

• Is the effect introduced by an

A/D conversion, necessary to
express a measurement in
digital format.
• It affects the sensitivity.
• It is determined by the No. of
bit of the A/D converter
• Example:
– 8 bit: 1/256 of full scale
– 10 bit: 1/1024 of full scale
– 12 bit: 1/4096 of full scale

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SAMPLING EFFECT (ALIASING)

• Is the effect introduced by the

sampling of an analog signal,
in order to perform the A/D
conversion.
• In order to avoid aliasing, the
sampling frequency needs to
be at least twice the
maximum frequency of the
input signal. (Shannon
Theorem)

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DYMAMIC PERFORMANCES

• They measure how the input frequency determines a variation

in the output.
• Can be determined by the Bode diagrams
• Usually, in datasheets, only the bandwidth (BW) is reported.

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POSITION TRANSDUCERS: ABSOLUTE ENCODER

• Disk with splits. Photodiodes and phototransistors at both

ends, to compose a digital number
• N bit, N annuli, N photodiodes/transistors, 2N sectors
• Resolution: 2N (integer numbers between 0 and 2N-1)

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POSITION TRANSDUCERS: ABSOLUTE ENCODER

• Gray code, instead of

natural binary code, used to
avoid position errors.
• With Gray code, only one
bit changes from one
position to another

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POSITION TRANSDUCERS:
INCREMENTAL ENCODER

• Three signals (A, B, Z)

• A: n impulses per revolution
(usually 2N)
• B: same as A, but in
quadrature
• Z (or NM): one pulse per
revolution. Used to establish
an absolute position
• The (digital) position
information is created inside
a counter

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POSITION TRANSDUCERS:
INCREMENTAL ENCODER

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POSITION TRANSDUCERS:
INCREMENTAL ENCODER

• There is a small delay (position error) introduced by this

commutation logic.
• It can be limited with more complex logic
• However, it is reset at the next Z pulse

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ABSOLUTE Vs. INCREMENTAL ACCURACY
• Absolute accuracy affects the accuracy of position
measurement
• Incremental accuracy affects the accuracy of speed estimation
from a position sensor

High absolute accuracy Low absolute accuracy

Low incremental accuracy High incremental accuracy
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POSITION TRANSDUCERS: RESOLVER

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POSITION TRANSDUCERS: RESOLVER
• A sinusoidal excitation (few kHz) is provided to the rotor.
• The two quadrature stator windings flux linkages vary with rotor
position

• Vin = A sin(t)
• Vout1 = A K1 sin() sin (t)
• Vout2 = A K2 cos() sin (t) Hyp: K1 = K2 .

• Vout1 / Vout2 = tan()

• The tangent function is very tricky to be treated as a digital

information, since it goes to infinity. Whenever it is possible, it is
better to avoid it!

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POSITION TRANSDUCERS: RESOLVER
• Let  be the variable that stores the position information
• Cross-product with cos() and sin()

• V1 = A K sin() cos() sin (t)

• V2 = A K cos() sin() sin (t)
• DV = V1 - V2 = A K sin (t) [sin() cos() - cos() sin()]
= A K sin (t) [sin()]

• If we assume that initially  then sin()  ()

• Now, we can construct a Phase Locked Loop (PLL) to

determine the variable  that stores the position information and
it is locked to follow the original angle .

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POSITION TRANSDUCERS: RESOLVER

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POSITION TRANSDUCERS:
SINUSOIDAL ENCODER

• An incremental encoder easily allows a resolution of 210

• A resolver allows 212
• A sinusoidal encoder can reach a resolution of 210 + 212 = 222
• 222 = 4194304

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SPEED TRANSDUCERS: TACHO

• No load: V = Eg = Kg n
• No load voltage is
proportional to speed
• If we measure the voltage:
V = (Kg n) RA / (RA + RL)

• It is essentially a DC generator with PM excitation

• Speed is measured as an analog signal
• Not used any more in digital drives

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DERIVING SPEED FROM DIGITAL POSITION
INCREMENTAL RATIO
• T: Observation window

 • : Measured position variation
T
• : Calculated speed

• It is a measure of the average speed

• Resolution problems at very low speeds
• Increasing the observation window increases resolution but
decreases the bandwidth of the measured signal

Example:
Encoder 1024 ppr, T=1ms
Minimum measurable speed:
1 pulse / 1 ms = (2/1024) / 1 ms = 6.13 rad/s = 58.6 rpm

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DERIVING SPEED FROM DIGITAL POSITION
SPEED OBSERVER – Open loop

(TL)^

(T)^ ( )^ ( )^
(1/J)^

• Derives from the mechanical model

• It is the best way to measure speed because it has at the same
time good accuracy, resolution and bandwidth

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DERIVING SPEED FROM DIGITAL POSITION
SPEED OBSERVER – Closed loop

• Derives from the mechanical model

• It is the best way to measure speed because it has at the same
time good accuracy, resolution and bandwidth

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DERIVING SPEED FROM DIGITAL POSITION
SPEED OBSERVER – Closed loop with load estimation

• Derives from the mechanical model

• It is the best way to measure speed because it has at the same
time good accuracy, resolution and bandwidth

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DERIVING SPEED FROM DIGITAL POSITION
SPEED OBSERVER – Digital implementation

• Derives from the mechanical model

• It is the best way to measure speed because it has at the same
time good accuracy, resolution and bandwidth

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CURRENT TRANSDUCERS: SHUNT

vsh = Rsh i

• Simple and low cost

• Parasitic inductance. Need for anti-inductive resistors for high
frequency measurements
• Thermal effect. Need for materials with low temperature
coefficient (constantan, manganin)
• It is not possible to achieve electrical isolation of the measured
signal

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CURRENT TRANSDUCERS: HALL EFFECT
Open loop

BdH I  B 
R
vH 

vH

Ix

Ix  B  vH I  cos t.
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CURRENT TRANSDUCERS: HALL EFFECT
Closed loop

If B=0,
then also the m.m.f. is zero:

N x I x  N 2i 2  0
B=0 i2

Ix
Ix  i2 B  0, I  cos t.
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CURRENT TRANSDUCERS: HALL EFFECT
Datasheet

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CURRENT TRANSDUCERS: HALL EFFECT
Datasheet

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VOLTAGE TRANSDUCERS
VOLTAGE PARTITIONER HALL EFFECT

i1

Vx i2
HALL
CURRENT
SENSOR
Vmeas

• Simple and low cost • High bandwidth

• Parasitic inductance • Quite complex and costly
• No electrical isolation • Electrical isolation

Voltage transducers are NOT used in commercial drives

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