mvmvANCIENT EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander the
Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world.
From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New
Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and historians and created a vibrant
field of study all its own: Egyptology. The main sources of information about ancient Egypt are
the many monuments, objects and artifacts that have been recovered from archaeological sites,
covered with hieroglyphs that have only recently been deciphered. The picture that emerges is of
a culture with few equals in the beauty of its art, the accomplishment of its architecture or the
richness of its religious traditions.

TIME PERIOD
Egypt has 9 times of civilization
Few written records or artifacts have been found from the Predynastic Period, which
encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization. Neolithic
(late Stone Age) communities in northeastern Africa exchanged hunting for agriculture and made
early advances that paved the way for the later development of Egyptian arts and crafts,
technology, politics and religion (including a great reverence for the dead and possibly a belief in
life after death).
Around 3400 B.C., two separate kingdoms were established: the Red Land to the north, based in
the Nile River Delta and extending along the Nile perhaps to Atfih; and the White Land in the
south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila. A southern king, Scorpion, made the first
attempts to conquer the northern kingdom around 3200 B.C. A century later, King Menes would
subdue the north and unify the country, becoming the first king of the first dynasty.

ARCHAIC (EARLY DYNASTIC) PERIOD (C. 3100-2686 B.C.)

King Menes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known as Memphis), in
the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. The capital would grow into a great metropolis
that dominated Egyptian society during the Old Kingdom period. The Archaic Period saw the
development of the foundations of Egyptian society, including the all-important ideology of
kingship. To the ancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike being, closely identified with the all-
powerful god Horus. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates to this period.
In the Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in
small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the
Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and
fertilization each year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it
before the season of high temperatures and drought returned.
OLD KINGDOM: AGE OF THE PYRAMID BUILDERS (C. 2686-2181 B.C.)
The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., the third
dynasty’s King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to design a funerary
monument for him; the result was the world’s first major stone building, the Step-Pyramid at
Saqqara, near Memphis. Pyramid-building reached its zenith with the construction of the Great
Pyramid at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu (or Cheops, in Greek), who ruled
from 2589 to 2566 B.C., the pyramid was later named by classical historians as one of the
ancient world’s Seven Wonders. Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu’s successors
Khafra (2558-2532 B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.).
During the third and fourth dynasties, Egypt enjoyed a golden age of peace and prosperity. The
pharaohs held absolute power and provided a stable central government; the kingdom faced no
serious threats from abroad; and successful military campaigns in foreign countries like Nubia
and Libya added to its considerable economic prosperity. Over the course of the fifth and sixth
dynasties, the king’s wealth was steadily depleted, partially due to the huge expense of pyramid-
building, and his absolute power faltered in the face of the growing influence of the nobility and
the priesthood that grew up around the sun god Ra (Re). After the death of the sixth dynasty’s
King Pepy II, who ruled for some 94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (C. 2181-2055 B.C.)

On the heels of the Old Kingdom’s collapse, the seventh and eighth dynasties consisted of a
rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until about 2160 B.C., when the central authority
completely dissolved, leading to civil war between provincial governors. This chaotic situation
was intensified by Bedouin invasions and accompanied by famine and disease.
From this era of conflict emerged two different kingdoms: A line of 17 rulers (dynasties nine and
10) based in Heracleopolis ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes, while another
family of rulers arose in Thebes to challenge Heracleopolitan power. Around 2055 B.C., the
Theban prince Mentuhotep managed to topple Heracleopolis and reunited Egypt, beginning the
11th dynasty and ending the First Intermediate Period.

MIDDLE KINGDOM: 12TH DYNASTY (C. 2055-1786 B.C.)

After the last ruler of the 11th dynasty, Mentuhotep IV, was assassinated, the throne passed to
his vizier, or chief minister, who became King Amenemhet I, founder of dynasty 12. A new
capital was established at It-towy, south of Memphis, while Thebes remained a great religious
center. During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt once again flourished, as it had during the Old
Kingdom. The 12th dynasty kings ensured the smooth succession of their line by making each
successor co-regent, a custom that began with Amenemhet I.
Middle-Kingdom Egypt pursued an aggressive foreign policy, colonizing Nubia (with its rich
supply of gold, ebony, ivory and other resources) and repelling the Bedouins who had infiltrated
Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. The kingdom also built diplomatic and trade relations
with Syria, Palestine and other countries; undertook building projects including military
fortresses and mining quarries; and returned to pyramid-building in the tradition of the Old
Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom reached its peak under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 B.C.); its
decline began under Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 B.C.) and continued under his sister and regent,
Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 B.C.), who was the first confirmed female ruler of Egypt and the
last ruler of the 12th dynasty.

SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (C. 1786-1567 B.C.)

The 13th dynasty marked the beginning of another unsettled period in Egyptian history, during
which a rapid succession of kings failed to consolidate power. As a consequence, during the
Second Intermediate Period Egypt was divided into several spheres of influence. The official
royal court and seat of government was relocated to Thebes, while a rival dynasty (the 14th),
centered on the city of Xois in the Nile delta, seems to have existed at the same time as the 13th.
Around 1650 B.C., a line of foreign rulers known as the Hyksos took advantage of Egypt’s
instability to take control. The Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty adopted and continued many of
the existing Egyptian traditions in government as well as culture. They ruled concurrently with
the line of native Theban rulers of the 17th dynasty, who retained control over most of southern
Egypt despite having to pay taxes to the Hyksos. (The 16th dynasty is variously believed to be
Theban or Hyksos rulers.) Conflict eventually flared between the two groups, and the Thebans
launched a war against the Hyksos around 1570 B.C., driving them out of Egypt.

NEW KINGDOM (C. 1567-1085 B.C.)

Under Ahmose I, the first king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was once again reunited. During the
18th dynasty, Egypt restored its control over Nubia and began military campaigns in Palestine,
clashing with other powers in the area such as the Mitannians and the Hittites. The country went
on to establish the world’s first great empire, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in
Asia. In addition to powerful kings such as Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.), Thutmose I (1525-
1512 B.C.) and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.), the New Kingdom was notable for the role of
royal women such as Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482 B.C.), who began ruling as a regent for her
young stepson (he later became Thutmose III, Egypt’s greatest military hero), but rose to wield
all the powers of a pharaoh.
The controversial Amenhotep IV (c. 1379-1362), of the late 18th dynasty, undertook a religious
revolution, disbanding the priesthoods dedicated to Amon-Re (a combination of the local Theban
god Amon and the sun god Re) and forcing the exclusive worship of another sun-god, Aton.
Renaming himself Akhenaton (“servant of the Aton”), he built a new capital in Middle Egypt
called Akhetaton, known later as Amarna. Upon Akhenaton’s death, the capital returned to
Thebes and Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods. The 19th and 20th dynasties,
known as the Ramesside period (for the line of kings named Ramses) saw the restoration of the
weakened Egyptian empire and an impressive amount of building, including great temples and
cities. According to biblical chronology, the Exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt
possibly occurred during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.).
All of the New Kingdom rulers (with the exception of Akhenaton) were laid to rest in deep, rock-
cut tombs (not pyramids) in the Valley of the Kings, a burial site on the west bank of the Nile
opposite Thebes. Most of them were raided and destroyed, with the exception of the tomb and
treasure of Tutankhamen (c.1361-1352 B.C.), discovered largely intact in A.D. 1922. The
splendid mortuary temple of the last great king of the 20th dynasty, Ramses III (c. 1187-1156
B.C.), was also relatively well preserved, and indicated the prosperity Egypt still enjoyed during
his reign. The kings who followed Ramses III were less successful: Egypt lost its provinces in
Palestine and Syria for good and suffered from foreign invasions (notably by the Libyans), while
its wealth was being steadily but inevitably depleted.

THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (C. 1085-664 B.C.)

The next 400 years–known as the Third Intermediate Period–saw important changes in Egyptian
politics, society and culture. Centralized government under the 21st dynasty pharaohs gave way
to the resurgence of local officials, while foreigners from Libya and Nubia grabbed power for
themselves and left a lasting imprint on Egypt’s population. The 22nd dynasty began around 945
B.C. with King Sheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded Egypt during the late 20th
dynasty and settled there. Many local rulers were virtually autonomous during this period and
dynasties 23-24 are poorly documented.
In the eighth century B.C., Nubian pharaohs beginning with Shabako, ruler of the Nubian
kingdom of Kush, established their own dynasty–the 25th–at Thebes. Under Kushite rule, Egypt
clashed with the growing Assyrian empire. In 671 B.C., the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon drove the
Kushite king Taharka out of Memphis and destroyed the city; he then appointed his own rulers
out of local governors and officials loyal to the Assyrians. One of them, Necho of Sais, ruled
briefly as the first king of the 26th dynasty before being killed by the Kushite leader
Tanuatamun, in a final, unsuccessful grab for power.

FROM THE LATE PERIOD TO ALEXANDER’S CONQUEST (C.664-332 B.C.)

Beginning with Necho’s son, Psammetichus, the Saite dynasty ruled a reunified Egypt for less
than two centuries. In 525 B.C., Cambyses, king of Persia, defeated Psammetichus III, the last
Saite king, at the Battle of Pelusium, and Egypt became part of the Persian Empire. Persian
rulers such as Darius (522-485 B.C.) ruled the country largely under the same terms as native
Egyptian kings: Darius supported Egypt’s religious cults and undertook the building and
restoration of its temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) sparked increased
uprisings under him and his successors. One of these rebellions triumphed in 404 B.C.,
beginning one last period of Egyptian independence under native rulers (dynasties 28-30).
In the mid-fourth century B.C., the Persians again attacked Egypt, reviving their empire under
Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C. Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia
defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander’s death, Egypt
was ruled by a line of Macedonian kings, beginning with Alexander’s general Ptolemy and
continuing with his descendants. The last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt–the legendary Cleopatra VII–
surrendered Egypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus) in 31 B.C. Six centuries of Roman
rule followed, during which Christianity became the official religion of Rome and its provinces
(including Egypt). The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in the seventh century A.D. and the
introduction of Islam would do away with the last outward aspects of ancient Egyptian culture
and propel the country towards its modern incarnation.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
Nile River and the Desert
In ancient times, the Egyptians called the desert the "red land", distinguishing it from the flood
plain around the Nile River, called the "black land". These colours reflect the fact that the desert
sands have a reddish hue and the land around the Nile turned black when the annual flood waters
receded.
The desert and the Nile River emerged millions of years ago when the ancient sea that covered
most of Europe and northern Africa (45 million years ago) shifted, forming the Mediterranean
Sea basin. This happened when the earth's plates moved, creating the Himalayas and the Alps.
Over thousands of years, the Nile River evolved into its present shape, surrounded by the Eastern
and Western deserts.
The Upper Nile is divided into three tributaries: the White Nile, the Blue Nile and the Atbara
River. The White Nile flows from Lake Victoria, Lake Edward and Lake George, and the Blue
Nile originates in the Ethiopian mountains. The Atbara River flows from the Ethiopian highlands
and meets the combined White Nile and Blue Nile just north of Khartoum. Before the river
enters the Mediterranean Sea, it divides into four smaller tributaries in the delta region.
The northern region of Egypt is bounded by two deserts, the mountainous Eastern, or Arabian,
Desert and the sandy Western, or Libyan, Desert. Nomadic tribes continue to roam these desert
regions as they have done for centuries, stopping at oases to replenish their water supplies.
Around 5000 B.C., when the climate became more arid, nomadic groups retreated to the Nile
Valley, creating the first urban settlements. These communities were concentrated in the North
and the South. As a result, Egypt became known as the "Double Land" or the "Two Lands" of
Upper and Lower Egypt.
The two lands were united in 3100 B.C. by the legendary King Menes. He established a new
administrative city where the Nile River branches out into the delta. In ancient times it was
called "White Walls" or Mennefer; the Greeks called it Memphis. It remained the capital of
Egypt for over 3,500 years. Although there is no archaeological proof that King Menes existed,
the famous
Narmer palette that depicts two images of a king, one wearing the crown of Upper Egypt and the
other the crown of Lower Egypt, is thought to depict King Menes. King Menes and King Narmer
may have been the same person, the first king of Egypt.
Dualities, such as desert and river valley, Upper and Lower Egypt, life and death, were an
important organizing principle of the Egyptian's world view.

RELIGION IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Religion was an integral part of the daily life of every Egyptian. As with the people of
Mesopotamia, the Egyptians considered themselves co-labourers with the gods but with an
important distinction: whereas the Mesopotamian peoples believed they needed to work with
their gods to prevent the recurrence of the original state of chaos, the Egyptians understood their
gods to have already completed that purpose and a human’s duty was to celebrate that fact and
give thanks for it. So-called `Egyptian mythology’ was, in ancient times, as valid a belief
structure as any accepted religion in the modern day.
Egyptian religion taught the people that, in the beginning, there was nothing but chaotic
swirling waters out of which rose a small hill known as the Ben-Ben. Atop this hill stood the
great god Atum who spoke creation into being by drawing on the power of Heka, the god of
magic. Heka was thought to pre-date creation and was the energy which allowed the gods to
perform their duties. Magic informed the entire civilization and Heka was the source of this
creative, sustaining, eternal power.
In another version of the myth, Atum creates the world by first fashioning Ptah, the creator god
who then does the actual work. Another variant on this story is that Ptah first appeared and
created Atum. Another, more elaborate, version of the creation story has Atum mating with his
shadow to create Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) who then go on to give birth to the world and
the other gods.
From this original act of creative energy came all of the known world and the universe. It was
understood that human beings were an important aspect of the creation of the gods and that each
human soul was as eternal as that of the deities they revered. Death was not an end to life but a
re-joining of the individual soul with the eternal realm from which it had come.
The Egyptian concept of the soul regarded it as being comprised of nine parts: the Khat was the
physical body; the Ka one’s double-form; the Ba a human-headed bird aspect which could speed
between earth and the heavens; Shuyet was the shadow self; Akh the immortal, transformed self,
Sahu and Sechem aspects of the Akh; Ab was the heart, the source of good and evil; Ren was
one’s secret name. An individual’s name was considered of such importance that an Egyptian’s
true name was kept secret throughout life and one was known by a nickname. Knowledge of a
person’s true name gave one magical powers over that individual and this is among the reasons
why the rulers of Egypt took another name upon ascending the throne; it was not only to link
oneself symbolically to another successful pharaoh but also a form of protection to ensure one’s
safety and help guarantee a trouble-free journey to eternity when one’s life on earth was
completed.

CULTURE
Renaissance
The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian
Renaissance, marking the transition from Medieval to Early Modern Egypt. His work renewed
interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi
co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for
inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied
the history, language and antiquities of Egypt. Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed,
Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud
Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to individual freedom,
secularism and faith in science to bring progress.
Art and architecture
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art and
architecture. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of
visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilization is renowned for its colossal pyramids,
colonnades and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed
by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern
and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the
vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's
famous sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous.
The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt's
media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, today with more than
thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has
long been known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the Cairo
International Film Festival, has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating
worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations. To bolster its media
industry further, especially with the keen competition from the Persian Gulf Arab States and
Lebanon, a large media city was built. Some Egyptian-born actors, like Omar Sharif, have
achieved worldwide fame.
Literature
Literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and
poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms
they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.
The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913
in the Egyptian vernacular. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language
writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi,
well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and
tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians,
represented by
the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-AbnudiIn their
belief, boats were used by the dead to accompany the sun around the world, as Heaven was
referred to as “Upper Waters”. In Egyptian mythology, every night the serpentine god Apophis
would attack the Sun Boat as it brought the sun (and as such order ) back to the Kingdom in the
morning. It is referred to as the “Boat of Millions” as all of the gods and all of the souls of the
blessed dead may at one point or another be needed to defend or operate it.
Music
Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements.
In antiquity, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the
ney and the oud. Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music
tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of
people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of
Egyptian music giants such as Amr Diab, Mohamed Mounir, Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum,
Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop
music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music
continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.
Egypt is one of the boldest countries in the middle east in the music industry. The next
generation of the Egyptian music is considered to be the rise, as the music was disrupted by some
foreign influences, bad admixing, and abused oriental styles. The new arising talents starting
from the late 90's are taking over the rein now as they play many diffenet genres of many
different cultures. Rock And Metal music are prevailing widely in Egypt now,as much as the
oriental jazz and folk music are becoming well-known now to the Egyptian and non-Egyptian
fans.
Festivals
Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are
usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians
irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds,
lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the
region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of
Sham en Nisim has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the
Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.

INVENTIONS
The Pyramids
The oldest pyramid was erected for King Zoser between 2667-2648 BC.The oldest pyramid was
erected for King Zoser between 2667-2648 BC. In fact it is the first monumental stone building
designed and constructed that we know of.

Writing
Along with the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians were the first people to develop their language
into a codified form of writing. All early forms of writing were pictograms – pictures. All writing
systems developed in this way but their original forms become lost as the pictures are refined
into abstract forms. What is interesting about the Egyptians is that although their writing changed
to the abstract form of Hieratic they deliberately preserved the hieroglyphic pictures in their
original forms.
Papyrus Sheets
Papyrus sheets are the earliest paper-like material – all other civilisations used stone, clay tablets,
animal hide, wood materials or wax as a writing surface. Papyrus was, for over 3000 years, the
most important writing material in the ancient world. It was exported all around the
Mediterranean and was widely used in the Roman Empire as well as the Byzantine Empire. Its
use continued in Europe until the seventh century AD, when an embargo on exporting it forced
the Europeans to use parchment.
Black Ink
The Egyptians mixed vegetable gum, soot and bee wax to make black ink. They replaced soot
with other materials such as ochre to make various colours.
The Ox-drawn Plough
The Ox-drawn PloughUsing the power of oxen to pull the plough revolutionised agriculture and
modified versions of this Egyptian invention are still used by farmers in developing countries
around the world.
The Sickle
The sickle is a curved blade used for cutting and harvesting grain, such as wheat and barley.
Irrigation
The Egyptians constructed canals and irrigation ditches to harness Nile river’s yearly flood and
bring water to distant fields.
Shadoof
The shadoofThe Shadoof is a long balancing pole with a weight on one end and a bucket on the
other. The bucket is filled with water and easily raised then emptied onto higher ground.
The Calendar
The Egyptians devised the solar calendar by recording the yearly reappearance of Sirius (the Dog
Star) in the eastern sky. It was a fixed point which coincided with the yearly flooding of the Nile.
Their calendar had 365 days and 12 months with 30 days in each month and an additional five
festival days at the end of the year. However, they did not account for the additional fraction of a
day and their calendar gradually became incorrect. Eventually Ptolemy III added one day to the
365 days every four years.
Clocks
In order to tell the time Egyptians invented two types of clock.Obelisks were used as sun clocks
by noting how its shadow moved around its surface throughout the day. From the use of obelisks
they identified the longest and shortest days of the year. An inscription in the tomb of the court
official Amenemhet dating to the16th century BC shows a water clock made from a stone vessel
with a tiny hole at the bottom which allowed water to dripped at a constant rate. The passage of
hours could be measured from marks spaced at different levels. The priest at Karnak temple used
a similar instrument at night to determine the correct hour to perform religious rites.
The Police
During the Old and Middle Kingdoms order was kept by local officials with their own private
police forces. During the New Kingdom a more centralized police force developed, made up
primarily of Egypt’s Nubian allies, the Medjay. They were armed with staffs and used dogs.
Neither rich nor poor citizens were above the law and punishments ranged from confiscation of
property, beating and mutilation (including the cutting off of ears and noses) to death without a
proper burial. The Egyptians believed that a proper burial was essential for entering the afterlife,
so the threat of this last punishment was a real deterrent, and most crime was of a petty nature.
“They went to the granary, stole three great loaves and eight sabu-cakes of Rohusu berries. They
drew a bottle of beer which was cooling in water, while I was staying in my father’s room. My
Lord, let whatsoever has been stolen be given back to me.” (Eighteenth Dynasty)
Surgical Instruments
The Edwin Smith Papyrus shows the Egyptians invented medical surgery. It describes 48
surgical cases of injures of the head, neck, shoulders, breast and chest. It includes a list of
instruments used during surgeries with instructions for the suturing of wounds using a needle and
thread. This list includes lint, swabs, bandage, adhesive plaster, surgical stitches and
cauterization. It is also the earliest document to make a study of the brain. The Cairo Museum
has a collection of surgical instruments which include scalpels, scissors, copper needles, forceps,
spoons, lancets, hooks, probes and pincers.
Wigs
Ancient Egyptian WigDuring the hot summers many Egyptians shaved their heads to keep them
clean and prevent pests such as lice. Although priests remained bald as part of their purification
rituals, those that could afford it had wigs made in various styles and set with perfumed beeswax.
Cosmetic Makeup
The Egyptian invented eye makeup as far back as 4000 B.C. They combined soot with a lead
mineral called galena to create a black ointment known as kohl. They also made green eye
makeup by combining malachite with galena to tint the ointment.
Both men and women wore eye makup; believing it could cure eye diseases and keep them from
falling victim to the evil eye.
Toothpaste
At the 2003 dental conference in Vienna, dentists sampled a replication of ancient Egyptian
toothpaste. Its ingredients included powdered of ox hooves, ashes, burnt eggshells and pumice.
Another toothpaste recipe and a how-to-brush guide was written on a papyrus from the fourth
century AD describes how to mix precise amounts of rock salt, mint, dried iris flower and grains
of pepper, to form a “powder for white and perfect teeth.”
Mummification
The Egyptians were so expert at preserving the bodies of the dead that after thousands of years
we know of the diseases they suffered such as arthritis, tuberculosis of the bone, gout, tooth
decay, bladder stones, and gallstones; there is evidence, too, of the disease bilharziasis
(schistosomiasis), caused by small, parasitic flatworms, which still exists in Egypt today. There
seems to have been no syphilis or rickets.
Egyptian Hieroglyphics 2018
This is a brand new version that now works on Windows 10, MAC, iPad, Android and all mobile
phones. There are more than 1100 Hieroglyphic illustrations including 450 Egyptian word
examples and over 650 hieroglyphs from the Gardiner list.
Egyptian Hieroglyphics includes detailed information on the history of Egyptian writing and
mathematics, the use of the different types of symbols, how to write your name, how to
recognize kings names and the story of the scribe with a video showing how papyrus is made.
All the content can be printed including typewriter and calculator functions.
There are also navigation and search text functions. The Hieroglyphic Typewriter and Math
Calculator is included.
The Hieroglyphic Typewriter and Math Calculator is included. The on screen QWERTY
keyboard incorporates alphabet and number symbols together with a selection of determinative
signs. The keys include Latin symbols together with their hieroglyph equivalents and
descriptions, which allow you to type messages naturally and at a glance see the translations.