MODULE 2

PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

2.1 Introduction

Unlike diode rectifiers, phase controlled rectifiers has and advantage of controlling the output
voltage. The diode rectifiers are called uncontrolled rectifiers. When these diodes are
replaced with thyristors, then in becomes phase controlled rectifiers. The output voltagecan
be controlled by varying the firing angle of the thyristors. These phase controlled rectifiers
has its main application in speed control of DC motors.

2.2 Application

 Steel rolling mills, paper mills, textile mills where speed control of DC motors are
necessary.
 Electric traction.
 High voltage DC transmission
 Electromagnet power supplies

In this module, the following categories of phase controlled rectifiers will be studied in detail.

1. Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load.

2. Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load.
3. Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Freewheeling Diode.
4. Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load.
5. Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load.
6. Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Freewheeling Diode.
7. Single Phase Full Wave Half Controlled Rectifier (Semi Converter).
8. Three Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier.
9. Three Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier
2.3 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load

 The circuit consist of a thyristor T, a voltage source Vs and a resistive load R.

 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristor T is forward biased
but it does not conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to
conduct.
 When the thyristor is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load.
 During the negative half cycle, the thyristor T gets reverse biased and gets tuned OFF.
 So the load receives voltage only during the positive half cycle only.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output
current and voltage across thyristor.
2.4 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load

 The circuit consist of a thyristor T, a voltage source Vs, an inductive load L and a
resistive load R.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristor T is forward biased
but it does not conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to
conduct.
 When the thyristor is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the
inductor present in the load, the current through the load builds up slowly.
 During the negative half cycle, the thyristor T gets reverse biased but the current
through the thyristors is not zero due to the inductor.
 The current through the inductor slowly decays to zero and when the load current (i.e
the current through the thyristor) falls below holding current, it gets turned off.
 So here the thyristor will conduct for a few duration in the negative half cycle and
turns off at ωt = β. The angle β is called extinction angle.
 The duration from α to β is called conduction angle.
 So the load receives voltage only during the positive half cycle and for a small
duration in negative half cycle.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output
current and voltage across thyristor.
2.5 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and
Freewheeling Diode

 The circuit consist of a thyristor T, a voltage source Vs, a diode FD across the RL
load, an inductive load L and a resistive load R.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristor T is forward biased
but it does not conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to
conduct.
 When the thyristor is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the
inductor present in the load, the current through the load builds up slowly.
 During the negative half cycle, the thyristor T gets reverse biased. At this instant i.e at
ωt = π, the load current shift its path from the thyristor to the freewheeling diode.
 When the current is shifted from thyristor to freewheeling diode, the thyristor turns
OFF.
 The current through the inductor slowly decays to zero through the loop R-
freewheeling diode-L.
 So here the thyristor will not conduct in the negative half cycle and turns off at ωt = π.
 So the load receives voltage only during the positive half cycle.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output
current and voltage across thyristor.
2.6 Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load

 The circuit consist of four thyristors T1, T2, T3 and T4, a voltage source Vs and a R
Load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristors T1 & T2 is forward
biased but it does not conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristors T1 & T2 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and
begins to conduct.
 When the T1 & T2 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load through the path Vs-
T1-Load-T2-Vs.
 During the negative half cycle, T3 & T4 is forward biased, the thyristor T1 & T2 gets
reverse biased and turns OFF
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T3 & T4 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and
begins to conduct.
 When T3 & T4 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load Vs-T3-Load-T4-Vs.
 Here the load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output
current and voltage across thyristor.
2.7 Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load

A. MID POINT CONVERTER

 The circuit consist of two thyristors T1 and T2, a center tap transformer, a voltage
source Vs and a RL Load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristor T1 is forward biased
but it does not conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T1 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins
to conduct.
 When the thyristor T1 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the
inductor present in the load, the current through the load builds up slowly through the
path A-T1-Load-N-A.
 During the negative half cycle, T2 is forward biased, the thyristor T1 gets reverse
biased but the current through the thyristor T1 is not zero due to the inductor and T1
does not turns OFF
 The current through the inductor begins to decay to zero and T1 conducts for a small
duration in negative half cycle..
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T2 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and
begins to conduct.
 When the thyristor T2 is ON, the load current shifts its path from the T1 to T2 and
thyristor T1 turns OFF at ωt = π+α.
 When T2 is ON, the current through the load builds up slowly through the path B-T2-
Load-N-B.
 So here both the thyristor will conduct for a few duration in the negative half cycle.
 The load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output
current and voltage across thyristor.
B. BRIDGE CONVERTER

 The circuit consist of four thyristors T1, T2, T3 and T4, a voltage source Vs and a RL
Load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristors T1 & T2 is forward
biased but it does not conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristors T1 & T2 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and
begins to conduct.
 When the T1 & T2 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the
inductor present in the load, the current through the load builds up slowly through the
path Vs-T1-Load-T2-Vs.
 During the negative half cycle, T3 & T4 is forward biased, the thyristor T1 & T2 gets
reverse biased but the current through them is not zero due to the inductor and does
not turns OFF
 The current through the inductor begins to decay to zero and T1 & T2 conducts for a
small duration in negative half cycle..
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T3 & T4 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and
begins to conduct.
 When the thyristor T3 & T4 is ON, the load current shifts its path to T3 & T4 and
turns OFF T1 & T2 at ωt = π+α.
 When T3 & T4 is ON, the current through the load builds up slowly through the path
Vs-T3-Load-T4-Vs.
 So here all the thyristor will conduct for a few duration in the negative half cycle.
 The load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output
current and voltage across thyristor.
2.8 Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and
Freewheeling Diode.

 The circuit consist of four thyristors T1, T2, T3 and T4, a voltage source Vs, a RL
Load and a freewheeling diode across the load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristors T1 & T2 is forward
biased but it does not conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristors T1 & T2 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and
begins to conduct.
 When the T1 & T2 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the
inductor present in the load, the current through the load builds up slowly through the
path Vs-T1-Load-T2-Vs.
 During the negative half cycle (at ωt = π), T3 & T4 is forward biased, the thyristor T1
& T2 gets reverse biased.
 The current shifts its path to the freewheeling diode and circulates through the loop
FD-R-L-FD.
 Thus T1 & T2 turns off at ωt = π
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T3 & T4 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and
begins to conduct.
 When T3 & T4 is ON, the current through the load builds up slowly through the path
Vs-T3-Load-T4-Vs.
 During the next positive half cycle (at ωt = 2π), T1 & T2 is forward biased, the
thyristor T3 & T4 gets reverse biased.
 The current shifts its path to the freewheeling diode and circulates through the loop
FD-R-L-FD.
 Thus T3 & T4 turns off at ωt = 2π
 So here all the thyristor will conduct only in the positive half cycle.
 The load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output
current and voltage across thyristor
2.9 Single Phase Full Wave Half Controlled Rectifier (Semi Converter)

 The circuit consist of two thyristors T1 & T2, two diodes D1 and D2, a voltage source
Vs, a RL Load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristors T1 & D1 is forward
biased but it does not conduct until a gate signal is applied to T1.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristors T1 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins
to conduct.
 When the T1 & D1 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the
inductor present in the load, the current through the load builds up.
 During the negative half cycle (at ωt = π), T2 & D2 is forward biased, the thyristor T1
& D1 gets reverse biased.
 The current shifts its path to D2 and T1 in case of symmetrical converter (D1 & D2 in
case of asymmetical converter) and circulates through the load.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T2 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and
begins to conduct.
 When T2 & D2 is ON, the current through the load builds up.
 During the next positive half cycle (at ωt = 2π), T1 & D1 is forward biased, the
thyristor T2 & D2 gets reverse biased.
 The current shifts its path to D1 and T2 in case of symmetrical converter (D1 & D2 in
case of asymmetical converter) and circulates through the load.
 The load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output
current and voltage across thyristor.
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 PERFORMANCE PARAMETER OF TWO PULSE CONVERTERS

1. SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

The instantaneous value of current in given by

is(t) =

The current attains its max value when = 1. Therefore,

Inmax =

RMS value of the n component is given by,

Isn = = =

RMS value of fundamental current, IS1 is given by,

Is1 = = 0.00932 Io

RMS value of total input current, IS is given by

Displacement factor is given by DF = cos α

Displacement factor is the measure of displacing in current and voltage with respect to time.

Power Factor, PF = DF × CDF

Harmonic factor, HF indicates the amount of harmonics present in the output. It is also called
THD, Total Harmonic Distortion. It is given by

Voltage ripple factor is given by

VRF =

Where Vor is the RMS value of output voltage of single phase fullwave rectifier and Vo is
the average output voltage of single phase fullware rectifier. Substituting the expression of
Vor and Vo in the above equations we get,

Active Power Input is given by,

Pi = rms value of source voltage ×
rms fundamental component of source current ×
displacement factor

Reactive power Qi is given by,

 2. SINGLE PHASE SEMI CONVERTER

The instantaneous value of current in given by

RMS value of nth harmonic current component is given by

RMS fundamental current component is given by

RMS value of total input current, IS is given by

Displacement factor is given by DF = cos

Current Distortion Factor, CDF is given by

Power Factor, PF = DF × CDF

Harmonic factor, HF indicates the amount of harmonics present in the output. It is also called
THD, Total Harmonic Distortion. It is given by
Voltage ripple factor is given by,

Where Vor is the RMS value of output voltage of single phase semi converter and Vo is the
average output voltage of single phase semi converter.

Active Power Input is given by Pi = VO IO

Reactive Power Input is given by Qi = VO IO tan
Circuit Diagram and Waveform of 3 Phase Half Controlled Rectifier with R Load
 Circuit Diagram and Waveform of 3 Phase Half Controlled Rectifier with R Load

 The circuit consist of a delta star transformer and 3 thyristors T1, T2, T3 which are connected on the
secondary star connected winding and a resistive load.
 When Va is positive, T1 becomes forward biased and conducts. During the negative cycle of Va, T1
turns off.
 Similarly T2 and T3 conducts only during the positive cycles of Vb and Vc respectively.
 The average output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angles of the thyristors.
 The waveforms shows the output voltage for various firing angles.
 In the waveform, Va is denoted as Van, Vb as Vbn, Vc as Vcn.
Circuit Diagram and Waveform of 3 Phase Half Controlled Rectifier with RL Load
 Circuit Diagram and Waveform of 3 Phase Half Controlled Rectifier with RL Load

 The circuit consist of a delta star transformer and 3 thyristors T1, T2, T3 which are connected on the
secondary star connected winding and a RL load.
 When Va is positive, T1 becomes forward biased and conducts. During the negative cycle of Va, the
current through T1 is not zero due to inductor present in the load.
 So T1 will remain ON during the negative cycle of Va
 When Vb is positive, T2 is triggered and the load current gets transferred from T1 to T2. At this
instant, T1 turns OFF.
 During the negative cycle of Vb, the current through T2 is not zero due to inductor present in the
load.
 So T2 will remain ON during the negative cycle of Vb
 When T3 is triggered during positive cycle of Vc, the load current is transferred from T2 to T3. At
this instant, T2 turns OFF
 Similarly T3 conducts during the negative cycle of Vc and turns OFF when T1 is triggered.
 The average output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angles of the thyristors.
 The waveforms shows the output voltage for various firing angles.
 In the waveform, Va is denoted as Van, Vb as Vbn, Vc as Vcn.
 Circuit Diagram and Waveform of 3 Phase Full Controlled Rectifier with RL Load

 The circuit consist of 6 thyristors, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, a three phase supply and a RL load.
 The thyristors T1, T3, T5 form the positive group.
 The thyristors T4, T6, T2 form the negative group.
 Thyristors T1, T3, T4, T6 produces the full wave recitified output of Vab across the load.
 Thyristors T3, T5, T6, T2 produces the full wave recitified output of Vbc across the load.
 Thyristors T1, T5, T4, T2 produces the full wave recitified output of Vca across the load.
 All these 3 outputs are given simultaneously to the same RL load. The effect is that all the 3
individual output mentioned above gets superimposed on each other to get the final output.
 The waveform of the output for different firing angles are shown below.
 The average output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle.
 For firing angle < 90, the circuit works as rectifier.
 For firing angle > 90, the circuit works as Line commutated inverter.
 UNIT- III

DC CHOPPERS
INTRODUCTION
A chopper is a static device which is used to obtain a variable dc voltage from a constant
dc voltage source. A chopper is also known as dc-to-dc converter. The thyristor converter offers
greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller size and smooth control.
Choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery operated vehicles, traction motor control,
control of large number of dc motors, etc….. They are also used in regenerative braking of dc
motors to return energy back to supply and also as dc voltage regulators.

Choppers are of two types

Step-down choppers
Step-up choppers.

In step-down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage whereas
in step-up choppers output voltage will be more than the input voltage.

PRINCIPLE OF STEP-DOWN CHOPPER

Chopper
i0
+

V R V0


Fig. 2.1: Step-down Chopper with Resistive Load

Figure 2.1 shows a step-down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the circuit
acts as a switch. When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load and when
thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero. The output voltage and current
waveforms are as shown in figure 2.2.

1
 v0
V

Vdc

t
tON tOFF
i0

V/R
Idc
t
T

Fig. 2.2: Step-down choppers — output voltage and current waveforms

Vdc = average value of output or load voltage

I dc = average value of output or load current
tON = time interval for which SCR conducts
tOFF = time interval for which SCR is OFF.
T  tON  tOFF = period of switching or chopping period
1
f   frequency of chopper switching or chopping frequency.
T

Average output voltage

 tON 
Vdc  V   ...  2.1
 tON  tOFF 

t 
Vdc  V  ON   V .d ...  2.2 
 T 

 tON 
but  t   d  duty cycle ...  2.3
 

Average output current,

V
I dc  dc ...  2.4 
R

V  tON  V
I dc   Rd ...  2.5
R  T 

2
RMS value of output voltage
tON
1
VO   v dt
2
o
T 0

But during tON , vo  V

Therefore RMS output voltage

tON
1
VO  V
2
dt
T 0

V2 t
VO  tON  ON .V ...  2.6 
T T

VO  d .V ...  2.7 

Output power PO  VO I O

VO
But IO 
R

VO2
Therefore output power PO 
R

dV 2
PO  ...  2.8 
R

Effective input resistance of chopper

V
Ri  ...  2.9 
I dc

R
Ri  ...  2.10 
d
The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.

METHODS OF CONTROL

The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods.

Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.
Variable frequency control.

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

In pulse width modulation the pulse width  tON  of the output waveform is varied
keeping chopping frequency ‘f’ and hence chopping period ‘T’ constant. Therefore output
voltage is varied by varying the ON time, tON . Figure 2.3 shows the output voltage waveforms
for different ON times.
3
 V0
V

tON tOFF

t
T
V0

t
tON tOFF

Fig. 2.3: Pulse Width Modulation Control

VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL

In this method of control, chopping frequency f is varied keeping either tON or tOFF
constant. This method is also known as frequency modulation.
Figure 2.4 shows the output voltage waveforms for a constant tON and variable
chopping period T.
In frequency modulation to obtain full output voltage, range frequency has to be varied
over a wide range. This method produces harmonics in the output and for large tOFF load
current may become discontinuous.
v0
V

tON tOFF
t
T
v0

tON tOFF
t
T

Fig. 2.4: Output Voltage Waveforms for Time Ratio Control

4
STEP-DOWN CHOPPER WITH R-L LOAD

Figure 2.5 shows a step-down chopper with R-L load and free wheeling diode. When
chopper is ON, the supply is connected across the load. Current flows from the supply to the
load. When chopper is OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through
the free-wheeling diode due to the energy stored in the inductor L. The load current can be
continuous or discontinuous depending on the values of L and duty cycle, d. For a continuous
current operation the load current is assumed to vary between two limits I min and I max .
Figure 2.6 shows the output current and output voltage waveforms for a continuous
current and discontinuous current operation.

Chopper
i0
+
R

V V0
FWD L

E

Fig. 2.5: Step Down Chopper with R-L Load

v0
Output
voltage
V
tON tOFF
t
T
i0 Output
Imax current

Continuous
Imin current
t
i0 Output
current
Discontinuous
current
t

Fig. 2.6: Output Voltage and Load Current Waveforms (Continuous Current)
When the current exceeds I max the chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on when
current reduces to I min .

5
EXPRESSIONS FOR LOAD CURRENT iO FOR CONTINUOUS CURRENT
OPERATION WHEN CHOPPER IS ON  0  t  tON 

i0
+
R

V V0
L

E
-
Fig. 2.5 (a)

Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(a) is

diO
V  iO R  L E ...  2.11
dt

Taking Laplace Transform

 RI O  S   L  S .I O  S   iO  0   
V E
...  2.12 
S S

At t  0 , initial current iO  0   I min



V E I
IO  S    min ...  2.13
 R R
LS  S   S 
 L L

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

V E    t 
 R  R
 t
iO  t   1  e     I min e  
L L
...  2.14 
R  

This expression is valid for 0  t  tON . i.e., during the period chopper is ON.

At the instant the chopper is turned off, load current is

iO  tON   I max

6
When Chopper is OFF  0  t  tOFF 
i0

Fig. 2.5 (b)

Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(b) is

diO
0  RiO  L E ...  2.15 
dt

Taking Laplace transform

0  RI O  S   L  SI O  S   iO  0   
E
S

Redefining time origin we have at t  0 , initial current iO  0   I max

I max E
Therefore IO  S   
S
R  R
LS  S  
L  L

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

R
 t E  t
R
iO  t   I max e L
 1  e L  ...  2.16 
R 

The expression is valid for 0  t  tOFF , i.e., during the period chopper is OFF. At the
instant the chopper is turned ON or at the end of the off period, the load current is

iO  tOFF   I min

TO FIND I max AND I min

From equation (2.14),

At t  tON  dT , iO  t   I max

7
 V E  
dRT
 
dRT

Therefore I max  1  e L

 min
I e L
...  2.17 
R  

From equation (2.16),

At t  tOFF  T  tON , iO  t   I min

t  tOFF  1  d  T

1 d  RT  1 d  RT
 E  
Therefore I min  I max e L
 1  e L
 ...  2.18 
R  

Substituting for I min in equation (2.17) we get,

 
dRT

V 1  e L  E
I max  ...  2.19 
R 
RT  R
 1  e L


Substituting for I max in equation (2.18) we get,

 dRT 
V  e L  1 E
I min   ...  2.20 
R  RTL  R
 e  1 

 I max  I min  is known as the steady state ripple.

Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current

I  I max  I min

Average output voltage

Vdc  d .V ...  2.21

Average output current

I max  I min
I dc approx   ...  2.22 
2

Assuming load current varies linearly from I min to I max instantaneous load current is given by

iO  I min 
 I  .t for 0  t  tON  dT 
dT

8
 I I 
iO  I min   max min  t ...  2.23
 dT 

RMS value of load current

dT
1
I O RMS    i dt
2
0
dT 0

 I max  I min  t 
2
1
dT

I O RMS  
dT 0  I min  dT  dt

 2  I max  I min  2 2 I min  I max  I min  t 

dT 2
1
I O RMS   0  I min   dT  t   dt
dT  dT 

RMS value of output current

1
 2  I max  I min  2
2

I O RMS    I min   I min  I max  I min   ...  2.24 

 3 

RMS chopper current

dT
1
  i dt
2
I CH 0
T 0

2
 I I  
dT
1
I CH 
T 0  I min   maxdT min  t  dt
1
 2  I max  I min  2
2

I CH  d  I min   I min  I max  I min  

 3 

ICH  d I O RMS  ...  2.25

Effective input resistance is

V
Ri 
IS

Where I S = Average source current

I S  dI dc

V
Therefore Ri  ...  2.26 
dI dc

9
PRINCIPLE OF STEP-UP CHOPPER

I L D
+
+ 

L
C O VO
V A
D
Chopper

Fig. 2.13: Step-up Chopper

Figure 2.13 shows a step-up chopper to obtain a load voltage VO higher than the input
voltage V. The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of output voltage
and current. When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across the supply. The
inductor current ‘I’ rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON time of the chopper, tON
. When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow through the diode D and load
for a period, tOFF . The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the polarity of induced
EMF in L. Therefore voltage across load is given by

dI
VO  V  L i.e., VO  V ...  2.27 
dt

If a large capacitor ‘C’ is connected across the load then the capacitor will provide a
continuous output voltage VO . Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the source.
Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of dc motors.

EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Assume the average inductor current to be I during ON and OFF time of Chopper.

When Chopper is ON
Voltage across inductor L  V

Therefore energy stored in inductor = V .I .tON ...  2.28 ,

where tON  ON period of chopper.

When Chopper is OFF (energy is supplied by inductor to load)

Voltage across L  VO  V

10
 Energy supplied by inductor L  VO  V  ItOFF , where tOFF  OFF period of
Chopper.

Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor L = energy supplied by inductor L

Therefore VItON  VO  V  ItOFF

V tON  tOFF 
VO 
tOFF

 T 
VO  V  
 T  tON 

Where T = Chopping period or period of switching.

T  tON  tOFF

 
 1 
VO  V  
t
 1  ON 
 T 

 1 
Therefore VO  V   ...  2.29 
 1 d 

tON
Where d  duty cyle
T

For variation of duty cycle ‘d’ in the range of 0  d  1 the output voltage VO will vary in the
range V  VO   .

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn OFF. Hence duty
cycle d can be varied only between a minimum and a maximum value, limiting the minimum
and maximum value of the output voltage. Ripple in the load current depends inversely on the
chopping frequency, f. Therefore to reduce the load ripple current, frequency should be as high
as possible.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS
Choppers are classified as follows
Class A Chopper
Class B Chopper
Class C Chopper
Class D Chopper

11
Class E Chopper
CLASS A CHOPPER

i0 v0
+

Chopper
L
O v0 V
V A
FWD D

 i0

Fig. 2.14: Class A Chopper and vO  iO Characteristic

Figure 2.14 shows a Class A Chopper circuit with inductive load and free-wheeling
diode. When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load i.e., vO  V and
current i0 flows as shown in figure. When chopper is OFF, v0 = 0 and the load current iO
continues to flow in the same direction through the free wheeling diode. Therefore the average
values of output voltage and current i.e., vO and iO are always positive. Hence, Class A
Chopper is a first quadrant chopper (or single quadrant chopper). Figure 2.15 shows output
voltage and current waveforms for a continuous load current.

ig Thyristor
gate pulse

t
i0
Output current

CH ON
t
v0 FWD Conducts
Output voltage

t
tON
T
Fig. 2.15: First quadrant Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

12
 Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows from source to
load. It is used to control the speed of dc motor. The output current equations obtained in step
down chopper with R-L load can be used to study the performance of Class A Chopper.

CLASS B CHOPPER
D
i0 v0
+
R

V L v0

Chopper
E i0


Fig. 2.16: Class B Chopper

Fig. 2.16 shows a Class B Chopper circuit. When chopper is ON, vO  0 and E drives a
current iO through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure 2.16. During the ON
period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy. When Chopper is OFF, diode D
conducts, vO  V and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to the supply. Also the
current iO continues to flow from the load to source. Hence the average output voltage is
positive and average output current is negative. Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second
quadrant. In this chopper, power flows from load to source. Class B Chopper is used for
regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.17 shows the output voltage and current waveforms
of a Class B Chopper.
The output current equations can be obtained as follows. During the interval diode ‘D’
conducts (chopper is off) voltage equation is given by
i0
+
D
Conducting R

V V0
L

E
-
LdiO
V  RiO  E
dt

For the initial condition i.e., iO  t   I min at t  0 .

The solution of the above equation is obtained along similar lines as in step-down
chopper with R-L load

13
 V E  t 
R R
 t
Therefore iO  t    1  e L

 min
I e L
0  t  tOFF
R  

At t  tOFF i O   t   I max

V E R
 tOFF  R
 tOFF
I max   1  e L

 min
I e L
R  

During the interval chopper is ON voltage equation is given by

i0
+
R

Chopper V0
ON L

E
-

LdiO
0  RiO  E
dt

Redefining the time origin, at t  0 iO  t   I max .

The solution for the stated initial condition is

R
 t E  t
R
iO  t   I max e L
  1  e L
 0  t  tON
R 

At t  tON iO  t   I min

R
 tON E  tON 
R

Therefore I min  I max e L

  1  e L

R 

14
 ig
Thyristor
gate pulse

t
i0 tOFF tON

T
t
Output current
Imax
Imin
D
conducts Chopper
conducts
v0 Output voltage

Fig. 2.17: Class B Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

CLASS C CHOPPER
Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers. Figure 2.18 shows
a Class C two quadrant Chopper circuit. For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2
conducts and for second quadrant operation, CH 2 is ON or D1 conducts. When CH1 is ON,
the load current iO is positive. i.e., iO flows in the direction as shown in figure 2.18.
The output voltage is equal to V  vO  V  and the load receives power from the source.

CH1 D1
i0 v0
+

V R

CH2 D2 L v0

Chopper
i0
E


Fig. 2.18: Class C Chopper

When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through
the diode D2 and the output voltage vO  0 , but iO continues to flow in positive direction.
When CH 2 is triggered, the voltage E forces iO to flow in opposite direction through L and

15
CH 2 . The output voltage vO  0 . On turning OFF CH 2 , the energy stored in the inductance
drives current through diode D1 and the supply; output voltage vO  V the input current
becomes negative and power flows from load to source.
Thus the average output voltage vO is positive but the average output current iO can
take both positive and negative values. Choppers CH1 and CH 2 should not be turned ON
simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the supply. Class C Chopper can be used
both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.19 shows the output
voltage and current waveforms.

ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

D1 CH1 D2 CH2 D1 CH1 D2 CH2

ON ON ON ON
V0
Output voltage

Fig. 2.19: Class C Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

CLASS D CHOPPER

v0
CH1 D2

R i0 L E
V
+ v0  i0

D1 CH2

Fig. 2.20: Class D Chopper

Figure 2.20 shows a class D two quadrant chopper circuit. When both CH1 and CH 2
are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO  V and output current iO flows through

16
the load in the direction shown in figure 2.20. When CH1 and CH 2 are turned OFF, the load
current iO continues to flow in the same direction through load, D1 and D2 , due to the energy
stored in the inductor L, but output voltage vO  V . The average load voltage vO is positive
if chopper ON-time  tON  is more than their OFF-time  tOFF  and average output voltage
becomes negative if tON  tOFF . Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load
voltage can be positive or negative. Waveforms are shown in figures 2.21 and 2.22.
ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

t
CH1,CH2 D1,D2 Conducting
ON
v0 Output voltage
V
Average v0
t

Fig. 2.21: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON  tOFF

17
 ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

CH1
CH2
t
D1, D2
v0
Output voltage
V

t
Average v0

Fig. 2.22: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON  tOFF

CLASS E CHOPPER

CH1 D1 CH3 D3

i0 R L E
V
+ 
v0
CH2 D2 CH4 D4

Fig. 2.23: Class E Chopper

18
 v0
CH2 - D4 Conducts CH1 - CH4 ON
D1 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts

i0

CH3 - CH2 ON D2 - D3 Conducts

CH2 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts

Fig. 2.23(a): Four Quadrant Operation

Figure 2.23 shows a class E 4 quadrant chopper circuit. When CH1 and CH 4 are
triggered, output current iO flows in positive direction as shown in figure 2.23 through CH1
and CH 4 , with output voltage vO  V . This gives the first quadrant operation. When both CH1
and CH 4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through D3 and D2 in the
same direction, but output voltage vO  V . Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth
quadrant. For fourth quadrant operation the direction of battery must be reversed. When CH 2
and CH 3 are triggered, the load current iO flows in opposite direction and output voltage
vO  V .
Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant. When both
CH 2 and CH 3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through D1
and D4 and the output voltage vO  V . Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as
vO is positive but iO is negative. Figure 2.23(a) shows the devices which are operative in
different quadrants.

EFFECT OF SOURCE AND LOAD INDUCTANCE

In choppers, the source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the transient
voltage. Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source inductance. Also
source inductance may cause commutation problem for the chopper. The load ripple current is
inversely proportional to load inductance and chopping frequency. Therefore the peak load
current depends on load inductance. To limit the load ripple current, a smoothing inductor is
connected in series with the load.

Problem 2.1 : For the first quadrant chopper shown in figure 2.24, express the following
variables as functions of V, R and duty cycle ‘d’ in case load is resistive.
Average output voltage and current
Output current at the instant of commutation
Average and rms free wheeling diode current.
RMS value of output voltage
RMS and average thyristor currents.

19
 i0
+
Chopper
L
O v0
V FWD A
D


Fig. 6.24.
Solution

t 
Average output voltage, Vdc   ON V  dV
 T 

Vdc dV
Average output current, I dc  
R R

The thyristor is commutated at the instant t  tON .

V
Therefore output current at the instant of commutation is , since V is the output
R
voltage at that instant.

Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never conduct in a resistive load. Therefore average and RMS
free wheeling diode currents are zero.

RMS value of output voltage

tON
1
  v dt
2
VO RMS  0
T 0

But vO  V during tON

tON
1
 V
2
VO RMS  dt
T 0

t 
VO RMS   V 2  ON 
 T 

VO RMS   dV

tON
Where duty cycle, d
T

RMS value of thyristor current

20
 = RMS value of load current
VO RMS 

R

dV

R

Average value of thyristor current

= Average value of load current

dV

R

Problem 2.2 : A Chopper circuit is operating on TRC at a frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V supply.
If the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the conduction period of the thyristor in each cycle.

Solution
V = 460 V, Vdc = 350 V, f = 2 kHz

1
Chopping period T
f
1
T  0.5 m sec
2 10 3
t 
Output voltage Vdc   ON V
 T 

Conduction period of thyristor

T Vdc
tON 
V
0.5 103  350
tON 
460

tON  0.38 msec

Problem 2.3 : Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The output required is 600 V. If the
conducting time of thyristor is 200 ssec. Compute
Chopping frequency,
If the pulse width is halved for constant frequency of operation, find the new output voltage.
Solution
V = 200 V, tON  200  s , Vdc  600V

 T 
Vdc  V  
 T  tON 

21
  T 
600  200  6 
 T  200 10 
Solving for T

T  300  s

Chopping frequency
1
f 
T

1
f   3.33KHz
300 10 6

Pulse width is halved

200 106
Therefore tON   100 s
2

Frequency is constant

Therefore f  3.33KHz

1
T  300  s
f

 T 
Therefore output voltage =V 
 T  tON 

 300 106 
 200    300 Volts
6 
  300  100  10 

Problem 2.4: A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20 and input voltage VS  220V . When
chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If the duty cycle
is 80%, determine the average output voltage and the chopper on time.

Solution
VS  220V , R  20 , f = 10 kHz

tON
d  0.80
T

Vch = Voltage drop across chopper = 1.5 volts

Average output voltage

22
 t 
Vdc   ON  VS  Vch 
 T 

Vdc  0.80  220  1.5  174.8 Volts

Chopper ON time, tON  dT

1
Chopping period, T
f
1
T  0.1 103 secs  100 μsecs
10  103
Chopper ON time,
tON  dT

tON  0.80  0.1103

tON  0.08 103  80 μsecs

Problem 2.5: In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency is 250
Hz. Supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper if the load
resistance is 2 ohms.

Solution
I dc  30 Amps , f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V, R  2

1 1
Chopping period, T   4 103  4 msecs
f 250

Vdc
I dc  and Vdc  dV
R

dV
Therefore I dc 
R

I dc R 30  2
d   0.545
V 110

3
Chopper ON period, tON  dT  0.545  4 10  2.18 msecs

Chopper OFF period, tOFF  T  tON

tOFF  4 103  2.18 103

tOFF  1.82 103  1.82 msec

23
 UNIT-II

DC DRIVES
2.2 Conventional methods of speed control
N = Eb / φ

1. By varying the resistance in the armature circuit (Rheostatic control)

2. By varying the flux (flux control)
3. By varying the applied voltage (voltage control)

Solid state speed control of DC motor

The DC motor speed can be controlled through power semiconductor
switches.Here,the power semiconductor switches are SCR
(thyristor),MOSFET,IGBT,This type of speed control is called ward-Leonard drive.

2.3 Types of DC drives

1. Phase controlled rectifier fed DC drives
a. According to the input supply
i. Single phase rectifier fed DC drives
ii. Three phase rectifier fed DC drives

b. According to the quadrant operation

i. One quadrant operation
ii. Two quadrant operation
iii. Four quadrant operation
2. Chopper fed DC drives
i. One quadrant chopper drives
ii. Two quadrant chopper drives
iii. Four quadrant chopper drives

2.4 Single phase controlled rectifier fed DC Drives

PHASE LOAD
DC
AC CONTROLLED
MOTOR
SOURCE RECTIFIER

Fig (2.4) Single phase controlled rectifier fed DC Drives

Here AC supply is fed to the phase controlled rectifier circuit.AC supply may be single
phase or three phase.Phase controlled rectifier converts fixed AC voltage into variable
DC voltage .

Here the circuit consists of SCR’s.By varying the SCR firing angle the output voltage
can be controlled. This variable output voltage is fed to the DC motor.By varying the
motor input voltage,the motor speed can be controlled.

1
2.5 Single phase controlled rectifier fed separately excited DC motor Drives
Figure shows block diagram of single phase controlled rectifier fed separately excited
DC motor. The armature voltage is controlled by means of a half wave controlled or
half controlled or full convener. l¢ AC supply is fed to the single phase controlled
rectifier. This controlled rectifier converts fixed AC voltage into variable DC voltage. By
varying the firing angle of this converter, we can get variable DC voltage. The field
winding is fed from the AC supply through a diode bridge rectifier.

Fig (2.5) Single phase controlled rectifier fed separately excited DC motor Drives
The armature circuit of the DC motor is represented by its back emf Eb, amature

resistance Ra and armature inductance La as shown in figure .

2
2.6 Single Phase Half wave controlled Rectifier fed DC Drives (one quadrant
converter)

3
 Fig (2.6) Single Phase Half wave controlled Rectifier fed DC Drives (one quadrant

Converter)

Figure shows single phase half wave controlled rectifier drive. Assume armature
current Ia is constant. Here, the motor is separately excited DC motor. Motor is
operated from single phase half wave controlled rectifier. Motor field winding is fed
through separate DC source. During the positive half cycle SCR T is forward biased. At
ωt = , SCR T is triggered and comes to the on state, Then the positive voltage is fed to
the motor.

At ωt = П, freewheellng diode comes to the forward biased state and SCR comes to the
off state, because of reverse voltage. Dur.ing the negative half cycle, SCR T is in off
state, and freewheeling diode conducts upto 2П+

toП-T on

П to 2П + – FD on

During the period, П to 2П+ current is positive but output voltage is zero because

of closed path (FD - motor -FD).

4
5
 Fig (2.6.1) Single Phase Half wave controlled Rectifier fed DC Drives, Wave form

Torque of the separately excited motor is given by

T φIa

Φ - constant

T Ia

T = KmIa

6
7
2.7 Single phase fully controlled rectifier fed DC drives
The drive circuit is shown in the fig .motor is shown by its equivalent circuit.Filed
supply is not shown.The ac input voltage is defined by

Vs = Vm sin ωt

8
Fig (2.7) Single phase fully controlled rectifier fed DC drives

9
Fig (2.7.1) Single phase fully controlled rectifier fed DC drives, Discontinuous

Conduction waveforms.

10
Fig (2.7.2 ) Single phase fully controlled rectifier fed DC drives, Continuous

Conduction waveforms.

11
Fig (2.7.3) Single phase fully controlled rectifier fed DC drives, continuous Conduction
waveforms.(Rectification Mode)

12
Fig (2.7.4) Single phase fully controlled rectifier fed DC drives, Continuous

Conduction waveforms.(Inversion Mode)

13
The motor terminal voltage and current waveforms for the dominant discontinuous
and continuous conduction modes are shown in figure .T1, T2 are gated at ωt = ,
these SCRS will get turned on only if Vm sin > E. Thyristors T1 and T2 are given
gate signals from to П and thyristors T3 and T4 are given gate signals from (П+ ) to
2П.

When armature current does not flow continuously the motor is said to operate in
discontinuous conduction When current flows continuously the conduction is said to
be continuous.

ln discontinuous conduction modes, the current starts flowing with the turn-on
thyristors T1 and T2 at ωt = . Motor gets connected to the source and its terminal
voltage equals Vs, At some angle , known as extinction angle load current decays to
zero Here > П.As T1 T2 are reverse biased after ωt= П , this pair commutated at ωt=
,

when ia= 0 From to П + , no SCR- conducts ,the motor terminal voltage jumps
from Vm sin to E as shown in figure.

At ωt=П+ , as pair T3 T4 is triggered, load current starts to build up again as before

and load voltage Va follows Vs, waveform as shown. At П+ , ia falls zero, Va, changes
from Vm sin(П+ ) to E as no SCR conducts.

In continuous conduction mode during the positive half cycle thyristors T1, T2 are
forward biased At ωt = ,T1,T2 are turned on.As a result ,supply voltage Vm sin
immediately appears across thynstors T3 T4 as a reverse bias, these are turned off by
natural commutation At ωt= П+ forward biased SCRs T3, T4 are triggered causing
turn off of T1 and T2 Figure and figure shows rectification and inversion mode voltage
and current waveforms.

Steady state Analysis of Discontinuous Conduction.

14
Average output voltage

Average output Current

Speed Equation (ωm)

15
Steady State Analysis of continuous conduction
Average output voltage

16
Speed ωm

RMS value of output current

RMS value of source current

17
Average Value of thyristor current

RMS value of Thyristor current

Assume no loss in the converter

Input power = output power

VsIscosφ = VaIa

Cosφ = 2√2 cos

Speed –torque characteristics

18
 2.8 Three Phase controlled Rectifier fed DC drives
For large power dc drives, three phase controlled rectifiers are used, three phase
controlled rectifier circuits give more number of voltage pulses per cycle of supply
frequency .this makes motor current continuous and filter requirement also less.

The number of voltage pulses per cycle depends on the number of thyristors and their
connections for three phase controlled rectifiers.

Semi converters and full converters are most commonly used in practice.Dual
converters are used in reversible drives having power ratings of several mega watts in
steel industry and heavy applications.

19
2.8.1 Three phase fully controlled rectifier fed separately excited DC motor drive.
Three phase-full converters are used industrial applications upto 1500 kW drives. It
is a two quadrant convener i.e., the average output voltage is either positive or
negative `but average output current is always positive.

Fig (2.8.1) Three phase fully controlled rectifier fed separately excited DC motor drive.
(Circuit Diagram).

Fig(2.8.2) Quadrant Diagram

The circuit consists of six thyristors. Here, there are two groups of thyristors, one is
positive group and another one is negative group. Here, thyristors Tl, T3, T5 forms a

20
positive group, whereas thyristors T4, T6, T2 forms a negative group. The positive
group thyristors are tumed on when the supply voltages are positive and negative
group thyristors are tumed on when the supply voltages are negative. The operation of
this convener is easily understand by using line voltages instead of phase voltages,

For or = 60°, T1 is turned on at П/3+ 60 =120°, T2 at ωt = l80°, T3 at ωt = 240° and so

on. When T1 is turned on at ωt = l20°, T5 is turned off. T6 is already conducting. As
T1 and T6 are connected to R and Y respectively, load voltage must be very as shown
in fig.

When T2 is turned on, T6 is commutated. As T1 and T2 are now eonducting, the load
voltage is vrb, figure. In this way, load voltage waveform can be drawn with thyristors
in sequence.

For = 120°, T1 is triggered at ωt = l80°, T2 is triggered at ωt = 240° and so on, The

output voltage waveform is shown in figure. From this waveform, the average output
voltage is negative. This means that dc source is delivering power to ac source.

This operation is called line commutated inverter operation. For is 0 to 90°, this
converter operates rectification mode (power flows from source to load) and 90° to 180
converter operates an inversion mode (power flows from load to source). It can work in
the inverter mode only if the load has a direct emf E. It is a regenerative braking mode.

21
Fig (2.8.3) Three phase fully controlled rectifier (Motoring mode)

22
Fig (2.8.4) Three phase fully controlled rectifier (Regenerating Breaking mode)

23
Fig (2.8.5) Speed – Torque curve

24
Control strategies

The average output voltage can be controlled through or α by opening and closing of the
semiconductor switch periodically.

(i) Time ratio control method (TRC)

1. Fixed frequency
2. Variable frequency

(ii) Current limit control (CLC)

Time ratio control- pulse width control

The ratio of on-time to chopper period is controlled

CONSTANT FREQUENCY TRC

The chopping period T is kept fixed and the on period of the switch is varied to control the
duty cycle ratio.

25
VARIABLE FREQUENCY TRC

The duty ratio is varied by keeping ton constant and varying T, or by varying both T and ton

In this control, low output voltages are obtained at very low chopper frequencies. This will affect
the motor performance.

CURRENT LIMIT CONTROL(Point by point control)

The duty ratio is controlled by controlling the load current between certain specified
maximum and minimum values. When the load current reaches maximum value, the switch
disconnects the load from the source and reconnects ie when the current reaches a specified
minimum value.

Two types of control provided for chopper control

1. Power control or motoring control

2. Regenerative braking control

2.9 CHOPPER DRIVES

DC DC
Fixed Load
Chopper Motor
DC Variable DC
Fig (2.9) Basic block diagram of chopper

Fixed DC voltage is fed to the Dc chopper circuit.DC chopper converts fixed DC

into Variable DC voltage.This variable DC voltage is fed to the motor.By varying the DC
voltage ,the motor speed can be controlled.

2.10 Advantages of DC chopper control

1. High eficiency
2. Flexibility in control
3. Light weight
4. Small size
5. Quick response
6. Regeneration down to very low speeds.

26
2.11 Applications of DC chopper Drives
1. Battery operated vehicle
2. Traction motor control in electric traction
3. Trolly cars
4. Hoists
5. Electric braking

2.12 Types of DC chopper drives

1. First quadrant chopper or type A chopper
2. Second quadrant or type B chopper
3. Two quadrant type A chopper or type C chopper
4. Two quadrant type B chopper or type D chopper
5. Four quadrant chopper or type E chopper

2.12.1 First Quadrant or Type-A or Motoring Chopper

In the past, series motor was used in traction, because it has high starting torque. It
has number of limitations. The field of the series motor cannot be controlled easily by
static means

If field control is not employed, the series motor must be designed with its base speed
equal to the higher desired speed of the drive. The higher base speeds are obtained
using fewer turns in the field windings

This reduces the torque per ampere at zero and low speeds. Presently, separately
excited motors are also used in traction. Because of limitations of a series motor
separately excited motors are now preferred even for traction applications.

Motoring control
A transistor chopper controlled separately excited motor drive is shown in fig

27
Fig( 2.12.1) First Quadrant or Type-A or Motoring Chopper

28
Fig (2.12.2) First Quadrant or Type-A or Motoring Chopper(waveform)

Current limit control is used in chopper. in current limit control, the load current is
allowed to vary between two given (upper and lower) limits. The ON and OFF times of
the chopper adjust automatically, when the current increases beyond the upper limit
the chopper is turned off, the load current freewheels and starts to decrease. When it
falls below the lower limit the chopper is turned ON. The current starts increasing in
the load. The load current ‘ia’ and voltage ‘va’ waveform are shown in figure .By
assuming proper limits of current, the amplitude of the ripple can be controlled,

The lower the ripple current, the higher the chopper frequency. By this switching
losses get increase. Discontinuous conduction avoid in this case, The current limit
control is superior one. During ON-period of chopper (i.e.) duty interval,0≤t≤TON,
motor terminal voltage Va is a source voltage Vs and armature current increases from
ia1 to ia2

29
The operation is described by,
𝑑𝑖𝑎
iaRa+La +Eb = Vs ; 0 ≤ t ≤ TON
𝑑𝑡

Chopper is turned off at t = t0N. During off-period of chopper (i.e.) free

wheeling interval, Ton≤ t ≤ T , motor current freewheels through diode FD and motor
terminal voltage Va is zero.

This is described by,

𝑑𝑖𝑎
iaRa+La +Eb = 0; Ton ≤ t ≤ T
𝑑𝑡

30
2.12.2 Second Quadrant or Type –B or Regenerative braking Chopper
In regenerative mode ,the energy of the load may have to be fed to the supply
system.The dc motor works as a generator during this mode.As long as the chopper is
ON,the mechnanical energy is converted into electrical by the motor,now working as a
generator,increases the stored magnetic energy in armature circuit inductance and
remainder is dissipated in armature resistance and transistor.when chopper is
switched off,a large voltage occurs across the load terminals.
31
 Fig (2.12.2) Second Quadrant or Type –B or Regenerative braking Chopper(circuit
diagram

This voltage is greater than the supply voltage Vs and the energy stored in the
inductance and the energy supplied by the_machine is fedback to the supply system.
When the voltage of the load falls to Vs, the diode in the line blocks the current flow,
preventing any short circuit of the load can he supplied to the source. Very effective
braking of the motor is possible upto the extreme small speeds. Regenerative braking
is achieved here by changing the direction of current flow.

32
33
34
 2.12.3.Two Quadrant Chopper Drives
Motoring control and braking control can be achieved by two quadrant chopper

There are two types of two quadrant chopper drives.

1. Two Quadrant type A chopper drive

2. Two Quadrant type B chopper drive

Two Quadrant type A chopper drive

This types of chopper drive provides forward motoring mode and forward braking
mode.

35
Fig shows two quadrant type A chopper drive for separately excited dc motor.It
consists of two choppers CH1 and CH2 and two diodes D1 and D2 dc motor.

Fig (2.12.3.)Two Quadrant type A chopper drive

36
Fig (2.12.3.)Two Quadrant type A chopper drive ( Quadrant Diagram)

Forward Motoring Mode

When the chopper CH1 is on, the supply voltage is fed to the motor armature
terminals and therefore the armature current increases. Here the voltage and current
is always positive. Therefore the motor rotates in forward direction.

When CH1 is in an off state,ia freewheels through diode D1 and therefore ia decreases.
It is the forward motoring mode. It is first quadrant operation.

Forward Braking Mode

When chopper CH2 is in an ON state, the motor acts as a generator and armature
current ia increases. Due to this energy is stored in the armature inductance.

37
 Fig (2.12.3.) Wave Form Two Quadrant type A chopper drive

When CH2 is in an off state, diode D2 gets turned on and therefore armature current
ia is reversed. It is the second quadrant operation.

In this mode output voltage is positive and output current is negative. It is forward
regenerative braking mode.

2.12.4 Two Quadrant type B chopper drive

This type of chopper drive provides forward motoring mode and reverse regenerative
braking mode.

38
 Fig (212.4).Two Quadrant type B chopper drive (circuit diagram)

Fig (2.12.4) –Quadrant Diagram Two Quadrant type B chopper drive

39
It consists of two choppers CH1 and CH2,two diodes and dc motor. This type of
chopper operates in the first quadrant and fourth quadrant operation.

Forward motoring mode

When the chopper CH1 and CH2 on, the motor rotates in the forward direction and ia
increases. When CH1 is in an off state ,now the current flows through CH2 and diode
D1.Here the output voltage current is always positive .It gives forward motoring mode

chopper.

Fig (2.12.4 ) Forward Motoring mode, Two Quadrant type B chopper drive

Reverse Braking Mode

When both the choppers CH1 and CH2 are off, the current will flows through the diode
Di and D2. Here the output current is positive and output voltage is negative. i.e.,
40
power flows from load to source. Here we can achieve the reverse braking mode. It is
the fourth quadrant operation. It is shown in fig. Here the motor speed can be
controlled by changing the duty cycle of the chopper.

Figure shows r 0.5) waveforrns of two quadrant type B

chopper drive.

2.12.4 Four quadrant Chopper or Type E Chopper

Fig (2.12.4) Four quadrant Chopper or Type E Chopper

It consist of four power semiconductor switches CH1 to CH4 and four power diodes D1
and D4 in antiparallel.working of this chopper in the four quadrants is explained as
under,

Forward Motoring Mode

For first quadrant operation of figure CH4 is kept on, Cl-l3 is kept off and CH1 is
operated. when CHI and Cl-I4 are on, load voltage is equal to supply voltage i,e, Va =
Vs and load current ia begins to flow. Here both output voltage va and load current ia
are positive giving first quadrant operation. When CH4 is turned of£ positive current
freewheels through CH-4,D2 in this way, both output voltage va, load current ia can
be controlled in the first quadrant. First quadrant operation gives the forward
motoring mode.

41
Forward Braking Mode
Here CH2 is operated and CH1, CH3 and CH4 are kept off. With CH2 on, reverse (or
negative) current flows through L, CH2, D4 and E. During the on time of CH2 the
inductor L stores energy. When CH2 is turned off current is fedback to source through
diodes D1, D4 note that there [E+L di/dt] is greater than the source voltage Vs. As the
load voltage Va is positive and load current ia is negative, it indicates the second
quadrant operation of chopper. Also power flows from load to source, second quadrant
operation gives forward braking mode.

Reverse Motoring Mode

For third quadrant operation of figure, CHI is kept off, CH2 is kept on and CH3 is
operated. Polarity of load emf E-must be reversed for this quadrant operation. With
CH3 on, load gets connected to source Vs so that both output voltage Va and load
current ia are negative. it gives third quadrant operation. lt is also known as reverse
motoring mode. When CH3 is turned off, negative current freewheels through CH2,
D4. ln this way, output voltage Va and load current ia can be controlled in the third
quadrant.

42
Reverse Braking Mode
Here CH4 is operated and other devices are kept of£Load emf E must have its polarity
reversed, it'is shown in figure . With CH4 on, positive current flows through CH4, D2,
L and E. During the on time of CH4, the inductor L stores energy.

When CH4 is turned off; current is feedback to source through diodes D2, D3. Here
load voltage is negative, but load current is positive leading to the chopper operation
in the fourth quadrant.

Also power is flows from load to source. The fourth quadrant operation gives reverse
braking mode.

2.13 Braking
In braking, the motor works as a generator developing a negative torque which
oppose the motion. It is of three types

1. Regenerative braking
2. Plugging or Reverse voltage braking
3. Dynamic braking or Rheostatic braking

2.13.1Regenerative braking

In regenerative braking, generated energy is supplied to the source,for this to happen

following condition should be satisfied
E > V and negative Ia
Field flux cannot be increased substantially beyond rated because of saturation, therefore
according to equation ,for a source of fixed voltage of rated value regenerative braking is
possible only for speeds higher than rated and with a variable voltage source it is also
possible below rated speeds .
The speed –torque characteristics shown in fig. for a separately excited motor.
In series motor as speed increases, armature current, and therefore flux decreases
Condition of equation cannot be achieved .Thus regenerative braking is not possible

43
2.13.2 Plugging

The supply voltage of a separately excited motor is reversed so that it assists

the emf in forcing armature current in reverse direction .A resistance R B is also
connected in series with armature to limit the current.For plugging of a series
motor armature is reversed.
A particular case of plugging for motor rotation in reverse direction arises
.when a motor connected for forward motoring,is driven by an active load in the
reverse direction.Here again back emf and applied voltage act in the same
direction.However the direction of torque remains positive.
This type of situation arises in crane and the braking is then called counter –
torque braking.

44
 Plugging gives fast braking due to high average torque,even with one section
of braking resistance RB.Since torque ia not zero speed,when used for stopping a
load,the supply must be disconnected when close to zero speed.
Centifugal switches are employed to disconnect the supply.Plugging is
highly inefficient because in addition to the generated power,the power supplied by
the source is also wasted in resistances.

45
2.13.3 Dynamic braking

In dynamic braking ,the motor is made to act as a generator,the armature is

disconnected from the supply ,but it continues to rotate and generate a

voltage.The polarity of the generated voltage remains unchanged if the
direction if field excitation is unaltered.

But if a resistance is connected across the coasting motor,the direction of the

armature current is reversed ,because the armature represents a source of
power rather than a load.

Thus a braking torque is developed ,exactly as in the generator,tending to

oppose the motion.

The braking torque can be controlled by the field excitation and armature
current.

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