Chemistry Study Cards

Here is a collection of study cards for my AP and General

Chemistry classes. There are four cards per page. Each set of
cards is saved as an Adobe Acrobat® file.

Print each sheet on both the front and back of heavy paper to get
two sets of study cards.
Print one side of normal weight paper and fold paper lengthwise
for single study cards.

Go to the Adobe Acrobat® website for a free software download if you do

not have the plug-in.

AP CHEMISTRY Jump to General Chemistry

AP1-Introduction (20 cards on 5 pages)

The Scientific Method, Observations and Measurements (Qualitative, Quantitative,
Inferences), Significant Digits, Scientific Notation, Accuracy vs. Precision, Metric System,
% and ppm, Unit Analysis, Temperature Scales, Mass vs. Weight, Potential Energy (PE) and
Kinetic Energy (KE), Intensive vs. Extensive Properties, Calorimetry, Physical and Chemical
Properties, Physical and Chemical Changes, Pure Substances, Elements, & Compounds;
Homogeneous & Heterogeneous Mixtures; Separating Mixtures by Filtration, Distillation,
and Chromatography; Early Laws: the Law of Definite Composition & the Law of Simple
Multiple Proportions

AP2-Stoichiometry (24 cards on 6 pages)

Formula Conventions, Stoichiometry Terms, Calculating Formula Mass, Mole Facts, Line
Equations, Mole Relationships, Percentage Composition, Formula from % Composition,
Equation Terms, Other Mole Problems and Conversions, Writing Formula Equations Things
To Remember, Coefficients and Relative Volumes of Gases, Heart of the Problem, Mass-
Mass Problems, Mass-Volume Problems, Mass-Volume-Particle Problems, Limiting
Reactant Problems, How Much Excess Reactant is Left Over, Limiting Reactants,
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield, Balancing Chemical Equations, Combustion
Equations, Solutions -- Molar Concentration, Dilution Problems, Acid-Base Titrations

AP3-The Periodic Table (12 cards on 3 pages)

The Subatomic Particles, Terms--Atomic Structure, Calculating Atomic Mass; Determining
Numbers of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons from the Isotopic Notation; Important People
in the Development of the Atomic Theory; Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids; Rutherford's
Gold Foil Experiment, The First Periodic Table, Families of the Periodic Table,
Radioactivity Basics, J.J. Thomson & Cathode Ray Tubes

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Chemistry Study Cards

AP4-Electronic Structure (16 cards on 4 pages)

Wave Ideas You Should Know, Wave Calculations, The Balmer Series, The De Broglie
Wavelength of Electrons, Standing Waves, Quantum Numbers (n, l, m, s), Three Rules for
Filling Orbitals, Electron Configurations; The s-block, p-block... of the Periodic Table;
Exceptions to the Filling Rules, Shapes of the Orbitals, Predicting the Atomic Size (radius),
Trends in the Periodic Table, Explaining Sizes of Ions, The Lanthanide Contraction,
Ionization Energy & Reactivity: Trends Across a Period & Down a Family, Ionization
Energy: Trends in Successive Ionizations, Electron Affinity

AP5-Chemical Bonding--General (12 cards on 3 pages)

Some Properties of Ionic and Molecular Compounds, Lewis Symbols of Atoms and Ions,
The Ionic Bond, Noble and Pseudonoble Gas Configurations, Factors that Influence the
Formation of Ionic Bonds, The Covalent Bond: Attractions and Repulsions, Groves' Electron
Dot System: Multiple & Extended Valence Bonds; Bond Order: Bond Length, Strength, &
Vibrational Frequency; Resonance, Coordinate Covalent Bonds, Electronegativity and Polar
Bonds, Naming Ionic Compounds, Traditional and Stock Names, Naming Acids

AP6-Covalent Bonding & Molecular Structure

Still gotta' do this one!

AP7-Chemical Reactions & the Periodic Table (16 cards on 4 pages)

Solutions & Solubility, Weak and Strong Electrolytes, Ionic Reactions, Arrhenius Acids &
Bases, Bronsted-Lowry Acids & Bases, Ions in Water, Some Metal Ions Make Water Acidic,
Trends in Acid Strength, Lewis Acids & Bases, Oxidation Numbers, Balancing Redox
Equations, Reactions in Basic Solutions, Metals as Reducing Agents, Activity Series of
Metals, Non-Metals as Oxidizing Agents, Oxygen as an Oxidizing Agent, Combustion,
Amphiprotic/Amphoteric & Leveling Effect

AP8-Ionic Reactions in Solution (12 cards on 3 pages)

Driving Forces for Metathesis Reactions, Solubility Rules, Weak Electrolytes &
Neutralization Reactions, Gas Formation During Metathesis, Preparation of Salts,
Comparing Driving Forces; Weight Percent, ppm & ppb; Chemical Analyses: Precipitations,
Combustions & Titrations; Titration Terminology, Acid-Base & Redox Titrations; Three
Common Oxidizing Agents, Common Reducing Agents; equivalents, Equivalent Weights &
Normality

AP9-The Gas Laws (12 cards on 3 pages)

Boyle's Law, Boyle's Law Lab, Kelvin Temperature Scale, Charles' Law, Gay-Lussac's Law,
The Combined Gas Law, The Ideal Gas Law, Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure, Why Do All
Gases Cause the Same Pressure, Graham's Law, The Real Gas Law, Kinetic Molecular
Theory, Pressure = Force/Area

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Chemistry Study Cards

AP10-States of Matter & IMF's (16 cards on 4 pages)

Comparing Gases, Liquid, and Solids, Surface Tension, KE Distributions & Evaporation,
Molecular Crystals & IMF's, Hvap & IMF's, Vapor Pressures of Liquids, Boiling Point &
IMF's, Freezing Point, Melting Point, Hfusion, Common Crystal Structures and Units Cells,
Four Types of Crystals--A Summary, Crystal Types--Further Notes, Heating and Cooling
Curves, Phase Diagrams--I, Phase Diagrams--II, Names of the Phase Changes, More Internet
Resources

AP12-Chemical Thermodynamics (12 cards on 3 pages)

Commonly Used Terms, Heat Capacity & Specific Heat, First Law of Thermodyanmics,
Work & PV Work, Work is NOT a State Function, Reversible Processes, Change in
Enthalpy, Hess's Law of Heat Summation, Bond Energy, Driving Forces: Entropy &
Enthalpy, Second Law of Thermodynamics, Thermodynamics and Equilibrium

AP22-Nuclear Chemistry (16 cards on 4 pages)

The People, Terms, Types of Radiation, Half-Life, Nuyclear Equations, Stabilizing Unstable
Nuclei, Uses of Radioactivity, Fission and Fusion, Energy-Mass Conversion, What Happens
During Beta and Positron Decay, Calculating Half-Lives, Radioactive Decay Series, Geiger-
Muller Tubes, Smoke Detectors, and Brushes for Cleaning Negatives, Extending the Periodic
Table

AP23-Organic Chemistry (16 cards on 4 pages)

Historical Ideas, Alkane Series -- Saturated Hydrocarbons, Structural Formulas Can Be
Misleading, Alkenes & Cis/Trans Isomerism; Alkynes, Alkadienes, and Cyclic Compounds;
Naming Organic Compounds (IUPAC Rules), Common Errors in Drawing/Naming
Structures, Optical Isomers / Chiral Compounds, Common Names You Should Know,
Aromatic Compounds -- Benzene and Its Derivatives, Functional Groups I -- Alcohols &
Ethers, Functional Groups II -- Aldehydes & Ketones, Functional Groups III -- Carboxylic
Acids & Esters, Functional Groups IV -- Amines & Amides, Addition Polymerization,
Condensation Polymerization

More To Come
As soon as I get some more free time... stay tuned.

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Chemistry Study Cards

GENERAL CHEMISTRY Jump to AP Chemistry

GC1,2,3-Introduction, Measurement, & Prob. Solving (12 cards on 3 pages)

The Scientific Method, Observations and Measurements (Qualitative, Quantitative,
Inferences), Graphing--Great Graphs, Recongizing and Using Significant Digits, Scientific
Notation, Accuracy vs. Precision, Metric System, % and ppm, Unit Analysis

GC4-Matter (8 cards on 2 pages)

Mass & Weight; Pure Substances, Elements, Compounds & Mixtures; Homogeneous &
Heterogeneous Mixtures, Separating Mixtures by Filtration, Distillation & Chromatography;
Mass, Volume & Density; Intensive & Extensive Properties, Physical & Chemical
Properties, Physical & Chemical Changes, Conservation of Mass, Symbols of the Elements,
Relative Abundance of the Elements, Natural History of Airs Lab

GC5-Energy
Study cards were never completed for this chapter... they are incorporated into other chapters.

GC6-Structure of the Atom (8 cards on 2 pages)

Subatomic Particles, Terms, Calculating Atomic Mass; Determining Numbers of Protons,
Neutrons & Electrons from Isotopic Notation; Important People, Early Experimental
Observations, Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

GC7-Chemical Formulas (12 cards on 3 pages)

Terms, Memorization Tips for Positive and Negative Ions, Formula Conventions, How Ions
Form, Writing Ionic Formulas, More Ions & Oxidation Numbers, Determining Oxidation
Numbers, Writing & Naming Acids, Stock Names vs. Traditional Names, Naming Molecular
Compounds, Determining Ion Charges from Formulas

GC8-The Mathematics of Chemical Formulas (8 cards on 2 pages)

Terms, Calculating Formula Mass, Mole Facts, Line Equations, Mole Relationships, Percent
Composition, Formula from % Composition, Other Mole Problems

GC9-Chemical Equations (8 cards on 2 pages)

Terms, Types of Reactions, Energy Changes, Showing Phases in Equations; Molecular, Ionic
& Net Ionic Equations; Word Equations, Law of Conservation of Mass & Complete
Combustion

GC10-The Mathematics of Chemical Equations (8 cards on 2 pages)

Coefficients and Relative Volumes of Gases, Hearts of the Problem, Mass-Mass & Mass-
Volume Problems, Limiting Reactant Problems, How Much Excess is Left, Baking Soda Lab
Ideas

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Chemistry Study Cards

GC11-Phases of Matter (8 cards on 2 pages)

Pressure Definition & Units, Manometers & Measuring Pressure, heating Curve and Energy
Changes, Names of Phase Changes & Energy, Kinetic Molecular Theory; Vapor Pressure,
IMF's & Kinetic Energy; Boiling Point; Solids, Liquids & Gases

GC12-The Gas Laws (8 cards on 2 pages)

Boyle's Law, Boyle's Law Lab, Kelvin Temperature Scale, Charles' Law, Gay-Lussac's Law,
The Combined Gas Law, The Ideal Gas Law, Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure, Why Do All
Gases Cause the Same Pressure, Graham's Law

GC13-Electron Configurations (4 cards on 1 page)

Electron Energy Levels, Orbital Diagrams & Electron Configurations, Filling Orbitals,
Valence Electrons

GC14-The Periodic Table (8 cards on 2 pages)

Trends about the Periodic Table, People of the Periodic Table, Families (Groups) of the
Table, Terms, Trends of the Periodic Table, Explaining the Size of Atoms and Ions,
Explaining Ionization Energy, Isoelectronic Species, Clues for the Periodic Table

GC15-Chemical Bonding (8 cards on 2 pages)

Three Types of Bonding, The Ionic Bond, The Covalent Bond, Lewis Dot Structures, The
Bednarski Method of Drawing Dot Structures, Comparing Ionic & Molecular Substances,
Electronegativity & Polar Bonds, Shapes & Polar Molecules

GC24-Organic Chemistry (12 cards on 3 pages)

Historical Ideas, Alkane Series -- Saturated Hydrocarbons, Structural Formulas Can Be
Misleading, Alkenes & Cis/Trans Isomerism; Alkynes, Alkadienes, and Cyclic Compounds;
Naming Organic Compounds (IUPAC Rules), Common Errors in Drawing/Naming
Structures, Aromatic Compounds -- Benzene and Its Derivatives, Functional Groups I --
Alcohols & Ethers, Functional Groups II -- Aldehydes & Ketones, Functional Groups III --
Carboxylic Acids & Esters, Functional Groups IV -- Amines & Amides
--Four Extra Cards-- (4 cards on 1 page)
Optical Isomers / Chiral Compounds, Common Names You Should Know, Addition
Polymerization, Condensation Polymerization

GC26-Nuclear Chemistry (12 cards on 3 pages)

The People, Terms, Types of Radiation, Half-Life, Nuyclear Equations, Stabilizing Unstable
Nuclei, Uses of Radioactivity, Fission and Fusion, Energy -Mass Conversion, What Happens
During Beta and Positron Decay

More To Come
As soon as I get some more free time... stay tuned.

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Chemistry Study Cards

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1 • Introduction
The Scientific Method
(1 of 20)
1 • Introduction
Observations and Measurements
Qualitative, Quantitative, Inferences
(2 of 20)
1 • Introduction
Significant Digits I
What do they mean?
(3 of 20)
1 • Introduction
Significant Digits II
Some examples with rulers.
(4 of 20)
This is an attempt to state how scientists do science. It is
necessarily artificial. Here are MY five steps:
• Make observations
the leaves on my plant are turning yellow
• State a Problem to be solved
how can I get my plants healthy (non-yellow)
• Form a hypothesis
maybe they need more water
• Conduct a controlled experiment
water plants TWICE a week instead of once a week
• Evaluate results
if it works, good... if not, new hypothesis (sunlight?)
Step 1 of the Scientific Method is Make Observations.
These can be of general physical properties (color, smell,
hardness, etc.) which are called qualitative observations.
These can be measurements which are called quantitative
observations.
There are also statements that we commonly make based on
observations. “This beaker contains water” is an example.
You infer (probably correctly) it is water because it is a
clear, colorless liquid that came from the tap. The
observations are that it is clear, it is colorless, it is a liquid,
and it came from the tap.
Consider: 16.82394 cm
In a measurement or a calculation, it is important to know
which digits of the reported number are significant.
That means… if the same measurement were repeated again
and again, some of the numbers would be consistent and
some would simply be artifacts.
All of the digits that you are absolutely certain of plus one
more that is a judgment are significant.
If all the digits are significant above, everyone who
measures the object will determine that it is 16.8239 cm, but
some will say …94 cm while others might say …95 cm.
a b c
1 2
(A composite ruler)
a- No one should argue that the measurement is between 0.3
and 0.4. Is it exactly halfway between (.35 cm)… or a little
to the left (.34 cm)? The last digit is the judgment of the
person making the measurement. The measurement has 2
significant digits.
b- The same ruler… so the measurement still goes to the
hundredths place… 1.00 cm (3 significant digits).
c- A ruler with fewer marks reads 1.6 cm (2 sig digits).

1 • Introduction
Significant Digits III
Rules for Recognizing Sig. Digits
(5 of 20)
1 • Introduction
Scientific Notation
Useful for showing Significant Digits
(6 of 20)
1 • Introduction
Significant Digits IV
Significant Digits in Calculations
(7 of 20)
1 • Introduction
Accuracy vs. Precision
(8 of 20)
In a number written with the correct number of sig. digits...
• All non-zero digits are significant. 523 grams (3)
• 0’s in the MIDDLE of a number are ALWAYS significant.
5082 meters (4) 0.002008 L (4)
• 0’s in the FRONT of a number are NEVER significant.
0.0032 kg (2) 0.00000751 m (3)
• 0’s at the END of a number are SOMETIMES significant.
• Decimal point is PRESENT, 0’s ARE significant
2.000 Liters (4) 0.000500 grams (3)
• Decimal point is ABSENT, 0’s are NOT significant
2000 Liters (1) 550 m (2)
NOTE: textbook values are assumed to have all sig. digits
Scientific notation uses a number between 1 and 9.99 x 10 to
some power. It’s use stems from the use of slide rules.
Know how to put numbers into scientific notation:
5392 = 5.392 x 103 0.000328 = 3.28 x 10 –4
1.03 = 1.03 550 = 5.5 x 102
Some 0’s in numbers are placeholders and are not a
significant part of the measurement so they disappear when
written in sci. notation. Ex: 0.000328 above. In scientific
notation, only the three sig. digits (3.28) are written.
Scientific Notation can be used to show more sig. digits.
Values like 550 ( 2 sig. digits) can be written 5.50 x 102 (3)
When you perform a calculation using measurements, often
the calculator gives you an incorrect number of significant
digits. Here are the rules to follow to report your answers:
x and ÷: The answer has the same # of sig. digits as the
number in the problem with the least number of sig. digits.
example: 3.7 cm x 8.1 cm = 29.97 ≈ 30. cm2 (2 sig. digits)
+ and –: The last sig. digit in the answer is the largest
uncertain digit in the values used in the problem.
example: 3.7 cm + 8.1 cm = 11.8 cm (3 sig. digits)
Know how to ilustrate why these rules work.
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to some
accepted or true value (a standard).
Ex: an experimental value of the density of Al° is 2.69
g/mL. The accepted value is 2.70 g/mL. Your value is
accurate to within 0.37%
% error is used to express accuracy.
Precision refers to the reliability, repeatability, or
consistency of a measurement.
Ex: A value of 2.69 g/mL means that if you repeat the
measurement, you will get values that agree to the
tenths place (2.68, 2.70, 2.71, etc.)
± and sig. digits are used to express precision.
 We generally use three types of measurements:
volume Liters (mL)
length meters (km, cm and mm)
mass grams (kg and mg)
1 • Introduction We commonly use the prefixes:
Metric System centi- 1/
100 th
(9 of 20) milli- 1 /1000th
kilo- 1000
Occasionally you will encounter micro(µ), nano, pico, mega,
and giga. You should know where to find these in chapter 1.
Know that 2.54 cm = 1 inch and 2.20 lb = 1 kg

Percentage is a mathematical tool to help compare values.

Two fractions, 3/17 and 5/31 are difficult to compare:
If we set up ratios so we can have a common denominator:
3 x 17.65 5 x 16.13
= = = =
1 • Introduction 17 100 100 31 100 100
% and ppm 3 5
so… we can see that > .
(10 of 20) 17 31
There are 17.65 parts per 100 (Latin: parts per centum) or
17.65 percent (17.65 %)… the % is a “1 0 0”

ppm (parts per million) is the same idea, (use 1,000,000

3 x
instead of 100) = = 176,470 ppm
17 1 000 000

Consider the metric/English math fact: 2.54 cm = 1 inch

This can be used as the “conversion factor”:
2.54 cm 1 inch
or
1 inch 2.54 cm
1 • Introduction You can convert 25.5 inches to cm in the following way:
Unit Analysis Given: 25.5 in
Converting between English and Metric Units 2.54 cm
(11 of 20) Desired: ? cm 25.5 in x = 64.77 cm ≈ 64.8 cm
1 in
This is the required way to show your work. You have two
jobs in this class, to be able to perform the conversions and
to be able to prove that you know why the answer is correct.

The important idea is that temperature is really a measure

of something, the average motion (kinetic energy,
KE) of the molecules.
Does 0°C really mean 0 KE? nope... it simply means the
1 • Introduction freezing point of water, a convenient standard.
Temperature Scales
(12 of 20) We have to cool things down to –273.15°C before we reach
0 KE. This is called 0 Kelvin (0 K, note: NO ° symbol.)
For phenomena that are proportional to the KE of the
particles (pressure of a gas, etc.) you must use
temperatures in K. K = °C + 273 °C = K – 273
 mass is the amount of something...
weight is how much gravity is pulling on the mass.
(Weight will be proportional to the mass at a given spot.)
Mass is what we REALLY want to use... measured in grams.
1 • Introduction You use a balance to measure mass... you compare your
Mass vs. Weight object with objects of known mass.
Theory, Measuring, Conversions
(13 of 20) Weight is measured with a scale (like your bathroom scale
or the scale at the grocery store). If there is no gravity, it
doesn’t work. Note: electronic balances are really scales!
1 kg 2.205 lbs
You convert mass / weight using: or
2.205 lbs 1 kg

1 • Introduction
Potential Energy (PE) and
Kinetic Energy (KE)
(14 of 20)
1
You can calculate the KE of an object: KE = mv2
2
m = mass, v = velocity [Note units: 1 J = 1 kg·m 2 ·s–2]
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy.
PE = the potential to do work which is due to an object’s
position in a field. For example, if I hold a book 0.5 m
above a student’s head it can do some damage... 1.0 m above
her/his head, more work can be done.
Important ideas:
Objects tend to change from high PE to low PE (downhill).
High PE is less stable than low PE.

Extensive properties depend on the amount of substance.

1 • Introduction
Mass, Volume, and Density
Intensive vs. Extensive Properties
(15 of 20)
We measure these properties frequently... (mass &
volume... mostly).
Intensive properties are independent of the size of the
sample. These are useful for identifying substances...
(melting point, boiling point, density, etc.)
mass
It is interesting that an intensive property, density =
volume
is the ratio of two extensive properties... the size of the
sample sort of “cancels out.” Be able to do density problems
(3 variables) and know the usefulness of specific gravity.

Heat is the total KE while temperature is the average KE.

A way to measure heat is to measure the temperature change
of a substance... often water. It takes 1 calorie of heat
energy (or 4.184 J) to heat 1 gram of H 2 O by 1 °C.
1 • Introduction cal J
Calorimetry The specific heat of water = 1 = 4.184
g·°C g·°C
(16 of 20)
heat = specific heat x mass H2 O x ∆T
You can heat other substances as well, you just need to
know their specific heats. Notice that this is simply
heating or cooling a substance, not changing its phase.

1 • Introduction
Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical and Chemical Changes
(17 of 20)
1 • Introduction
Pure Substances, Elements, & Compounds
Homogeneous & Heterogeneous Mixtures
(18 of 20)
1 • Introduction
Separating Mixtures by Filtration,
Distillation, and Chromatography
(19 of 20)
1 • Introduction
Early Laws: the Law of Definite Composition
& the Law of Simple Multiple Proportions
(20 of 20)
Equations to symbolize changes: reactants → products
Physical Properties can be measured from a sample of the
substance alone... (density, MP, BP, color, etc.)
Chemical Properties are measured when a sample is mixed
with another chemical (reaction with acid, how does it
burn in O2 )
Physical Changes imply that no new substances are being
formed (melting, boiling, dissolving, etc.)
Chemical Changes imply the substance is forming new
substances. This change is accompanied by heat, light,
gas formation, color changes, etc.
Matter Energy
Pure Substances Mixtures
Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous
This chart should help you sort out these similar terms.
Be able to use chemical symbols to represent elements and
compounds. For example...
CuSO4 •5H2 O, a hydrate, contains 21 atoms & 4 elements.
Memorize the 7 elements that exist in diatomic molecules:
HONClBrIF or BrINClHOF or “H and the 6 that make a 7
starting with element #7”
Mixtures are substances the are NOT chemically combined...
so if you want to separate them, you need to exploit
differences in their PHYSICAL properties.
Filtration:
some components of the mixture dissolve and some do
not. The filtrate is what passes through the filter.
Distillation:
some components vaporize at different temperatures or
one component may not vaporize at all (e.g.: salt+water)
complete separation may not be possible.
Chromatography:
differences in solubility vs. adhesion to the substrate.
Substaratemay be filter paper (paper chromatography),
or other substances, GLC, TLC, HPLC, column, etc.
Definite Composition:
samples of the same substance from various sources
(e.g. water) can be broken down to give the same %’s of
elements. Calculation: percent composition
Multiple Proportions:
samples of 2 substances made of the same 2 elements...
(e.g. CO2 & CO or H2 O and H2 O2 or CH4 and C3 H8 )
if you break down each to give equal masses of one
element, the masses of the other element will be in a
simple, whole-number ratio.
Calculation: proportions to get equal amounts of one
element and then simple ratios.

2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Formula Conventions
(1 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Stoichiometry Terms
(2 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Calculating Formula Mass
(3 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Mole Facts
(4 of 24)
Superscripts
used to show the charges on ions
Mg2+ the 2 means a 2+ charge (lost 2 electrons)
Subscripts
used to show numbers of atoms in a formula unit
H2 SO4 two H’s, one S, and 4 O’s
Coefficients
used to show the number of formula units
2Br– the 2 means two individual bromide ions
Hydrates CuSO4 • 5 H2 O
some compounds have water molecules included
stoichiometry study of the quantitative relationships
in chemical formulas and equations.
atomic mass weighted average mass of an atom,
found on the periodic table
formula mass sum of the atomic masses of the
atoms in a formula
molecular mass sum of the atomic masses of the
atoms in a molecular formula
gram molecular mass molecular mass written in grams
molar mass same as gram molecular mass
empirical formula formula reduced to lowest terms
Formula or molecular mass is found by simply summing
the atomic masses (on the periodic table) of each atom in a
formula.
H2 SO4
1.01 + 1.01 + 32.06 + 16.0 + 16.0 + 16.0 + 16.0 = 98.08 u
2(1.01) + 32.06 + 4(16.0) = 98.06 u or 98.06 g/mole
Generally, round off your answers to the hundredths or
tenths place. Don’t round off too much (98.06 g/mol or
98.1 g/mol is OK, but don’t round off to 98 g/mol)
Units
Use u or amu if you are referring to one atom or molecule
A mole (abbreviated mol) is a certain number of things. It
is sometimes called the chemist’s dozen.
A dozen is 12 things, a mole is 6.02 x 1023 things.
Avogadro’s Number
1 mole of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules
Molar Volume (measured at P = 760 mmHg and T = 0 °C)
1 mole of any gas has a volume of 22.4 Liters
Molar Mass (see gram formula mass)
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
6.02 x 10 23 molecules 22.4 L molar mass
 A Line Equation is the preferred way to show conversions
between quantities (amount, mass, volume, and number) by
canceling units (moles, grams, liters, and molecules)

2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic The line equation consists of the Given Value, the Desired
Line Equations Unit, and the line equation itself.
(5 of 24) Example: What is the mass of 135 Liters of CH4 (at STP)?
Given: 135 L CH4
Desired: ? g CH 4
1 mol CH4 16.0 g CH4
135 L CH4 x x = 96.43 g CH 4
22.4 L CH4 1 mol CH4

The “Mole Map” shows the structure of mole problems

Mass Mass
➀ ➀
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic Volume Volume
at STP ➁ moles ➁ at STP
Mole Relationships
(6 of 24) ➂ ➂
number of number of
atoms or atoms or
molecules molecules
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
1) 2) 3)
molar mass 22.4 L 6.02 x 10 23 molecules

Percentage Composition quantifies what portion (by mass)

of a substance is made up of each element.

mass of element
Set up a fraction:
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic mass of molecule
Percentage Composition (by mass) mass of element
Change to percentage: 100 x
(7 of 24) mass of molecule

Generally, round off your answers to the tenth’s place.

The percentage compositions of each element should add up

to 100% (or very close, like 99.9% or 100.1%)

Given the Percentage Composition of a formula, you can

2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Formula from % Composition
(8 of 24)
calculate the empirical formula of the substance.
Step 1 assume you have 100 g of substance so
the percentages become grams
Step 2 change grams of each element to moles
of atoms of that element
Step 3 set up a formula with the moles
example: C2.4 H4.8
Step 4 simplify the formula by dividing moles
2.4 4.8
by the smallest value C 2.4 H2.4 = CH2
Step 5 If ratio becomes… 1:1.5 multiply by 2
1:1.33 or 1:1.66 multiply by 3
 equation condensed statement of facts about a
chemical reaction.
reactants → substances that exist before a
chemical rxn. Written left of arrow.
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic → products substances that come into existence as
a result of the reaction. Written to the
Equation Terms right of the arrow.
(9 of 24) word equation an equation describing a chemical
change using the names of the
reactants and products.
coefficients a number preceding atoms, ions, or
molecules in balanced chemical
equationns that showing relative #’s.

The gas density is often converted to molar mass:

Example :
The gas density of a gas is 3.165 g/Liter (at STP). What is
the molar mass of the gas?
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Other Mole Problems and Conversions Knowing that 22.4 L is 1 mole, you can set up the ratio:
(10 of 24) 3.165 g molar mass
=
1 Liter 22.4 L

Other metric conversions you should know:

1000 mL 1 kg
1 Liter 1000 grams

Example: Write the formula equation of...

sodium metal + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Na° + H 2 O → NaOH + H2
• metals often are written with the ° symbol to emphasize
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic that the metal is in the neutral elemental state, not an ion.
Writing Formula Equations
• some compounds have common names that you should
Things To Remember just know... water, H 2 O; ammonia, NH3 ; methane, CH4
(11 of 24)
• remember the seven diatomic elements so they can be
written as diatomic molecules when they appear in their
elemental form. Other elemental substances are written
as single atoms (e.g. sodium metal or helium gas, He)

Since every gas takes up the same amount of room (22.4 L

for a mole of a gas at STP), the coefficients in an equation
tell you about the volumes of gas involved.

2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic Example: N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH 3 (g)

Coefficients and Relative Volumes of Gases +
(12 of 24)

2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Heart of the Problem
(13 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Mass-Mass Problems
Mass-Volume Problems
(14 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Mass-Volume-Particle Problems
(15 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Limiting Reactant Problems
(16 of 24)
The “heart of the problem” conversion factor relates the
Given and the Desired compounds using the coefficients
from the balanced equation.
Example: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
3 moles H
♥ could be 2 moles NH2
3
…which means that every time 2 moles of NH 3 is formed, 3
moles of H2 must react.
moles of Desired
The format is always,
moles of Given
Mass-Mass problems are probably the most common type
of problem. The Given and Desired are both masses (grams
or kg).
The pattern is:
molar mass
♥ x molar mass
Given x of Given x of Desired
In Mass-Volume problems, one of the molar masses is
22.4 L
replaced with depending on whether the Given or
1 mole
the Desired is Liters.
If the Given or Desired is molecules, then the Avogadro’s
6.02 x 10 23 molecules
Number conversion factor, is used
1 mole
and the problem is a Mass-Particle or Volume-Particle
problem.
The units of the Given and Desired will guide you as to
which conversion factor to use:
Mass grams or kg
Volume Liters or mL
Particles molecules or atoms
In a problem with two Given values, one of the Given’s will
limit how much product you can make. This is called the
limiting reactant. The other reactant is said to be in excess.
Solve the problem twice using each Given… the reactant
that results in the smaller amount of product is the limiting
reactant and the smaller answer is the true answer.
Example: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
When 28.0 grams of N2 reacts with 8.00 grams of H 2 , what
mass of NH3 is produced?
(in this case, the N2 is the limiting reactant)

2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
How Much Excess Reactant is Left Over
(17 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Limiting Reactants
(18 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield
(19 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Balancing Chemical Equations
(20 of 24)
Example: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
When 28.0 grams of N2 reacts with 8.00 grams of H 2 , what
mass of NH3 is produced?
(in this case, the N2 is the limiting reactant)
To find out how much H2 is left over, do another line
equation:
Given: 28.0 g N2
Desired: ? g H2
subtract the answer of this problem from 8.00 g H2
It is difficult to simply guess which reactant is the limiting
reactant because it depends on two things:
(1) the molar mass of the reactant and
(2) the coefficients in the balanced equation
The smaller mass is not always the limiting reactant.
Example: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
1 mole (28 g N 2 ) will just react with 3 moles (6.06 g H2 )
so, if we react 28.0 g N2 with 8.0 g H2 , only 6.06 g H2
will be used up and 1.94 g of H2 will be left over.
In this case, N2 is the L.R. and H2 is in X.S.
The answer you calculate from a stoichiometry problem can
be called the Theoretical Yield. Theoretically, you
should get this amount of product.
In reality , you often get less than the theoretical amount due
to products turning back to reactants or side reactions.
The amount you actually get is called the Actual Yield.
Actual Yield
Percentage Yield = x 100
Theoretical Yield
The balanced equation represents what actually occurs
during a chemical reaction. Since atoms are not created
or destroyed during a normal chemical reaction, the
number and kinds of atoms must agree on the left and
right sides of the arrows.
__Na 2 CO3 + __HCl → __ NaCl + __H2 O + __CO2
To balance the equation, you are only allowed to change the
coefficients in front of the substances... not change the
formulas of the substances themselves.
Reduce the coefficients to the lowest terms.
Fractions may be used in front of diatomic elements.

2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Combustion Equations
(21 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Solutions -- Molar Concentration
(22 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Dilution Problems
(23 of 24)
2•Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Acid-Base Titrations
(24 of 24)
The burning of fuels made of C, H, and O is called
combustion. You need to memorize O2 , CO2 and H 2 O
Example: The combustion of propane, C3 H8 , is written:
C 3 H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2 O
Be careful when writing equations for alcohols, such as
butanol, C 4 H9 OH
• don’t forget to add the H’s (a total of 10 of them)
• don’t forget to take account of the O atom in the alcohol
C 4 H9 OH + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2 O
Many reactions are carried out in solution. Solutions are
convenient and speed up many reactions.
Concentration is often expressed as
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
Liters of solution
You can calculate the molarity of a solution when given
moles (or grams) of a substance and its volume.
You can use the molarity of a solution as a conversion factor
0.150 moles HCl 1 Liter HCl
0.150 M HCl ≈ or
1 Liter HCl 0.150 moles HCl
to convert moles to Liters and vice versa.
Volumetric flasks are used to make solutions.
You can calculate the moles of a solute using the volume
and molarity of the substance. Since diluting a solution
adds water and no solute, the moles of solute before and
after the dilution remains constant. So...
Vi · Mi = Vf · Mf
where “I” means “initial” and “f” means “final”
The units of volume or concentration do not really matter as
long as they match on the two sides of the equation.
Acids form the H+ ion. Bases form the OH– ion.
Acids + bases mix to form H 2 O (HOH) and a salt.
The moles of H+ = the moles of OH– in a neutralization.
An acid-base titration is the technique of carefully
neutralizing an acid with a base and measuring the
volumes used. An indicator (we used phenolphthalein)
allows us to observe when the endpoint is reached.
If a monoprotic acid is neutralized with a base that only has
one OH– ion per formula unit, the simple formula:
Va · Ma = Vb · Mb
allows you to determine the molarity of the unknown.
 Name Symbol Mass Charge Location
protons p+ 1u 1+ part of the nucleus
neutron n° 1u 0 part of the nucleus
– 1
electron e u 1– normally at large
3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms 1837
The Subatomic Particles distances from the
(1 of 12) nucleus
J.J. Thompson is given credit for discovering electrons
using a Crookes tube and testing many different gases.
Cathode rays were found to be beams of electrons.
Chadwick is given credit for the discovery of the neutron.

atoms the smallest particle of an element . It

3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
Terms I-- Atomic Structure
(2 of 12)
consists of a central nucleus and electron
clouds outside the nucleus.
nucleus the dense central portion of an atom.
subatomic smaller than an atom. The proton,
neutron, and electron are subatomic.
net charge the difference in the positive charge due to
protons and the negative charge due to
electrons in an atom.
nucleons the particles that make up the nucleus.

atomic number the number of protons in an atom. This #

3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
Terms II-- Atomic Structure
(3 of 12)
determines the identity of an element.
mass number the number of protons + neutrons
isotopes atoms with the same number of protons,
but different numbers of neutrons. Atoms
with the same atomic number, but
different mass numbers.
isotopic notation shorthand notation for a nucleus that
shows the mass #, atomic # and the
238
symbol. U-238 would be 92 U

Any real sample of an element contains more than one

naturally occuring isotope. For instance, boron
isotope abundance mass # isotopic mass
10
3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms boron-10 5 B 19.78% 10 mass = 10.013 u
Calculating Atomic Mass 11
boron-11 5 B 80.22% 11 mass = 11.009 u
(4 of 12)
The atomic mass is the weighted average of the isotopes.
(19.78%)(10.013u) + (80.22%)(11.0009u)
at. mass = or
100
at. mass = (0.1978)(10.013u) + (0.8022)(11.0009u)
= 10.81 u

3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
Determining Numbers of Protons, Neutrons,
and Electrons from the Isotopic Notation
(5 of 12)
3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
Important People in the Development of the
Atomic Theory
(6 of 12)
3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
(7 of 12)
3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
(8 of 12)
Consider the following symbol: 16S2–
33
The 16 is the atomic number which is the number of
protons.
The 33 is the mass number which is the mass of one of the
isotopes. This mass is due to the protons and neutrons.
The number of neutrons is the mass number - the atomic
number. 33 - 16 = 17 neutrons.
Since the charge is 2-, there are 2 more electrons than
protons. In this case, there are 18 electrons.
Democritus [atomos]
philosopher who argued that matter was discontinuous
John Dalton [billiard-ball model]
experimented with gases… different substances are
different combinations of atoms
J.J. Thomson [plum-pudding model]
experimented with gas-discharge tubes… atoms have + and
– parts… the negative e– ’s are the same for any atom
Ernest Rutherford [nuclear model/solar system model]
most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in a tiny,
positively-charged nucleus
Niels Bohr [quantized electron energy levels]
the electrons have only certain allowed energy levels
The elements can be classified as metals, nonmetals, and
metalloids. Memorize the elements classified as metalloids
(also called semi-metals or semiconductors).
Properties of metals include:
ductility - the ability to pull a substance into a wire
sectility - the ability to cut with a knife
malleability - the ability to pound substance into a sheet
conductivity - the ability to carry an electrical current
Gold is the most malleable of all the metals.
Ernest Rutherford’s classic gold foil experiment led to the
nuclear model of the atom.
most alpha's
α came straight
α gold foil through here
a few bounced back
at a large angle
• the nucleus is tiny - because most of the alpha’s missed
the nucleus and went straight through the foil
• the nucleus is positively charged - because the (+)
charged alpha was repelled by the (+) charged nucleus
• the nucleus is incredibly dense - because the nucleus was
able to bounce back at a very large angle

3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
The First Periodic Table
(9 of 12)
3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
Families of the Periodic Table
(10 of 12)
3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
Radioactivity Basics
(11 of 12)
3 • The Periodic Table & Makeup of Atoms
JJ Thomson & cathode ray tubes
(12 of 12)
Meyer and Mendeleev are given credit for developing the
first version of the periodic table. Mendelleev’s true claim
to fame was that he actually predicted the existence of
several element that had not been discovered. He found
gaps in the table when he tried to organize the atoms and left
spaces for those elements (ekasilicon = "like silicon", etc.)
He predicted Ga, Ge, and Sc.
He also arranged elements in order of atomic number rather
than the previous idea of atomic mass. Several of the
elements change order... (like Te and I).
Horizontal rows of the table are called periods.
Vertical columns are called groups or families.
Memorize the names of some groups:
IA - the alkali metals
IIA - the alkaline earth metals
VIIA - the halogens
0 - the noble gases
Also know the transition metals, the inner transition metals
(composed of the lanthanide series and the actinide series...
the lanthanides are also called the rare earth metals)
Families IA - VIIIA are called the representative elements.
Radioactivity was discovered by Henri Becquerel (but
named by Marie Curie).
“Becquerel rays” were found to consist of 3 types or
radiation:
alpha particles (α) a helium nucleus - 2 protons + 2 neutrons
…easily stopped by paper or skin
beta particles (β) a high energy electron
…stopped by Al foil (several thicknesses of foil)
gamma radiation (γ) a very high energy form of light (EMR)
…the most penetrating and dangerous of the rays.
Know the design of a cathode rays tubes. Realize that
cathode rays are really beams of electrons. The cathode rays
are the same for any substance, but the canal rays (the
positive ions left after ionizing the gases) are different for
each gas.
Know how the bending of cathode rays can tell you the
charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) (but not the mass or the charge
of the electron).
Millikan’s oil drop experiment gave evidence for the
charge of the electron. Knowing this and the e/m ratio, you
can calculate the mass of the electron.

4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Wave Ideas You Should Know
(1 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Wave Calculations
(2 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
The Balmer Series
(3 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
The De Broglie Wavelength of Electrons
(4 of 16)
EMR electromagnetic radiation …
oscillating electric & magnetic fields at right angles
wavelength (λ) the distance from crest to crest or
trough to trough.
amplitude the distance from the equilibrium
point to the crest or trough.
frequency (ν) the number of waves that pass a
point per second. (Hz, s–1, 1/s)
continuous spectrum a “normal” rainbow that contains all
of the colors (ROYGBV).
line spectrum a spectrum that only contains certain
bright lines that result from electron
transitions within an atom.
Exchanging wavelength, frequency, & energy of light:
λ·ν=c c = 3.00 x 10 8 m/s [speed of light]
E = hν h = 6.626 x 10–34 J·s [Planck’s constant]
hc
E=
λ
Energy of Level “n” in the Hydrogen atom:
A
En = – 2 A = 2.18 x 10–18 J [Arrhenius constant?]
n
NOTE: You can learn the Balmer equation or the Rydberg
equation listed on pp. 108 & 109. I suggest you use the
above equations to calculate the wavelengths or frequencies
of light emitted when electrons change energy levels.
When the electron “drops” to energy level n=2, visible light
is emitted. The bight line spectrum observed is called the
Balmer Series of lines. [Memorize this info...]
3→2 red
4→2 blue-green
5→2 blue-violet
6→2 violet
All the lines result from an electron transition to level n=1
are too high energy to be visible… UV [Lyman Series]
All the lines that result from an electron transition to levels
n=3 [Paschen], n=4 [Brackett] and n=5 [Pfund] are too
LOW energy to be visible.
Two equations can be combined into one to allow you to
calculate the wavelength of a particle:
hc
E = mc2 E=
λ
h c
mc2 =
λ
h h
mc = or more generally, mv =
λ λ
h
λ=
mv
h = Planck’s constant, m = mass of particle (in kg),
v = velocity of particle (in m/s).

4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Standing Waves
(5 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Quantum Numbers (n, l, m, s)
(6 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Three Rules for Filling Orbitals
(7 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Electron Configurations
(8 of 16)
Standing waves are something that waves do…
resulting from having repeating waves that always cancel at
the nodes and always add up at the antinodes.
We have seen standing waves
of strings:
of sound:
+ + – + –
of drumheads:
We hypothesized the standing waves
of electrons: (4-dimensional vibrating wavicles)
the orbitals (s, p, d, f… probability waves)
These are variables in some unseen equation:
The Rules:
n = 1, 2, 3, ... determines the energy of the e–
l = 0 → (n–1) the type of orbital (subshell)
0 ≈ s, 1 ≈ p, 2 ≈ d, 3 ≈ f
m = –l → +l which orientation of the orbital
(x, y, z… for p orbitals)
1 1
s = + or – the “spin” of the electron
2 2
NOTE: m is also called ml and s is ms
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons
in an atom may have the same four quantum numbers. This
translates to the idea that an orbital may contain no more
than two electrons.
The Aufbau Principle states that electrons occupy the
lowest energy available orbital. You must memorize the
orbital chart on page 120. [Aufbau = “building up”]
Hund’s Rule states that when you have several orbitals of
the same energy (e.g. three p orbitals or five d orbitals) place
one electron in each orbital before doubling them up.
NOTE: Remember the Aufbau hotel analogy...
This is a shorthand notation for the arrangement of electron
in the orbitals. 1s2 means 2 electrons in the 1s orbital
Consider Arsenic, As
This is the order in which the electrons fill…
As 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p3
however, we write the orbitals according to the distance
from the nucleus (n=3’s then n=4’s, etc.)
As 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p3
long form: (shown above) show each subshell
short form: (show the last filled NRG level...noble gas core)
As [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3

4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
The s-block, p-block... of the Periodic Table
Exceptions to the Filling Rules
(9 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Shapes of the orbitals
(10 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Predicting the Atomic Size (radius)
Trends in the Periodic Table
(11 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Explaining The Sizes of Ions
The Lanthanide Contraction
(12 of 16)
The shape of the Periodic Table comes from the way the
electrons fill the orbitals.
s-block Families I and II
p-block Families III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII
d-block The Transition Elements
f-block The Inner Transition Elements
Six elements do not follow the rules. They are in the d-
block of the periodic table… the transition elements.
Cu, Ag, and Au... instead of a full s-orbital and almost filled
d-orbital, they have a filled d and half-filled s-orbital
Cr, Mo, W... instead of a full s-orbital and an almost half-
filled d-orbital, they have d5 and s1
Know the general shapes of the
s (spherical) orbitals,
p (perpendicular) orbitals, and
d (diagonal) orbitals.
What: As you move ACROSS a period, the size of the atom
DECREASES
Why: As you move ACROSS a period, the number of
protons in the nucleus increases... so the proton-
electron attraction increases... the size decreases.
NOTE: The increased e– -e– repulsion that one might expect
is not important, because the outer electrons do not
SHIELD the electrons from the nucleus..
What: As you move DOWN a family, the size of the atom
INCREASES
Why: As the value of “n” increases, the average distance of
the electron from the nucleus increases. The size of
the atom IS the electron cloud... so the size increases
The change in size of ions (compared to the neutral element)
depends on the electron-electron repulsion.
If an atom gains electrons, the increased repulsion increases
the size of the electron cloud. So... negative ions are larger
than the neutral atom.
Positive ions form by losing electrons (less repulsion) and
get smaller.
The Lanthanide contraction makes the third row of the
transition elements about the same size as the second row...
This causes these elements to be much more dense.

4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Ionization Energy
Trends Across a Period
(13 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Ionization Energy & Reactivity
Trends Down a Family
(14 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Ionization Energy
Trends in Successive Ionizations
(15 of 16)
4 • Electronic Structure & the Per. Table
Electron Affinity
(16 of 16)
Following the decrease in size, the ionization energy
GENERALLY increases as you move across a period. If the
atom is smaller, the electron being removed is closer to the
nucleus and therefore feels a stronger attraction.
The Jags: (why are some electrons EASIER to remove)
In Family III, the electron being removed comes from the p-
orbital rather than the s-orbital. The p-orbital electron is at a
higher energy and requires LESS energy to ionize.
In Family VI, the electron being removed comes from an
orbital with TWO electrons. The e– - e– repulsion felt by the
electron allows it to be ionized with less added energy.
What: Down a family, Ionization energy DECREASES
Why: The trend here goes right with the size of the atom.
Since “n” increases, the distance of an electron
from the nucleus increases and is easier to remove.
What: Down family I and II, the reactivity INCREASES.
Why: These families lose electrons to become + ions.
The easier it is (lower ionization energy) the more
reactive they are.
What: Down family VII, the reactivity DECREASES.
Why: These elements GAIN electrons to become – ions.
Smaller atoms mean the attracted electrons will be
closer to the nucleus... more effective attractions.
What: You can tell the family of an element by observing
when the ionization energies get very large.
For example: family III elements
Al + energy = Al+ + e– (3p electron)
Al+ + energy! = Al2+ + e– (3s electron)
Al2+ + energy!! = Al3+ + e– (3s electron)
Al3+ + ENERGY = Al4+ + e– (2p electron!)
Why: The “easy” electrons to remove are in an orbital
with a higher value of n. When n decreases, the
average distance of the electron from the nucleus
decreases and the attractions between the proton
and electrons increase.
Electron affinity is the energy involved when an atom gains
an electron to become a negative ion.
F + e – → F– + energy
Elements in the upper right corner of the periodic table have
the greatest electron affinity (greatest attraction for
electrons).
The electron affinity may be + or –. Negative values mean
energy is released and also counts as a greater electron
affinity.
Electron affinity data is not complete, but it gives SOME
evidence for trends in the periodic table.
 Compound Molecular Ionic
Conducts as Solid NO NO
Conducts as Liquid NO YES
Conducts in Solution NO YES
5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts Conducts as Gas NO YES
Some Properties of Hardness soft hard
Ionic and Molecular Compounds
(1 of 12) MP / BP low high
Bonding covalent ionic
Examples He, CH 4 , CO2 , NaCl, KI,
C 6 H12O6 AgNO 3

Lewis symbols conisist of the atomic symbol surrounded by

valnece electrons. The four sides represent the four valence
orbitals. Atoms are usually shown in their excited states (II,
III, IV)
5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lewis Symbols of Atoms and Ions
(2 of 12) Ions include brackets. Positive ions show no valence
electrons while negative ions usually have an octet.

[Li]+
2+ 2–
[Mg] [O]

Many ions can be explained because they have gained or lost

5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
The Ionic Bond
Noble and Pseudonoble Gas Configurations
(3 of 12)
electrons and attain a noble gas configuration. For example:
P 3– S2– Cl– Ar K+ Ca 2+
all have the same electron arrangement: 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6
A pseudonoble gas configuration is:
1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 10
This is found in Cu+ Zn 2+ Ga3+ and Ge4+
Similar configurations are found in the next two periods.
The importance of this configuration is that there is more
than one reason why ions form what they do. Many ions are
not explained.

Know the 5 steps that can be thought to occur when an ionic

5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
Factors that Influence
the Formation of Ionic Bonds
(4 of 12)
bond forms. Note whether each is exo- or endothermic...
whether a larger energy helps or hinders the bond formation.
Overall: Li(s) + 1/2F2 (g) → LiF(s)
1. heat of vaporization Li(s) + NRG → Li(g)
2. heat of decomposition 1/2F2 (g) + NRG → F(g)
3. ionization energy Li(g) + NRG → Li+(g) + e–
4. electron affinity F(g) + e– → F– (g)
5. lattice energy Li+(g) + F– (g) → LiF(s)
Large energy values for 1,2,3 hinder ionic bond formation.

5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
The Covalent Bond
Attractions and Repulsions
(5 of 12)
5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
Groves’ Electron Dot System
Multiple & Extended Valence Bonds
(6 of 12)
5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
Bond Order: Bond Length, Strength, &
Vibrational Frequency
(7 of 12)
5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
Resonance
(8 of 12)
The covalent bond between two atoms depends on the
balanc e of attractions between one atom’s + nucleus and
the other atom’s – electrons and the proton-proton
repulsions as well as electron-electron repulstions.
PE
Distance between nuclei
If two atoms have half-filled orbitals , the interactions
balance at a small enough distanc eso the e – ’s can be close
to both nucle i at the same time... this is a covalen tbond.
Count up your valence electrons.
Give every atom who “wants” and octet an octet.
[the first 5 elements do not need octets... too small]
[Family I, II, and III do not form octets]
If you have drawn too man y electrons...
“Take away a lone pair... take away a lone pair...
make these two atoms share”
If you have drawn too fe w electrons... place the extra
electrons on the central atom (extended valence shell)
Bond orde r is the number of pairs of electrons bonding two
atoms together.
single bond bond order = 1
double bond bond order = 2
triple bond bond order = 3
single bonds have the longest bond length
single bonds have the weakest bond strength
single bonds have the lowest vibrational frequency
(think of single bonds as soft, springy springs...
triple bonds are tight springs...sproinnnnng)
Bonds in resonance structure must be averaged... the S-O
bond in SO 2 has a bond order of 1.5. C-O in CO3 2– is 1.33
When you draw a Lewis structure (SO2 , O3 , CO3 2–, etc.) in
which you must make a choic e as to who gets a double
bond, the structure is actually a blend of two or three
structures.
We “say” that the structure “resonate s” or we say that the
structure contains contributions from each of the resonance
structures.
Resonance occurs simply because the electron-dot model
(while very useful) is too limited to show how the electrons
are being shared between the atoms... wait for π bonding.

5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
Coordinate Covalent Bonds
(Preview: Lewis Acids)
(9 of 12)
5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
Electronegativity and Polar Bonds
(10 of 12)
5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
Naming Ionic Compounds
Traditional and Stock Names
(11 of 12)
5 • Chemical Bonding: Gen Concepts
Naming Acids
(12 of 12)
Coordinate covalent bond: When a covalent bond is
formed by sharing a pair of electrons BUT the electron pair
belonged to only one of the atoms.
Classic Example: NH3 + BF3 → NH3 BF3
The bond between the N and the B is coordinate covalent.
The lone pair donor is called a Lewis Base.
(this atom has a lone pair of electrons)
The lone pair acceptor is called a Lewis Acid.
(this atom has an empty orbital)
“Have Pair Will Share” --Lewis Base
You will be given a chart of electronegativity values.
Memorize the most electronegative element s (F = 4.0)
then oxygen (O = 3.5) and chlorine (Cl = 3.0). The noble
gases have no electronegativity values… no bonds.
Trend is large electronegativity in the upper right of the
per. table and small in the lower left portion of the table.
Classify the bond between any two atoms by subtracting
their electronegativity values (∆e)
Non-polar covalent 0 < ∆e < 0.5
Polar covalent 0.5 ≤ ∆e ≤ 1.7
Ionic ∆e > 1.7
The more electronegative atom is more negative.
Polar covalent bonds have partial charges δ+ and δ–
The Stock System of naming compounds is used…
• when a positive ion has more than one possible charge
Traditional: mercurous, Hg2 2+ mercuric, Hg2+
Stock: mercury(I) mercury(II)
Traditional: cuprous, Cu+ cupric, Cu 2+
Stock: copper(I) copper(II)
• for molecular compounds where the elements have many
different oxidation states (i.e. N in NO 2 , NO, N 2 O, etc.)
Stock Name: Traditional Name:
NO2 nitrogen(IV) oxide nitrogen dioxide
NO nitrogen (II) oxide nitrogen monoxide
N2 O nitrogen(I) oxide dinitrogen monoxide
Acids are ionic formulas in which the positive ion is H+.
Use as many H+ ions as the charge on the negative ion.
Three rules for naming:
if the anion ends with: the acid is named:
–ite ********ous acid
–ate ********ic acid
–ide hydro********ic acid
• Acids from sulfide, sulfite, and sulfate include a “ur”
H2 S is hydrosulfuric acid, not hydrosulfic acid
• Acids from phosphate and phosphite include a “or”
H3 PO4 is phophoric acid, not phosphic acid

7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Solutions and Solubility
(1 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Electrolytes: Weak and Strong
(2 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Ionic Reactions
(3 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Arrhenius Acids and Bases
(4 of 16)
We learned the terms solute, solvent, and solution.
Solubility (how MUCH solute will dissolve) is measured in
g/100 mL of H2 O or sometimes in M.
This information may be given numerically or graphically.
A saturated solution is one in which any additional solute
added will simply settle on the bottom of the container.
An unsaturated solution is any amount less than saturated.
Supersaturated implies that the solution was saturated at
some higher temperature and then carefully cooled. This
unstable situation can be changed with a “seed” crystal.
Recall the supersaturated solution of NaC2 H3 O2 demo.
The terms concentrated and dilute refer to the amount of
solute and do not necessarily coincide with saturation.
Solutions of acids, bases, and salts contain mobile ions and
conduct electricity. These solutions are called electrolytes.
Salts are ionic compounds that dissociate in water.
Acids are actually molecular compounds (covalently
bonded) the become ions when dissolved in water.
Only 8 acids are strong electrolytes and completely
dissociate when dissolved. All others dissolve completely,
but only partially dissociate into ions.
Only 8 bases are strong electrolytes because they dissolve
completely. All others have low solubility and remain
solids rather than dissolve. One common exception is the
weak base NH4 OH . It dissolves, but partially dissociates.
A common class of chemical reactions occurs when two
ionic solutions are mixed. The double replacement or
metathesis reaction involves the formation of two new
combinations of ions.
AgNO 3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3 (molecular equation)
The new combinations may be more stable than the original
due to low solubility (precipitate forms), weak electrolyte,
gas formation, or complex ion formation.
The reaction is written above as though the substances exist
as molecules. This is the easiest time to balance.
The ionic equation shows strong electrolytes as separate
ions. The net equation eliminates “spectator ions”.
Acid: a substance that increases the [H+] in solution.
Base: a substance that increases the [OH–] in solution.
Diprotic acids have more than one removable H. (H 2 SO4 )
However, only the first H is ever easily dissociated.
Oxides of nonmetals (SO2 ) are acid anhydrides.
Oxides of metals (Na2 O)are basic anhydrides.
Just add water... to get the acid or base.
SO2 + H2 O → H2 SO3 Na 2 O + H2 O → 2 NaOH
Acids and bases neutralize each other because the H+ and
OH– ions form the very weak electrolyte... H2 O (and a salt).
Acid salts are the partially neutralized polyprotic acids.
NaH2 PO4 or Na2 HPO4 or NaHSO4 , etc... solid acids.

7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
(5 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Ions in Water
Some Metal Ions Make Acidic Solutions
(6 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Trend in Strengths of Acids and Bases
Three cases to explain
(7 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Lewis Acids and Bases
(8 of 16)
Acid: a proton (H+) donor. Base: a proton acceptor.
This is a more general definition of acids and bases because
it does not require the substance to be dissolved in water.
Consider the following equations:
The species that accepted the proton (base) can be
considered a donor (conjugate acid) in the reverse reaction.
HF + H 2 O ⇔ H3 O+ + F–
(acid) (base) (acid) (base)
NH3 + H2 O ⇔ NH4 + + OH–
(base) (acid) (acid) (base)
Strong base≈weak conjugate acid, (good acceptor≈lousy
donor). Conjugates differ by only a H+ (e.g. HF and F – )
Since water molecules are polar, they surround ions in
solution (called hydration). When we write Na+(aq) and
Cl– (aq) we are implying this more complex situation.
Some highly charged ions (Al3+ , Cr3+ , Fe3+ ) tend to tightly
bind the water molecules. We can write them as complex
ions: Al(H2 O) 6 3+
The electron clouds are drawn toward the central ion and
away from the oxygen and therefore the O-H bond. This
extra-polar O-H bond results in the H atom more readily
joining with a passing water molecule... making the solution
acidic. [Note: this is a conjugate acid-base situation.]
Al(H 2 O) 6 3+ + H2 O ⇔ H3 O+ + Al(H2 O) 5 OH2+
Case 1: The more oxygens on an oxoacid, the stronger the
acid. H2 SO4 > H2 SO3 .. HClO4 > HClO 3 > HClO 2 > HClO
Why?: The electronegative oxygens draw electron density
away from the central atom and therefore from the H-O
bond... making it more polar. H leaves more easily.
Case 2: The more electronegative the central atom, the
stronger the oxoacid. H 3 PO4 < H2 SO4 < HClO 4
Why? Same as above... the more electronegative atom in
the center makes the O-H bond more polar.
Case 3: Binary acid strength depends on the SIZE of the
atom... HF < HCl < HBr < HI... not the electronegativity.
Why?: The greater distance means a weaker attraction.
Consider the formation of a coordinate covalent bond:
Acid: electron pair acceptor [Note: proton donor]
Base: electron pair donor [Note: proton acceptor]
This definition is more general than the other two because
this covers cases that don’t even involve hydrogen (protons).
Classic case: HN3 + BF3 → NH3 BF3
Other important cases:
oxide of metal + oxide of nonmetal → salt
(base anhydride + acid anhydride)
CaO + SO2 → CaSO3 (s)
and the oft-confusing reactivity of CO2
OH– + CO 2 → HCO3 –

7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Oxidation Numbers
(9 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Balancing Redox Equations
Oxidation Number Change Method
Step-By-Step
(10 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Balancing Redox Equations
Ion-Electron Method
(Half-reaction Method)
Step-By-Step
(11 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Balancing Redox Equations
Reactions in Basic Solution
(12 of 16)
Definition:
Oxidation numbers are the apparent charges atoms have if
shared e– ’s are assigned to the more electronegative atom.
You can assign ox. #’s by studying a Lewis diagram or...
The Rules:
…ox. # of neutral atoms is 0
In compounds…
…simple ions have ox. #’s equal to their charge.
…F (-1), Family I (+1), II (+2), Al (+3)
…O is usually (-2) except peroxide and OF 2
…H is usually (+1) except hydrides of Fam. I, II, Al
…the sum of the ox. #’s of individual atoms equals the
charge on the entire species.
1. Identify the ox. #’s of elements that change PER ATOM.
One element will change UP (oxidation / lose e– ’s) one
element changes DOWN (reduction / gain e– ’s).
2. Adjust coefficients and e – changes for situations where
more than one atom MUST change:
ex: 2HCl + K2 Cr 2 O7 → KCl + 2CrCl3 + Cl 2 + H2 O
Cr: 2 x (3 e – per Cr) Cl: 2 x (1 e– per Cl)
3. Balance these changes in e– ’s (e– gained = e– lost).
4. Balance all elements except H and O.
5. Balance O’s (add H2 O’s as needed).
6. Balance H’s (add H+’s as needed).
7. If solution is basic, see card #12.
1. Identify the substances involved in the oxidation and
reduction changes. Include substances so that all
elements are represented (except H and O).
For each half-reaction…
2. Balance all elements except H and O.
3. Balance O’s (add H2 O’s as needed).
4. Balance H’s (add H+’s as needed).
5. Balance charges (add e– ’s to the more positive side).
6. Balance e– ’s in the two half-reactions.
7. Combine the two half-reactions. Cancel substances that
show up on both sides of the equation (e – ’s must cancel).
8. If solution is basic, see card #12.
If the reaction occurs in a basic solution (usually stated
clearly in the problem) then instead of H+’s and H2 O’s, you
utilize OH– ’s and H2 O’s.
An easy method is:
- balance as though the reaction were in an acid solution.
- add OH– ’s to each side of the equation until all H+’s are
turned into H2 O’s.
- cancel H2 O’s that show on both sides of the equation.

7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Metals as Reducing Agents
(13 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
The Activity Series of Metals
(14 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Nonmetals as Oxidizing Agents
Oxygen as an Oxidizing Agent
Combustion as a Redox Reaction
(15 of 16)
7 • Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table
Amphiprotic/Amphoteric & Leveling Effect
(16 of 16)
In each case, the metal changes to the + ion: M → M+ + e–
Since the metal is oxidized, it is a reducing agent.
Metals that most easily lose e– ’s (those with low ionization
energy and low electronegativity) make the best reducers.
M E M O R I Z E T H I S:
Some metals react with H2 O [to H 2 (g) and OH – ]
Some react with non-oxidizing acids such as HCl, and cold,
dilute H2 SO4 (the H+ is the reacting species) [to H 2 (g)]
Some react only with oxidizing acids:
• dilute HNO3 [to colorless NO(g) + H2 O],
• conc. HNO 3 [to red-brown NO 2 (g) and H2 O], and
• hot, conc. H2 SO4 [to SO2 (g) and H2 O]
FOUR GROUPS OF METALS
1 - Most active - Families I and II - great reducing agents
reduction half-reaction: 2H2 O + 2e– → H2 + 2OH–
2 - Most metals... Zn, Fe, Al, etc.
reduction half-reaction: 2H+ + 2e– → H 2
3 - Ag, Cu, Hg
ex. half-reaction: 2H+ + NO3 – + e – → NO2 + H2 O
4 - Noble Metals - Au, Pt, Ir
only changed by “aqua regia” [HNO3 + HCl forms Cl 2 ]
A more active metal can reduce or displace the ion of a less
active metal. Ex. Zn° is more active than Cu°, so…
Zn° + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu° Cu° + Zn2+ → no reaction
Elemental nonmetals (O, Cl, F, S, etc.) form negative ions
by gaining electrons (reduction) and are oxidizing agents.
The strongest oxidizing agents are those to the right of each
period (excluding noble gases) and those at the top of each
family. So we can predict that F>Cl>Br>I and O > S.
Example: Cl will displace Br – , but not F–
Cl2 (g) + 2NaBr → Br2 (l) + 2NaCl • Cl2 + NaF → N.R.
Oxygen, O2 , is a common and powerful oxidizing agent.
Corrosion of metals, formation of oxides, and combustion
are all examples of redox with O2 as the oxidizer.
Anything with a lone pair can act as a proton acceptor
(base) Anything with a H atom can act as a proton donor
(acid). See water on card 5 act as either an acid or a base.
See acetic acid on page 241 act as both acid and base. We
say these are amphiprotic or amphoteric substances.
Leveling effect...
You cannot tell which strong acid is strongest in water,
because donating a proton to water is not a good enough
challenge. Strong acids completely dissociate in water
because water is a pretty good acceptor of protons. We say
that water has a leveling effect. Acetic acid is amphiprotic,
but a poor proton acceptor and therefore is a great test for
which strong acid is the strongest...

8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Driving Forces for Metathesis Reactions
(1 of 12)
8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Precipitates as a Driving Force
The Solubility Rules
(2 of 12)
8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Weak Electrolyte Formation as a Driving Force
Weak Acids and other Weak Electrolytes
Neutralization Reactions
(3 of 12)
8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Gas Formation as a Driving Force
Gases That Commonly Form
(4 of 12)
During a double replacement or metathesis reaction, two
new combinations of ions are produced. We identify four
reasons why these NEW combinations are more stable
than the original combos.
• a precipitate forms
memorize your solubility rules
• a gas forms which leaves the system
memorize the list of gases that form
• a weak electrolyte forms
memorize the strong acid list so you will recognize weak
acids, also H2 O and NH4 OH
• a complex ion forms
learn the structure of complex ions and common ligands
Always Always Soluble compounds with alkali metal ions
(Li+, Na +, K+, Cs +, Rb +), NH4 +, NO3 – , C 2 H3 O2 – , ClO 3 –
& ClO4 –
Usually Soluble
Cl– , Br– , I– [except “AP/H”... Ag+, Pb 2+ , Hg2 2+ ]
SO4 2– [except “CBS”: Ca 2+ , Ba2+ , Sr2+ & “PBS”: Pb2+ ]
Usually NOT Soluble
O2–, OH– [except alkali and “CBS” Ca2+ , Ba2+ , Sr2+ ]
Never Soluble
CO3 2–, SO3 2–, S 2–, PO4 3– [except NH4 + & alkali]
NOTE: some of these insoluble compounds WILL dissolve
in acid solutions because of gas formation... useful idea!
Weak electrolytes are substances that break up into ions only
a LITTLE in solution... therefore, the two ions are MOSTLY
in a combined state... not likely to re-form the reactants.
H2 O, weak acids, NH4 OH
Memorize the 8 strong acids so you can recognize a weak
acid when you see one...
HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3 , H2 SO4 , HClO3 , HClO4 , HIO4
Acids (forming H+ ions) and bases (forming OH – ions)
combine to form a salt (an ionic compound) and H2 O... the
very weak electrolyte. Neutralization of the acid and base
occur because the H+ & OH– ions are “tied up” as H2 O.
If you see the following substances formed during
metathesis, realize that they will breakup into gases and
leave the system (preventing re-formation of the reactants).
Watch For… It Turns Into…
H2 CO3 → CO2 (g) + H 2 O
H2 SO3 → SO2 (g) + H 2 O
H2 S → H 2 S(g) [rotten egg smell]
NH4 OH → NH3 (g) + H 2 O
2 HNO2 → NO(g) + NO 2 (g) + H 2 O
NOTE: these compounds are formed from acids with
carbonates, sulfites, sulfides, nitrites, and bases with
ammonium compounds.

8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Preparation of Salts
(5 of 12)
8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Comparing Driving Forces
(6 of 12)
8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
More Concentration Units
Weight Percent, ppm, and ppb
(7 of 12)
8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Chemical Analyses
Precipitations, Combustions,
and Titrations
(8 of 12)
If you want to make the ionic compound, XY, you mix
AY + XB to make XY + AB
Either XY or AB need to drive the reaction (ppt, gas, etc.)
You may need to do this in two steps... make a carbonate (or
sulfite, sulfide, hydroxide or oxide) of the cation (+ ion) you
need and then react it with an acid that has the proper anion.
The Practical Side:
Keep in mind how you could recover the product you want...
could you filter the product mixture? Do you want what is
in the filter paper or what is in the filtrate? If you need the
filtrate, you need to be careful not to have excess ions in it.
Gas formation is a very strong driving force... even
compounds that exist as insoluble solids will react (slowly)
to form gases because gases leave the system and CANNOT
re-form reactants.
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl → CO 2 (g) + H 2 O + Ca2+ + 2 Cl –
The tendency to form H2 O is very strong. Insoluble oxides
will react with acids.
ZnO(s) + 2HCl → Zn2+ + 2Cl– + H2 O
Sometimes, one insoluble solid can change into another even
MORE insoluble solid... but you need more than the
solubility rules to predict this (you need Ksp’s).
AgCl(s) + Br– → AgBr(s) + Cl–
Percent means “parts per 100”
96
96% means , that is, 96 out of every 100.
100
96g 96g
Weight Percent (w/w) means … (w/v) means
100g 100mL
ppm means “parts per million”
96
96 ppm means , 96 out of every 1 million.
1 000 000
ppb means “parts per billion”
96
96 ppb means , 96 out of every BILLION!
1 000 000 000
Real chemistry often deals with testing what is in a
particular reaction mixture, environmental sample, etc.
Stoichiometry is used to analyze the compositions.
• You can precipitate an ion you are interested in, filter the
precipitate and then determine from its mass the amount
of compound in the original sample.
• You can burn a sample and collect the combustion
products (CO2 & H2 O) to determine the amount of C and
H in the original sample.
• You can carefully measure the volumes of solutions used
during a titration. The endpoint must have some sort of
indicator to allow you to recognize when the correct
amounts of reactants have been added.

8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Titration Terminology
Acid-Base and Redox Titrations
(9 of 12)
8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Three Most Common Oxidizing Agents
and what they turn into
(10 of 12)
8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Common Reducing Agents
and what they turn into
(11 of 12)
8 • Ionic Reactions in Solution
Equivalents, Equivalent Weights,
and Normality
(an old-fashioned, but useful idea)
(12 of 12)
A titration is a volumetric analysis because you carefully
measure the volume of titrant, dispensing it from a buret.
When you have added just enough titrant to completely react
with the sample, you have reached the endpoint. This is
usually apparent because of the color change of some
indicator molecule (such as phenolphthalein). The endpoint
can also be tracked because of changes in pH or changes in
voltage due to the amount of some ion.
Acid-Base & Redox titrations follow the formula: V·N=V·N
where the N indicates [H+] or [OH– ] in acid-base titrations
and [Oxidizer]· e– gained or [Reducer] · e– lost in redox
titrations.
purple permanganate ion
acid solution MnO4 – + 8H+ 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2 O
Mn2+ ion is colorless
neutral/basic MnO4 – + 2H2 O + 3e– → MnO2 (s) + 4OH –
MnO2 (s) is a black solid
yellow chromate / orange dichromate ion depends on [H+]
2CrO4 2– + 2H+ ← → Cr2 O7 2– + H2 O
acid solution Cr2 O7 + 14H+ + 6e– → 2Cr3+ + 7H2 O
2–
slightly basic CrO4 2– + 4 H2 O + 3e– → Cr(OH)3 + 5OH–
Cr(OH)3 is a solid
very basic CrO4 2– + 2H2 O + 3e– → CrO2 – + 4OH–
Tin(II) (a gentle reducing agent)
Sn 2+ → Sn4+ + 2 e –
Sulfites and Bisulfites
acidic solution: HSO3– + H2 O → SO4 2– + 3H+ + 2e–
basic solution: SO3 2– + 2OH– → SO 4 2– + H2 O + 2e–
Thiosulfate ion (also called “hypo” in photography)
strong oxidizer: S2 O3 2– + 5H2 O → 2SO4 2– + 10H+ + 8e–
half-reaction w/I2 : 2S 2 O3 2– → S4 O6 2–+ 2e –
complete: I2 + 2S2 O3 2– → 2I– + S4 O6 2–
–
excess I : I2 + I– → I3 –
I2 + starch ←→ starch•I2 complex (blue-black)
equivalents = H+, OH– , or electrons gained or lost
n = # of equivalents in the balanced chemical equation
example: I2 + 2S2 O3 2– → 2I– + S4 O6 2– n = 2
equivalent weight = molar mass ÷ n
…mass of a chemical that provides 1 mole of equivalents.
moles equivalents
Normality, N, = n · M, =
Liter solution
This idea is useful in acid-base and redox titrations because
it takes into account the differences of acids and bases or
oxidizers and reducers. This concept allows the use of the
simple formula: V·N = V·N
 General: When P↑, V↓ (inversely proportional)
Formula: P·V = constant or P1 V1 = P2 V2

Restrictions: P 1 and P2 must be in the same units

9 • Properties of Gases V1 and V 2 must be in the same units
Boyle’s Law (P and V)
(1 of 12) Convert pressures using conversion factors using the fact
that 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi
lb
psi = 2
in
101.3 kPa
Example: 730 mmHg x = 97.3 kPa
760 mmHg

Graphically:

V
1/V
9 • Properties of Gases
Boyle’s Law Lab
P P
(2 of 12)
In our lab, we had to add the atmospheric pressure to our
measurements because tire gauges only measure the
pressure ABOVE atmospheric pressure.
1
Consistent (“ good”) data form a straight line (P vs. ).
V

K = °C + 273 °C = K – 273
Examples: 0 °C + 273 = 237 K
25 °C + 273 = 298 K
100 °C + 273 = 373 K
9 • Properties of Gases 300 K – 273 = –27 °C
Kelvin Temperature Scale
(3 of 12) The Kelvin scale is used in gas law problems because the
pressure and volume of a gas depend on the kinetic energy
or motion of the particles.
The Kelvin scale is proportional to the KE of the
particles… that is, 0 K (absolute zero) means 0 kinetic
energy. 0 °C is simply the freezing point of water.

Charles’ Law
General: When T↑, V↑ (directly proportional)
V V V
Formula: = constant or 1 = 2
T T1 T2
9 • Properties of Gases Restrictions: T must be in Kelvins
Charles’ Law (V and T) V1 and V 2 must be in the same units
Gay-Lussac’s Law (P and T) Gay-Lussac’s Law
(4 of 12) General: When T↑, P↑ (directly proportional)
P P P
Formula: = constant or 1 = 2
T T1 T2
Restrictions: T must be in Kelvins
P 1 and P2 must be in the same units

9 • Properties of Gases
The Combined Gas Law
(5 of 12)
9 • Properties of Gases
The Ideal Gas Law
(6 of 12)
9 • Properties of Gases
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
(7 of 12)
9 • Properties of Gases
Why Do All Gases Cause the Same Pressure?
(8 of 12)
P·V P ·V P ·V
Formula: = constant or 1 1 = 2 2
T T1 T2
Restrictions: T must be in Kelvins
V1 and V 2 must be in the same units
P 1 and P2 must be in the same units
STP (“standard temperature and pressure”) is often used as
one of the two conditions
T = 0 °C = 273 K P = 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa
Each of the three gas laws is really a special case of this
law.
Example: If T1 = T2 , the law becomes P1 V1 = P2 V2
Formula: P·V = n·R·T or PV = nRT
where P = pressure
V = volume
n = number of moles
R = the ideal gas constant
T = temperature (in Kelvins)
The value of R depends on the P and V units used.
PV
R= so you can use the molar volume info to calculate R
nT
(101.3 kPa)(22.4 L) L·kPa
R= = 8.31
(1 mole)(273 K) mol·K
L·mmHg L·atm
R = 62.4 = 0.0821
mol·K mol·K
When you have a mixture of gases, you can determine the
pressure exerted by each gas separately. This is called
the partial pressure of each gas.
Since each gas has the same power to cause pressure (see
card #8) the partial pressure of a gas depends on how
much of the mixture is composed of each gas (in moles)
Example: Consider air, a mixture of mostly O2 and N 2
P O2 P N2
moles O 2 moles N 2
= =
moles total P total moles total P total
Also: P total = P O2 + P N2
This idea is used when a gas is collected over water
P atm = P gas + P H2 O P H2 O is found on a chart
The gas laws work (to 3 significant digits) for all gases…
that is, all gases have the same power to cause pressure.
At the same temperature, the KE of each gas is the same.
KE = 1 /2 mass·velocity2 … if two particles have different
masses, their velocities are also different. So…
SMALL particles move FAST mv2
LARGE particles move SLOWLY m v2
We can use this idea with numbers as well: (Graham’s Law)
KEA = KEB mAvA2 = mBvB2
[another version of this formula is on the next card]
 mAvA2 = mBvB2 can also be used as the equation…
rate of effusion of A MB
rate of effusion of B = MA
9 • Properties of Gases Notice that the A is in the numerator in the ratio of the
Graham’s Law of Effusion rates and in the denominator in the radical.
(9 of 12) “Effusion” is similar to diffusion. It means to escape
through a small opening.
The ratio of the rates (or velocities) of CH4 (mass=16 u) to
64
SO2 (mass=64 u) is = 4 = 2
16

Ideal gases have no volume & no attractions for each

other. Luckily, real gases act pretty much like ideal gases at
room temperature and pressure. The most ideal of real gases
is He.
9 • Properties of Gases
The REAL GAS Law is:
The Real Gas Law
(10 of 12) n2a
(P + 2 )(V - nb) = nRT
V
where:
a corresponds to the attractions between real gas particles
b corresponds to the size of the real gas particle

Explaining the behavior of gases involves the kinetic

molecular theory. Here are the main ideas:
• all particles are in constant, random motion
• temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy
9 • Properties of Gases • pressure is due to collisions of gas particles with the walls
of the container
Kinetic Molecular Theory • increased temperature causes more collisons as well as
(11 of 12) harder collisions
• some particles are moving fast, some are moving slowly

F
P=A
Pressure is proportional to the force pushing and inversely
proportional to the area over which that force pushes.
9 • Properties of Gases
P=F
Pressure = Force ÷ Area
(12 of 12) A
P=F A

10 • States of Matter & IMFs
Comparing Gases, Liquids, and Solids
(1 of 16)
10 • States of Matter & IMFs
Surface Tension
(2 of 16)
10 • States of Matter & IMFs
KE Distributions and Evaporation
(3 of 16)
10 • States of Matter & IMFs
Molecular Crystals and IMFs
(4 of 16)
Properties of matter depend on the model that gas particles
are spread out; liquids are close together, but random; and
solids are close together and arranged in a crystal lattice.
gas liquid solid
Volume and shape, compressibility, and the ability of
substances to diffuse depend on these models.
Gases have no set shape or volume.
Liquids have a constant volume, but no set shape.
Solids have constant volume and shape.
Surface tension- a measure of the amount of energy needed
to expand the surface area of a liquid.
An interior molecule is surrounded by molecules to which it
is attracted… no net attraction. A surface molecule feels a
net attraction toward the interior. To move a molecule to the
surface (i.e. increase the surface area), energy must be used,
work must be done. The potential energy of the liquid is
increased.
Substances tend toward the lowest potential energy so
liquids tend toward the minimum surface area. A sphere is
the smallest surface area for given volume.
In any sample of liquid, the
distribution of KE varies.
Particles to the right of the line
(the “threshold energy” have
enough KE to escape the IMF’s
holding them in the liquid.
Increasing the temperature (average KE) of the liquid moves
the curve to the right. The line depends on the IMF of the
liquid.
Only particles at the surface of the liquid may escape
(evaporate.)
Substances that exist as molecules (as opposed to ionic,
metallic, or covalent network crystals) are in three groups:
nonpolar polar molecules polar with H-O-,
molecules Dipole-dipole H-N-, or H-F
London Forces attractions H-bonding
Weak IMF. Due + end of one Strong dipole
to polarizable e- molecule because of high
clouds & temp. attracting - end electroneg. /small
attraction of other molecule size of O, N, & F
In London Forces--larger atoms and larger molecules have
stronger London forces due to more sites or more
polarizable electron clouds .

10 • States of Matter & IMFs
Hvap and IMFs
(5 of 16)
10 • States of Matter & IMFs
Vapor Pressures of Liquids
(6 of 16)
10 • States of Matter & IMFs
Boiling Point and IMFs
(7 of 16)
10 • States of Matter & IMFs
Freezing Point, Melting Point, ∆ Hfusion
(8 of 16)
Heat of Vaporization, ∆ Hvap, can be thought of as the energy
needed to vaporize a mole of a liquid.
It can be used as a conversion factor in a calculation of heat
during a phase change. [Calorimetry is used for temperature
changes between the phase changes.]
1 mol H 2 O 40.6 kJ
Ex: 111g H 2 O × × = 250. kJ
18.0 g H 2 O 1 mol H 2 O
It can also serve as a indicator of the strength of the IMF
(intermolecular forces of attraction) in the liquid.
Ex: CH4 (9.20 kJ/mol) vs. C3H8 (18.1 kJ/mol)
Larger molecule… greater IMF… greater Hvap
In a closed container, the number of particles changing from
liquid → vapor will eventually equal the number of particles
changing from vapor → liquid.
The amount of vapor when this balance is reached depends
on the IMF and the KE of the liquid (& not on the volume of
the container). The pressure exerted by this vapor is called
the equilibrium vapor pressure (VP) of the liquid.
As temperature increases, the VP increases. (This is
important for why/when a liquid boils.)
VP is another indicator of the strength of the IMF. The
stronger the IMF, the smaller the VP.
Boiling occurs when the vapor pressure (VP) of a substance
= the air pressure above the liquid.
You can boil a liquid by increasing the VP of the liquid
(heating) or by lowering the pressure above the liquid.
The temperature at which a liquid reaches 760 mmHg is called
the “normal boiling point” of the liquid.
---Again, BP is an indicator of IMF.---
↑ boiling points (BP) ~ ↑ IMF’s ~ ↓ vapor pressures.
Altitude (low air pressure) lowers the boiling temperature of
water in an open container (increases cooking time).
Pressure cookers ↑ BP by ↑ the pressure above the liquid.
Freezing Point and Melting Point are the same
temperature, just opposite directions. That is, a substance
will freeze and melt at the same temperature.
When you fuse two metals, you MELT them… thus the term
fusion means melting. ∆ Hfusion is the energy needed to melt
a mole of solid into a mole of liquid.
As with ∆Hvap, ∆Hfus can be used as a conversion factor as
well as an indicator of IMF strength.
Note: Freezing is more complicated than vaporization
because the process of forming a crystal causes some subtle
considerations which we will not deal with in this course.
 Three common crystal structures are Simple Cubic; Body-
Centered Cubic (which means there is an atom, “a body,” in
the center of the cubic structure; and Face-Centered Cubic
(with an atom in the center of each side or “face”).
A unit cell is the theoretical
10 • States of Matter & IMFs arrangement of atoms that, if
Common Crystal Structures and Unit Cells repeated, will recreate the crystal.
(9 of 16) This topic, although interesting,
is no longer on the AP curriculum
and will not be dealt with here.
From Dr. John Gelder’s One resource is a page by OSU
Solid State Chemistry Page chemist, Dr. John Gelder. (See Card 16)

Crystal Molecular Ionic Covalent Metallic

lattice molecules + and - ions atoms positive ions
points: or atoms
IMF’s London, attraction covalent attr. between
dipole, between + bonds + ions & “sea
10 • States of Matter & IMFs H-bonding & - ions of e-‘s”
Four Types of Crystals -- Summary Props. soft, low hard, brittle, v. hard, high high luster,
(10 of 16) MP, non- high MP, (l) MP, conductor,
conduct (aq) conduct nonconduct variable MP,
(graphite) soft/hard
Ex I2 H 2O HI NaBr C SiC WC Na° Fe° Cu°

Students are often confused between molecular crystals in

10 • States of Matter & IMFs
Crystal Types -- Further Notes
(11 of 16)
which covalent bonds hold the molecules together (but the
IMF = London forces, dipole-dipole attractions or hydrogen
bonding) and covalent crystals in which covalent bonds hold
the crystal together (the IMF = covalent bonds).
Substances can conduct electricity for two reasons:
freely moving ions or delocalized electrons.
Ionic compounds have freely ions in the liquid state and
when dissolved in water.
Metals have delocalized electrons -- the “sea of electrons.”
Graphite has a chicken-wire shaped π-bond above & below
each sheet of sp 2-hybridized C atoms, allowing it to conduct.

(g)
(l) & (g) KE
KE = kinetic
PE energy changes
(l) which are times
KE
(s) & (l) when the heat
10 • States of Matter & IMFs (s) PE energy speeds up
Heating and Cooling Curves KE the molecules.
(12 of 16) Time (min)
PE = potential energy changes which are times when
the heat energy separates the molecules from solid to
liquid or liquid to gas.
 The phase diagram shows the
phases of a substance at all
temperatures and pressures.
Moving across the diagram
gives you the MP and then
10 • States of Matter & IMFs BP of a substance.
Phase Diagrams -I There is a point above which it is no longer possible to
(13 of 16) liquefy a substance (the critical point, C).
Moving vertically you can see the effect of pressure on the
phase of the substance.
This is a diagram for a substance like CO2, in which the liquid
can be compressed into the solid. (Unlike H2O.)

Water’s phase diagram is unique

because the liquid phase is less
dense than the solid phase. To
maximize hydrogen bonding, the
solid must expand.
10 • States of Matter & IMFs The B-D boundary of the phase
Phase Diagrams -II diagram has a negative slope.
(14 of 16) The “triple point” is the temperature and pressure in which
the solid, liquid, and vapor phases of a substance can co-
exist. I visualize this as a boiling glass of ice water.
By increasing the pressure, dry ice can melt. By decreasing
the pressure, solid water can sublime.

NRG is REQUIRED NRG is RELEASED

solid → liquid liquid → solid
melting or fusion freezing
liquid → gas gas → liquid
vaporization condensation
10 • States of Matter & IMFs evaporation or boiling
Name of the Phase Changes solid → gas gas → solid
(15 of 16) sublimation solidification
The energy involved in the phase change is calculated using
heat of fusion (solid → liquid or liquid → solid)
heat of vaporization (liquid → gas or gas → liquid)

Searching the Internet, I found an interesting set of topic

reviews. These are from Purdue University (Indiana)
I was looking at the topic, LIQUIDS, but there are many
topics to choose from.
chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/
10 • States of Matter & IMFs
More Internet Resources The unit cell is a frame from an online movie file on Dr. John
(16 of 16) Gelder’s Solid State Chemistry page. (OK State Univ.)
www.okstate.edu/jgelder/solstate.html

12 • Chemical Thermodynamics
Commonly Used Terms
(1 of 12)
12 • Chemical Thermodynamics
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
(2 of 12)
12 • Chemical Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics
(3 of 12)
12 • Chemical Thermodynamics
Work and PV Work
(4 of 12)
thermodynamics Study of NRG changes & flow of NRG.
Tells whether a reaction is possible.
system That portion of the universe on which
we focus.
surroundings Everything outside the system.
adiabatic A change without heat transfer between
the system and its surroundings.
isothermal A change that occurs at constant
temperature.
state functions Properties that depend on the initial and
final state, not on how the change was
made. ex: ∆H, temp, but not work
Energy changes can be measured using calorimetry. Often
this involves heating water under controlled conditions (a
bomb calorimeter).
Three closely related terms are:
heat capacity is the amount of heat needed to change a
system by 1°C.
molar heat capacity is the amount of heat needed to change
a mole of a substance by 1°C.
specific heat is the amount of heat needed to change 1 gram
of a substance by 1°C. (Water: 1 cal/g°C = 4.184 J/g°C)
Note that heat capacity is an extensive property whereas the
other two are intensive.
The first law: “if a system undergoes some series of changes
that ultimately brings it back to its original state, the net
energy change is zero.”
∆E = Efinal - Einitial ∆E = 0 when Efinal = Einitial
The usefulness of this idea is that the internal energy, ∆E,
depends only on the initial and final state, not on how you
get there. Every path you take from Einitial to Efinal takes the
same amount of energy. (no perpetual motion)
There are two ways for a system to exchange energy with the
surroundings, heat and work. ∆E = q - w
[q = heat absorbed by system, w = work done by system]
From physics, work = force × distance = F × d.
In chemistry there is electrical work (e-‘s through a wire)
and P∆∆ V work as a gas expands.
Use pressure = force/area and area × distance = volume to
derive work = P∆∆ V from work = F × d.
Note that units of work are units of energy. Energy and work
are two forms of energy. Doing work on a system increases
the potential energy of the system.
P∆V work is in L⋅⋅ atm 1 L⋅atm = 24.2 cal = 101.3 J
PV = nRT… work can be calculated as work = ∆ nRT for
chemical reactions where the # of moles of gas change, ∆n.

12 • Chemical Thermodynamics
Work is NOT a State Function
(It depends on HOW you do the work.)
(5 of 12)
12 • Chemical Thermodynamics
Reversible Processes
(6 of 12)
12 • Chemical Thermodynamics
∆ H = ∆ E + P∆∆V
(7 of 12)
12 • Chemical Thermodynamics
Hess’s Law of Heat Summation
(8 of 12)
Q: Gas in a piston at a pressure of 10 atm is allowed to
expand from 1 L to 10 L. How much work done?
A: It depends on the resisting force.
If it expands against 0 atm pressure,
P∆V = 0 atm × 9 L = 0 L⋅⋅ atm
Expanding against 1 atm pressure, Vfinal is 10 L
P∆V = 1 atm × 9 L = 9 L⋅⋅ atm
Expanding in two steps, first, against 2 atm, Vfinal = 5 L
P∆V = 2 × 4 L = 8 L⋅atm
then in a second step against 1 atm, Vfinal = 10 L
P∆V = 1 × 5 L = 5 L⋅atm… Total = 13 L⋅⋅ atm
From the P∆V work example, you can see that the more steps
(and smaller increments) you use to get the work from the
system, the more work you can get.
There is an upper limit to how much work can be derived
from any system. That maximum work is called the Gibb’s
Free Energy, ∆G.
The theoretical maximum work can be achieved if the steps
are so small that they can go either way, if they are
reversible.
If a chemical reaction occurs in a closed container ∆ V = 0
and so P∆∆ V work = 0. ∆ E = q - w becomes ∆ E = q.
In a system at constant pressure (a common situation) the
energy change involves both heat (q) & work (P∆V).
∆ E = q - P∆
∆ V [P∆V = work done BY the system] or
q = ∆ E + P∆
∆ V q at constant pressure is called ∆ H.
∆ H = ∆ E + P∆
∆ V or ∆ E = ∆ H - P∆ ∆V
The work (P∆V) is generally insignificant unless the # of
∆ V = ∆ nRT
moles of gas (∆n = n final - n initial) is changing. P∆
Recall that if ∆n is negative (# moles decreasing) work is
negative (work is being done ON the system).
If several reactions add up to give an overall reaction, the
∆ H’s of the reactions will add up to the overall ∆ H.
Standard Heats of Formation, ∆ Hf° , are useful for this
purpose. This is the energy involved in making a mole of a
substance from its elements at 25°C and 1 atm pressure.
This law is often written as:
∆ H°° reaction = Σ ∆ Hf° products - Σ ∆ Hf° reactants
Note: ∆Hf° for elements is 0.
If you are NOT using heats of formation, you need to write
out the equations to see how they combine.
 Bond energy is the amount of energy needed to BREAK a
certain bond.

You can determine the approximate energy change in a

chemical reaction by summing the bond energies of the
12 • Chemical Thermodynamics reactants and subtracting the bond energies of the products.
Bond Energies Note: this is opposite to the Hess’s Law (products -
(9 of 12) reactants) because bond energy involves breaking bonds
whereas ∆H°f involve forming bonds.

Things in the world tend toward lowest energy (-∆H) and

also tend toward greatest disorder (+∆S).
More disorder can be recognized as:
• greater # of moles of gas formed
• gas > liquid > solid and (aq) > (s)
12 • Chemical Thermodynamics • greater volume formed
Two Big Driving Forces of the Universe • mixed molecules (HI) formed from diatomic molecules
∆ H) and Entropy (∆
Enthalpy (∆ ∆ S) example: H2 (g) + I2 (g) → 2HI(g) +∆S
(10 of 12) Note: ∆S° can be calculated using Hess’s Law, but S° of
elements is NOT 0. Also, S° is often reported in J/mol⋅K
and cal/mol⋅K, not kJ and kcal… watch your units!

The second law defines a value called Gibb’s Free Energy

symbolized as ∆G. This represents the theoretical
maximum work that can be done by a system.
A reaction is spontaneous when ∆G is negative (∆G<0). The
reverse reaction is spontaneous when ∆G is positive.
12 • Chemical Thermodynamics When ∆G = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
∆H ∆S Spontaneous…
∆ G = ∆ H - T∆∆S  + … at all temperatures
(11 of 12)   … at LOW temperatures
+ + … at HIGH temperatures
+  the reverse reaction is spontaneous

We have been calculating ∆G° values, that is, ∆G under

12 • Chemical Thermodynamics
∆ G (thermodynamics) and Keq (equilibrium)
(12 of 12)
standard conditions. Once a reaction begins, the
concentrations change and the value of ∆G is different.
If ∆ G°° < 0, then the reaction will proceed in a forward
direction. As it does, however, the value of ∆G will increase
until the forward and reverse reactions are balanced and ∆ G
= 0. This is called equilibrium.
If ∆ G°° > 0, then the reverse reaction will proceed and the
value of ∆G will decrease until equilibrium is reached.
∆G° gives information about where we are in relation to
equilibrium. There is a formula that combines ∆ G and Keq.
 • Wilhelm Roentgen (1845-1923) discovered X-rays, a high
energy form of light. (1895)
• Henri Becquerel (1852-1909) found that uranium ores emit
radiation that can pass through objects (like x-rays) and
affect photographic plates. (1896)
22 • Nuclear Chemistry • Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934) Marie and Pierre
The People worked with Becquerel to understand radioactivity. The
(1 of 16) three shared a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Marie won a
second Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 for her work with
radium and its properties.
• E. O. Lawrence invented the cyclotron which was used at
UC Berkeley to make many of the transuranium elements.

radioactivity the spontaneous breakdown of atomic

nuclei, accompanied by the release of
some form of radiation (also called
radioactive decay)

half-life time required for half of a radioactive

22 • Nuclear Chemistry sample to decay
Terms I-- Radioactivity
(2 of 16) transmutation one element being converted into another
by a nuclear change

nuclides isotopes of elements that are identified by

the number of their protons and neutrons

decay series the sequence of nuclides that an element

changes into until it forms a stable nucleus

radioactive using half-life information to determine

dating the age of objects. C-14/C-12 is common
22 • Nuclear Chemistry for organic artifacts. Uranium is common
for rocks.
Terms II--Radioactivity
(3 of 16) nuclear fission large nucleus breaking down into pieces of
about the same mass

nuclear fusion two or more light nuclei blend to form one

or more larger nuclei

4
Alpha particles are the same as a helium nucleus, 2 He, with
a mass of 4 amu. It travels about 1/10th the speed of light
and is the most easily stopped of the three particles (a sheet
of paper will stop them). It is the least dangerous.
0
22 • Nuclear Chemistry Beta particles are high speed electrons, −1 e, with a mass of
Types of Radiation 0.00055 amu and travel at nearly the speed of light. They can
(4 of 16) be stopped by a sheet of aluminum. It is more penetrating
and therefore more dangerous than alpha.
Gamma rays are extremely high energy light, γ, with no mass,
and are the most penetrating (several cm’s of lead are needed
to stop them). They can cause severe damage.

22 • Nuclear Chemistry
Half-Life Problems
(5 of 16)
22 • Nuclear Chemistry
Half-Life
(6 of 16)
22 • Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Equations
(7 of 16)
22 • Nuclear Che mistry
How Each Type of Decay Can Stabilize an
Unstable Nucleus
(8 of 16)
In each half-life problem there are basically four variables:
• total time • half-life
• starting amount • ending amount
64g 32g 16g 8g 4g 2g 1g 0.5g 0.25g
Question:
If you have 0.25 g of a radioactive substance with a half life
of 3 days, how long ago did you have 64 grams?
Answer: Draw the chart to determine the number of half-
lives to get from the ending amount to the starting amount…
each half-life is worth 3 days…24 days.
Half-Life The time it takes for half of a radioactive
substance to decay.
The decay graph has a characteristic shape:
#
time
The time it takes for the amount of substance or the activity
of the substance to drop to half is the same WHEREVER you
start on the graph. This is a first-order reaction.
Half-lives can range from microseconds to thousands of
years and is characteristic of each substance.
Memorize the symbols for the important particles
alpha beta positron neutron
4 0 0 1
2 He −1 e +1 e 0n
Decay means the particle is on the right side of the equation:
example: alpha decay of U-238
238 4 234
92 U → 2 He + 90 Th
The 234 and 90 are calculated… the Th is found on the
periodic table (find the element with atomic # = 90).
Several neutrons can be shown together and written as…
1 3
3( 0 n) and would be counted as 0 n in the equation.
Certain values of p +’s and n°’s in the nucleus are stable. A
nucleus can be unstable (radioactive) for 3 reasons:
• the nucleus has too many protons compared to neutrons
solution: positron decay
(change a proton into a neutron and a positive electron…
…a positron)
• the nucleus has too many neutrons compared to protons
solution: beta decay
(change a neutron into a proton and a negative beta particle)
• the nucleus is too big (too many protons and neutrons)
solution: alpha decay (lose 2 p + and 2 n°)
 Radioactive Dating: In every living thing there is a constant
ratio of normal C-12 and radioactive C-14. You can calculate
the time needed to change from what is expected to what is
actually found.
Radioisotopes: Many substances can be radioactive and
22 • Nuclear Chemistry then followed as they move through the body.
Uses of Radioactivity Fission Reactors: Current nuclear reactors use fission
(9 of 16) reactions to produce heat which is used to turn water into
steam and drive turbine engines that produce electricity.
The Sun and Stars are powered by nuclear fusion… this is
related to the fact that the most abundant element in the
universe is hydrogen… followed by helium.

U-235 is “fissionable” which means it can be split when

bombarded by neutrons.
235 1 141 92 1
92 U + 0 n → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n + energy
The fact that each splitting nucleus can emit neutrons that
can split other nuclei is the basis for the “chain reaction.”
22 • Nuclear Chemistry “Breeder reactors” use different isotopes.
Fission and Fusion Reactions Fusion in the Sun involves several steps that can be
(10 of 16) 1 4 0
summed up as: 4( 1 H) → 2 He + 2 1 e + energy
Thermonuclear devices use isotopes of hydrogen
2 3 4 1
(deuterium and tritium): 1 H+ 1 H→ 2 He + 0 n + energy

Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2 , is the basis for

explaining where the energy associated with nuclear changes
comes from.
When a nuclear change occurs, the mass of the products is
slightly less than the mass of the reactants. This loss in
22 • Nuclear Chemistry mass is called the mass defect.
Energy–Mass Conversions E = the energy
(11 of 16) m = the mass defect
c = the speed of light, 3.00 x 108 m/s
1 kg of mass converted into energy would be equivalent to
burning 3 billion kg of coal!

During beta decay,

1 neutron changes into 1 proton + 1 negative beta particle
(The atomic # increases by one due to the new proton. The
mass # is unchanged… a neutron is gone. To maintain
electrical neutrality, a negative beta particle is also formed.)
22 • Nuclear Chemistry 235 0 235
Example: 92 U → −1 e+ 93 Np
What Happens During During positron decay,
Beta and Positron Decay 1 proton changes into 1 neutron + 1 positron particle
(12 of 16) (The atomic # decreases by one due to the loss of a proton.
Since it changed into a neutron, the mass # is unchanged.)
235 0 235
Example: 92 U → +1 e + 91 Pa

22 • Nuclear Chemistry
Calculating Half-Lives
(13 of 16)
22 • Nuclear Chemistry
Radioactive Decay Series
(14 of 16)
22 • Nuclear Chemistry
Geiger-Muller Tubes, Smoke Detectors, and
Brushes for Cleaning Negatives
(15 of 16)
22 • Nuclear Chemistry
Extending the Periodic Table
(16 of 16)
When a problem involves whole numbers of half-lives,
divide by 2 to determine the amounts involved.
For other situations, the following equations are useful:
[A] 0
ln = kt and the special case for half-life, t ½, where by
[A] t
definition, [A]t = ½[A]0 ln 2 = 0.693= kt ½
[A] is the concentration (or activity) of the radioactive
substance, t = time, k = the rate constant (the same that is in
Rate Laws). Note: if you know the half-life, you can calculate
the rate constant and vice-versa.
Once a nucleus decays, the daughter isotope is often
unstable as well. Many decays may occur before a stable
nucleus is formed.
A classic example is U-238 that decays through 14 steps into
stable Pb-206. Each step has a characteristic decay particle
and half-life.
This characteristic decay series is the method used to
verify the identity of newly formed atoms.
The fact that daughter products can be even more
radioactive than the parent isotope adds to the problem of
nuclear waste and its storage/disposal.
An useful characteristic of decay particles are that they
ionize the air they pass through by striking atoms and
knocking off electrons.
Geiger counters use this idea. As radioactive particles pass
through a chamber with two electrodes, ionized particles
migrate to the + and - electrodes and complete the circuit.
Smoke Detectors use a tiny piece of radioactive Am to keep
a circuit flowing due to ionized particles. Smoke particles
attract ionized particles, break the circuit, & set off the alarm.
Brushes are kept ionized by tiny bits of radioactive material
to more easily attract tiny bits of dust.
Uranium, Z=92, is the largest naturally-occurring element.
Larger atoms were manufactured. Elements 93 and 94 were
formed in atomic bomb tests and identified by Seaborg.
Glenn Seaborg and Al Ghiorso at UC Berkeley were able to
use E. O. Lawrence’s cyclotron to make larger atoms (95-103).
Some of these new elements have uses in the medical field as
well as helping to further the understanding of the nucleus.
For many of the larger elements, however, only a few atoms
or even one atom formed. They were identified by their
characteristic decay series.
As of July 2000, 118 is the largest element.

23 • Organic Chemistry
Historical Ideas
(1 of 16)
23 • Organic Chemistry
Alkane Series -- Saturated Hydrocarbons
(2 of 16)
23 • Organic Chemistry
Structural Formulas Can Be Misleading
(3 of 16)
23 • Organic Chemistry
Alkenes and cis- /trans- Isomerism
(4 of 16)
Chemicals from living things were thought to contain a “vital
force” that could not be duplicated in the lab. This changed
with Friedrich Wöhler who mixed cyanic acid (HCNO) with
ammonium hydroxide making ammonium cyanate (NH4CNO).
O He usually allowed the salt solution to
C evaporate overnight, but tried heating it to
H2 N NH2 hurry the process. The result was a crystal
urea that he recognized as urea (H2NCONH2).
The modern view of organic chemistry is the chemistry of
carbon compounds. C is the key element. It can form four
bonds and that are very strong bonds due to its small size.
The alkanes (paraffins) follow the formula: CnH2n+2:
These molecules contain ONLY single bonds. They are said
to be “saturated” with hydrogens.
Memorize these prefixes also used with alkenes & alkynes.
CH4 methane C6H14 hexane
C2H6 ethane C7H16 heptane
C3H8 propane C8H18 octane
C4H10 butane C9H20 nonane
C5H12 pentane C10H22 decane
Given a formula, you can tell that it contains only single
bonds because it fits the alkane formula.
As the molecules increase in size, they tend to be liquids and
CH4, can be drawn using a structural formula. H
This can be misleading. The molecule is not flat H C H
with bond angles of 90°. You must be aware of
H
the 3-D structure and the 109.5 ° bond angles.
Cl Cl For example, there is only one isomer
H C H H C Cl of dichloromethane, but you can
Cl H draw it at least two ways.
Building models of the molecules is an important part of
strengthening this skill.
Alkenes contain 1 double bond. The formula H H
is CnH2n. They are said to be “unsaturated” C C
(like unsaturated fats). The double bond can H H
be broken and more hydrogens added. ethene
Since double bonds cannot easily rotate (due to the pi
bonding) cis- and trans- isomers can be formed.
Example: 1,2-dichloroethene can be built two ways.
Cl Cl Cl H
C C C C
H H H Cl
cis -1,2-dichloroethene trans-1,2-dichloroethene
(a polar molecule) (a nonpolar molecule)

23 • Organic Chemistry
Alkynes, Alkadienes, and Cyclic Hydrocarbons
Alkynes contain 1 triple bond H C C H
(unsaturated). Formula: CnH2n-2. ethyne (acetylene)
The triple bond is linear, so no cis/trans isomerism occurs.
Alkadienes are molecules with two double bonds. They
have the same formula as the alkynes, CnH2n-2.
Example: C4H6 is named 1,3-butadiene H

(5 of 16) because the double bonds start on C CH2

H2C C
carbons #1 and #3.
H
H2 Cyclic compounds contain rings having the
C
CH2 same formula as the alkenes, CnH2n.
H2C
Example: cyclopropane, C3H6.

The basic idea is to name the molecule after the longest

continuous chain of carbon atoms. Side groups are listed
with #’s to indicate the C atom to which they are attached.
Side Groups : -Cl chloro -Br bromo -I iodo
23 • Organic Chemistry -CH3 methyl -C2H5 ethyl -C3H7 propyl, etc.
Naming Organic Compounds di- = 2 groups tri- = 3 groups tetra- = 4 groups
(Organic Nomenclature Using IUPAC Rules)
H Br Br H
(6 of 16) 2,2,3-tribromobutane (not 2,3,3-)
Note that we # the carbons from H C C C C H
whichever end results in the
H H Br H
smallest numbers.

While drawing the isomers of H H H

23 • Organic Chemistry
Common Errors in Drawing/Naming Structures
1-methylsomething & 2-ethylsomething
(7 of 16)
pentane, C5H12, students draw this H C C C H
structure, naming it 2-ethylpropane.
H CH2 H
(a chain of 3 C’s with an ethyl group)
The longest chain is four C’s, and CH3
should be named 2-methylbutane.
A similar error is to draw and name “1-methylsomething”.
H H
Two more tips … double check that
H C C O each C has four and only four bonds.
Also, remember that N and O atoms
H H
have lone pairs of e-‘s although they
5 bonds to C are seldom drawn. (Impt. for steric #!)

CH3 Some molecules have the ability to

H2C
H2 rotate polarized light.
C H CH2 These molecules can be recognized
H3 C C
by a C atom (the chiral carbon)
23 • Organic Chemistry CH3 bonded to four different groups .
Optical Isomers 3-methylhexane
Chiral Compounds This carbon is bonded to H, methyl, ethyl, & propyl groups.
(8 of 16) You can build two versions of this molecule that are
“nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other.” One will
rotate light clockwise, one counterclockwise.
In biology, these are called dextro- and levo- (D and L) forms.
 ethene is also called ethylene
propene is also called propylene
H3C 2-methylbutane is also called isopentane.
H2 “Iso-“ means the same… the same two
23 • Organic Chemistry HC
C
H3 C methyl groups come branch from C #2.
Common Names You Should Know About CH3 2-methylpentane is isohexane, etc.
(9 of 16)
CH3 2,2-dimethylpropane is called neopentane.
H3 C C CH3 These common names show up
occasionally in names… such as in
CH3 isopropyl alcohol.

23 • Organic Chemistry
Aromatic Compounds
Benzene and its Derivatives
H H
C C Benzene, C6H6, is unique. It
HC CH HC CH can be drawn as shown, but
HC CH HC CH the actual structure involves
C C
H H a circular pi bond (sp 2
two resonance structures orbitals & delocalized e-‘s).
Benzene is also shown with a circle as the pi bond.
The carbon #’s can be used for substituted 1

6 2
(10 of 16) benzene. Example: dichlorobenzene
1,2- is known as the ortho- position
1,3- is known as the meta- position 5 3

1,4- is known as the para- position 4

Paradichlorobenzene: the main ingredient in some moth balls.

Alcohols General formula: R-O-H [R ≈ Rest of molecule]

1
C C atoms are classified as primary (1),
secondary (2), or tertiary (3) by the
C C 1 number of C atoms it is bonded to.
23 • Organic Chemistry 1C
3
C A primary alcohol has the -OH group
2
Functional Groups I bonded to a primary carbon, etc.
This is not a base because the -OH is covalent, not ionic.
Alcohols and Ethers Naming: group + “alcohol” (e.g. ethyl alcohol or ethanol)
(11 of 16) Ethers General formula: R-O-R’ [R’ can = R, but not H]
Naming: two groups + “ether” H2 H2
diethyl ether was the 1st effective C C
surgical and dental anesthetic. H3 C O CH3

Aldehydes Ketones
General formula: O O

C C
R H R R'
23 • Organic Chemistry Naming: names end in “al” names end in
Functional Groups II or “aldehyde” “one”
methanaldehyde propanone
Aldehydes and Ketones (formaldehyde) (acetone)
(12 of 16) Aldehydes and ketones both have a C=O group (carbonyl
group). Aldehydes have it on an end carbon. Ketones have
it on a middle carbon. Reactions: Primary alcohols can be
oxidized into aldehydes. Secondary alcohols into ketones.
 Carboxylic Acids Esters
General formula: O O

C C
R OH R OR
23 • Organic Chemistry Naming: names end - “oic names end - “ate”
Functional Groups III acid” ethyl acetate
ethanoic acid (acetic acid +
Carboxylic Acids and Esters (acetic acid) ethyl alcohol)
(13 of 16) Reactions: Acids can be made by oxidizing aldehydes.
Esters are formed (“esterification”) from a carboxylic acid &
an alcohol. Water is removed (a “condensation” reaction).
Esters often have pleasant, agreeable odors (e.g. banana.)

Amines Amides
General formula: H H O
N
C
R R NH2
23 • Organic Chemistry Naming: names contain names end in
Functional Groups IV “amino” or end in “amide”
Amines & Amides “amine” acetamide
(14 of 16) aminomethane
(methylamine)
The N may have 1 or 2 or all 3 H atoms replaced with groups.
The lone pair on the N atom makes these molecules basic.
Your body needs certain amines “vital amines” ≈ “vitamins.”

Monomer = one part Polymer = many parts

H H One kind of polymer is made up of
C C monomers that contain a double bond.
H H The double bond can break and we can
23 • Organic Chemistry “ethylene” ADD to it… “Addition polymerization.”
Polymers I H H H H H H H H
Monomers & Addition Polymerization * C C * + C C → * C C C C *
(15 of 16) H H H H H H H H
Different monomers form different polymers. This polymer
would be called polyethylene. Replace on H on the monomer
with Cl and you can make polyvinyl chloride, “PVC.”

Another polymerization involves condensation reactions.

O O H H
HO OH
C R C C C
R
HO OH H H
23 • Organic Chemistry
a di-acid a di-alcohol (a glycol)
Polymers II Esters form from an acid and an alcohol. Using a di-acid and
Copolymers & Condensation Polymerization a di-alcohol, you can make a continuous chain by removing
(16 of 16) water molecules. The resulting polymer is called a polyester.
Soda bottles are made from a polyester, polyethylene
terephthalate ester (PETE).
Nylon (a polyamide) can be made from a di-amine & a di-acid.

1 • Introduction
The Scientific Method
(1 of 12)
1 • Introduction
Observations and Measurements
Qualitative, Quantitative, Inferences
(2 of 12)
1 • Introduction
Graphing -- Great Graphs
(3 of 12)
2 • Measurement
Significant Digits I
What do they mean?
(4 of 12)
This is an attempt to state how scientists do science. It is
necessarily artificial. Here are MY five steps:
• Make observations
the leaves on my plant are turning yellow
• State a Problem to be solved
how can I get my plants healthy (non-yellow)
• Form a hypothesis
maybe they need more water
• Conduct a controlled experiment
water plants TWICE a week instead of once a week
• Evaluate results
if it works, good... if not, new hypothesis (sunlight?)
Step 1 of the Scientific Method is Make Observations.
These can be of general physical properties (color, smell,
hardness, etc.) which are called qualitative observations.
These can be measurements which are called quantitative
observations.
There are also statements that we commonly make based on
observations. “This beaker contains water” is an example.
You infer (probably correctly) it is water because it is a
clear, colorless liquid that came from the tap. The
observations are that it is clear, it is colorless, it is a liquid,
and it came from the tap. Recognize the difference.
5 Steps to a Great Graph
• Descriptive Title
• Subtitle (dependent variable vs. independent variable)
• Label axes with variable name and units used
• Number axes so most of graph paper is used
(should the point 0,0 be included in graph)
• Draw an appropriate line
straight line (if data looks like it is directly proprotional)
smooth curve (if data looks like it follows a trend)
dot-to-dot (if data looks like the two variables are
unrelated to each other... like Dow Jones averages)
Also: if more than one line is on a graph, provide a Legend
Consider: 16.82394 cm
In a measurement or a calculation, it is important to know
which digits of the reported number are significant.
That means… if the same measurement were repeated again
and again, some of the numbers would be consistent and
some would simply be artifacts.
All of the digits that you are absolutely certain of plus one
more that is a judgment are significant.
If all the digits are significant above, everyone who
measures the object will determine that it is 16.8239 cm, but
some will say …94 cm while others might say …95 cm.
 a b c

2 • Measurement
Significant Digits II
Some examples with rulers.
(5 of 12)
1 2
(A composite ruler)
a- No one should argue that the measurement is between 0.3
and 0.4. Is it exactly halfway between (.35 cm)… or a little
to the left (.34 cm)? The last digit is the judgment of the
person making the measurement. The measurement has 2
significant digits.
b- The same ruler… so the measurement still goes to the
hundredths place… 1.00 cm (3 significant digits).
c- A ruler with fewer marks reads 1.6 cm (2 sig digits).

• All non-zero digits are significant.

2 • Measurement
Significant Digits III
Rules for Recognizing Sig. Digits
(6 of 12)
523 grams (3) 972,366 seconds (6)
• 0’s in the MIDDLE of a number are ALWAYS significant.
5082 meters (4) 0.002008 L (4)
• 0’s in the FRONT of a number are NEVER significant.
0.0032 kg (2) 0.00000751 m (3)
• 0’s at the END of a number are SOMETIMES significant.
• Decimal point is PRESENT, 0’s ARE significant
2.000 Liters (4) 0.000500 grams (3)
• Decimal point is ABSENT, 0’s are NOT significant
2000 Liters (1) 550 m (2)
NOTE: textbook values are assumed to have all sig. digits

When you perform a calculation using measurements, often

2 • Measurement
Significant Digits IV
Significant Digits in Calculations
(7 of 12)
the calculator gives you an incorrect number of significant
digits. Here are the rules to follow to report your answers:
x and ÷: The answer has the same # of sig. digits as the
number in the problem with the least number of sig. digits.
example: 3.7 cm x 8.1 cm = 29.97 ≈ 30. cm2 (2 sig. digits)
+ and –: The last sig. digit in the answer is the largest
uncertain digit in the values used in the problem.
example: 3.7 cm + 8.1 cm = 11.8 cm (3 sig. digits)
Know how to ilustrate why these rules work.

Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to some

2 • Measurement
Accuracy vs. Precision
(8 of 12)
accepted or true value (a standard).
Ex: an experimental value of the density of Al° is 2.69
g/mL. The accepted value is 2.70 g/mL. Your value is
accurate to within 0.37%
% error is used to express accuracy.
Precision refers to the reliability, repeatability, or
consistency of a measurement.
Ex: A value of 2.69 g/mL means that if you repeat the
measurement over and over, you will get values that
agree to the tenths place (2.68, 2.70, 2.71, etc.)
± uncertainty and sig. digits are used to express
precision
 We generally use three types of measurements:
volume Liters (mL)
length meters (km, cm and mm)
mass grams (kg and mg)
2 • Measurement We commonly use the prefixes:
Metric System centi- 1/
100 th
(9 of 12) milli- 1 /1000th
kilo- 1000
Occasionally you will encounter micro(µ), nano, pico, mega,
and giga. You should know where to find these in Ch. 1.
Know that 2.54 cm = 1 inch and 2.20 lb = 1 kg

Percentage is a mathematical tool to help compare values.

Two fractions, 3/17 and 5/31 are difficult to compare:
If we set up ratios so we can have a common denominator:
3 x 17.65 5 x 16.13
= = = =
2 • Measurement 17 100 100 31 100 100
% and ppm 3 5
so… we can see that > .
(10 of 12) 17 31
There are 17.65 parts per 100 (Latin: parts per centum) or
17.65 percent (17.65 %)… the % is a “1 0 0”
ppm (parts per million) is the same idea, (use 1,000,000
instead of 100)
3 x
= = 176,470 ppm
17 1 000 000

Scientific notation uses a number between 1 and 9.99 x 10 to

3 • Problem Solving
Scientific Notation
Useful for showing Significant Digits
(11 of 12)
some power. It’s use stems from the use of slide rules.
Know how to put numbers into scientific notation:
5392 = 5.392 x 103 0.000328 = 3.28 x 10 –4
1.03 = 1.03 550 = 5.5 x 102
Some 0’s in numbers are placeholders and are not a
significant part of the measurement so they disappear when
written in sci. notation. Ex: 0.000328 above. In scientific
notation, only the three sig. digits (3.28) are written.
Scientific Notation can be used to show more sig. digits.
Values like 550 ( 2 sig. digits) can be written 5.50 x 102 (3)

Consider the metric/English math fact: 2.54 cm = 1 inch

This can be used as the “conversion factor”:
2.54 cm 1 inch
or
1 inch 2.54 cm
3 • Problem Solving You can convert 25.5 inches to cm in the following way:
Unit Analysis Given: 25.5 in
Converting between English and Metric Units 2.54 cm
(12 of 12) Desired: ? cm 25.5 in x = 64.77 cm ≈ 64.8 cm
1 in
This is the required way to show your work. You have two
jobs in this class, to be able to perform the conversions and
to be able to prove that you know why the answer is correct.
 mass is the amount of something...
weight is how much gravity is pulling on the mass.
(Weight will be proportional to the mass at a given spot.)
Mass is what we REALLY want to use... measured in grams.
4 • Matter You use a balance to measure mass... you compare your
Mass & Weight -- Two Properties of Matter object with objects of known mass.
(1 of 8)
Weight is measured with a scale (like your bathroom scale
or the scale at the grocery store). If there is no gravity, it
doesn’t work. Note: electronic balances are really scales!
1 kg 2.205 lbs
You convert mass / weight using: or
2.205 lbs 1 kg

Matter Energy

Pure Substances Mixtures

Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous

4 • Matter
Pure Substances, Elements, & Compounds
Homogeneous & Heterogeneous Mixtures
(2 of 8)
This chart should help you sort out these similar terms.
Be able to use chemical symbols to represent elements and
compounds. For example...
CuSO4 •5H2 O, a hydrate, contains 21 atoms & 4 elements.
Memorize the 7 elements that exist in diatomic molecules:
HONClBrIF or BrINClHOF or “H and the 6 that make a 7
starting with element #7”

Mixtures are substances the are NOT chemically combined...

so if you want to separate them, you need to exploit
differences in their PHYSICAL properties.
Filtration: some components of the mixture dissolve &
4 • Matter some do not. Filtrate is what passes through the filter.
Distillation: some components vaporize at different
Separating Mixtures by Filtration, temperatures or one component may not vaporize at all
Distillation, and Chromatography (e.g.: salt+water) complete separation may not be
(3 of 8) possible.
Chromatography: differences in solubility vs. adhesion to
the substrate. Substratemay be filter paper (paper
chromatography), or other substances, GLC, TLC,
HPLC, column, etc.

Extensive properties depend on the amount of substance.

We measure these properties frequently... (mass &
volume... mostly).
Intensive properties are independent of the size of the
4 • Matter sample. These are useful for identifying substances...
Mass, Volume, and Density (melting point, boiling point, density, etc.)
Intensive vs. Extensive Properties
(4 of 8) mass
It is interesting that an intensive property, density =
volume
is the ratio of two extensive properties... the size of the
sample sort of “cancels out.” Be able to do density problems
(3 variables). See Sample Problems on pages 72 & 73
 Equations to symbolize changes: reactants → products
Physical Properties can be measured from a sample of the
substance alone... (density, MP, BP, color, etc.)
Chemical Properties are measured when a sample is mixed
4 • Matter with another chemical (reaction with acid, how does it
Physical and Chemical Properties burn in O2 )
Physical and Chemical Changes Physical Changes imply that no new substances are being
(5 of 8) formed (melting, boiling, dissolving, etc.)
Chemical Changes imply the substance is decomposing
into new substances or mixing with another chemical to
form new substances. This change is accompanied by heat,
light, gas formation, color changes, etc.

Conservation means the quantity does not change during a

reaction. If you carefully measure the reactants before a
reaction and the products after the reaction, no mass is
gained or lost. This is called Conservation of Mass.
4 • Matter Know your symbols of the elements (make Flash Cards).
Conservation of Mass Be careful with the spelling of:
Symbols of the Elements Cl, chlorine F, fluorine Ni, nickel
(6 of 8)
Mn, manganese vs. Mg, magnesium
Recall that many of the symbols come from the Latin name.
Refer to page 80 for a nice listing with the Latin names.

In the atmosphere:
78% nitrogen gas, N2
21% oxygen gas, O2
<1% argon gas, Ar
4 • Matter In the earth’s crust :
Relative Abundance of Elements Most of the crust is made up of SiO2 (quartz, sand, glass)
(7 of 8) 46.7% oxygen (mostly combined with silicon)
27.7% silicon (mostly combined with oxygen)
8.1% aluminum (in combined form)
5.0% iron (in combined form)
In the universe:
almost all hydrogen gas, H2 ... then He (fusion product)

Name: Dephlogisticated Air - Oxygen gas, O2

4 • Matter
Natural History of Airs Lab
The Chemistry of the Airs, the Recipes, and the
Tests for the Three Gases
(8 of 8)
Recipe: Catalytic Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
(H 2 O2 ) by yeast
Test: Glowing Splint Test (oxygen supports combustion)
Name: Inflammable Air - Hydrogen gas, H2
Recipe: Drano™ (NaOH) + Al° → Na+ + AlO3– + H2
Test: Burning Splint Test (H2 + O2 → H2 O + energy)
Name: Fixed Air - Carbon Dioxide gas, CO 2
Recipe: chalk (CaCO3 ) + vinegar (acetic acid) (HC2 H3 O2 )
→ H 2 O + CO2 + Ca(C2 H3 O2 )2
Test: Limewater (Ca(OH)2 + CO 2 → CaCO3 (s) + H2 O
 Name Symbol Mass Charge Location
protons p+ 1u 1+ part of the nucleus
neutron n° 1u 0 part of the nucleus
– 1
electron e u 1– normally at large
6 • Structure of the Atom 1837
The Subatomic Particles distances from the
(1 of 8) nucleus

J.J. Thompson is given credit for discovering electrons

using a Crookes tube and testing many different gases.
Cathode rays were found to be beams of electrons.

Cavendish is given credit for the discovery of the neutron.

atoms the smallest particle of an element . It

consists of a central nucleus and electron
clouds outside the nucleus.
nucleus the dense central portion of an atom.
6 • Structure of the Atom subatomic smaller than an atom. The proton,
neutron, and electron are subatomic
Terms I-- Atomic Structure particles.
(2 of 8)
net charge the difference in the positive charge due to
protons and the negative charge due to
electrons in an atom.
nucleons the particles that make up the nucleus.

atomic number the number of protons in an atom. This

number determines the identity of an
element.
mass number the number of protons + neutrons
6 • Structure of the Atom isotopes atoms with the same number of protons,
Terms II-- Atomic Structure but different numbers of neutrons. Atoms
(3 of 8) with the same atomic number, but
different mass numbers.
isotopic notation shorthand notation for a nucleus that
shows the mass #, atomic # and the
238
symbol. U-238 would be 92 U

Any real sample of an element contains more than one

naturally occuring isotope. For instance, boron
isotope abundance mass # isotopic mass
10
6 • Structure of the Atom boron-10 5 B 19.78% 10 mass = 10.013 u
Calculating Atomic Mass 11
boron-11 5 B 80.22% 11 mass = 11.009 u
(4 of 8)
The atomic mass is the weighted average of the isotopes.
(19.78%)(10.013u) + (80.22%)(11.0009u)
at. mass = or
100
at. mass = (0.1978)(10.013u) + (0.8022)(11.0009u) =10.81 u

6 • Structure of the Atom
Determining Numbers of Protons, Neutrons,
and Electrons from the Isotopic Notation
(5 of 8)
6 • Structure of the Atom
Important People in the Development of the
Atomic Theory
(6 of 8)
6 • Structure of the Atom
Early Experimental Observations That Would
Later Be Explained By The Atomic Theory
(7 of 8)
6 • Structure of the Atom
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
(8 of 8)
Consider the following symbol: 16S2–
33
The 16 is the atomic number which is the number of
protons.
The 33 is the mass number which is the mass of one of the
isotopes. This mass is due to the protons and neutrons.
The number of neutrons is the mass number - the atomic
number. 33 - 16 = 17 neutrons.
Since the charge is 2-, there are 2 more electrons than
protons. In this case, there are 18 electrons.
Democritus [atomos]
philosopher who decided that matter was discontinuous
John Dalton [billiard-ball model]
experiments with gases… different substances are
different combinations of atoms
J.J. Thomson [plum-pudding model]
experiments with gas-discharge tubes… atoms have
positive and negative parts… the negative electrons are
the same from atom to atom
Ernest Rutherford [nuclear model/solar system model]
most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in a tiny,
positively-charged nucleus
Niels Bohr [Bohr Model (quantized e- energy levels/orbits)]
the electrons had only certain allowed energy levels
The Law of Conservation of Mass
the mass of all the reactant molecules = the mass of all the
product molecules
The Law of Definite Composition
the percentage composition of any sample of a substance
is the same
The Law of Multiple Proportions
when two compounds made of the same two elements
(such as CO and CO2) are broken down to give the same
mass of one element… the masses of the other element
will be in simple whole-number ratio.
Ernest Rutherford’s classic gold foil experiment led to the
nuclear model of the atom.
most alpha's
α came straight
α gold foil through here
a few bounced back
at a large angle
• the nucleus is tiny - because most of the alpha’s missed
the nucleus and went straight through the foil
• the nucleus is positively charged - because the (+)
charged alpha was repelled by the (+) charged nucleus
• the nucleus is incredibly dense - because the nucleus was
able to bounce back at a very large angle

7 • Chemical Formulas
Formula and Compound Terms
(1 of 12)
7 • Chemical Formulas
Memorization Tips - Negative Ions
(2 of 12)
7 • Chemical Formulas
Memorization Tips - Positive Ions
(3 of 12)
7 • Chemical Formulas
Formula Conventions
(4 of 12)
anion another name for a negative ion
cation another name for a positive ion
binary compound contains two elements
ternary compound contains three or more elements
ionic compound made of a positive & a negative ion
molecular compound atoms share electrons…not ionic
covalent compound same as molecular compound
chemical formula shows # & kind of atoms (includes
molecular, empirical and structural)
molecular formula shows # & kind of atoms in molecule
empirical formula simplest whole # ratio of atoms
structural formula show how atoms are connected
monatomic: one atom diatomic: two atoms
polyatomic: many atoms
all negative ions (anions) end in “-ide”, “-ate”, or “-ite”
”–ides”
• these are single atoms
• exceptions: hydroxide (OH– ) and cyanide (CN – )
• you can tell charge from position on the periodic table.
• Family VII (F, Cl, Br, I ) all form 1– ions.
• Family VI (O, S) all form 2– ions.
“–ates”
• these contain several oxygen atoms. You just have to
memorize them… there is no rule about how many oxygens.
“–ites” contain one less O than the –ates… same charge.
metals form + ions “–ous” ions < “–ic” ions
• Family I (Li, Na, K, etc.) all form 1+ ions
• Family II (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) all form 2+ ions
• Family III (Al) forms a 3+ ion
mercury mercurous, Hg2 2+ mercuric, Hg2+
mercury(I) mercury(II)
copper cuprous, Cu+ cupric, Cu 2+
copper(I) copper(II)
tin stannous, Sn 2+ stannic, Sn4+
tin(II) tin(IV)
iron ferrous, Fe2+ ferric, Fe 3+
iron(II) iron(III)
Superscripts
used to show the charges on ions
Mg2+ the 2 means a 2+ charge (lost 2 electrons)
Subscripts
used to show numbers of atoms in a formula unit
H2 SO4 two H’s, one S, and 4 O’s
Coefficients
used to show the number of formula units
2Br– the 2 means two individual bromide ions
Hydrates CuSO4 • 5 H2 O
some compounds have water molecules included

7 • Chemical Formulas
How Ions Form
(5 of 12)
7 • Chemical Formulas
Writing Ionic Formulas
(6 of 12)
7 • Chemical Formulas
Other Ions (beyond the 40)
and how they relate to oxidation numbers
(7 of 12)
7 • Chemical Formulas
Oxidation Numbers
What they are and how you find them
(8 of 12)
Positive ions form by LOSING one or more electrons.
Negative ions form by GAINING one or more electrons
PROTONS are not gained or lost from the nucleus except in
nuclear reactions that require MUCH more energy than is
usually available.
Metals become POSITIVE ions.
Non-Metals become NEGATIVE ions.
Semi-Metals sometimes become ions and sometimes share
electrons as molecular compounds.
The positve ion is written first.
The total positive charge must match the total negative
charge in the compound.
Use parentheses when you need several polyatomic ions…
Al2 (SO4 )3 is correct Al2 (Cl)3 is incorrect
Be careful of OH– ions…
Ba(OH)2 is correct BaOH 2 is incorrect
Reduce subscripts in final formula except with Hg2 2+
SnS2 is correct Sn 2 S 4 is incorrect
mercurous chloride, Hg 2 Cl2 is correct
bicarbonate, HCO3 – bisulfate, HSO4 –
bisulfide, HS– biphosphate, HPO4 2–
perchlorate ClO 4 – oxidation number of Cl = +7
chlorate ClO 3 – oxidation number of Cl = +5
chlorite ClO 2 – oxidation number of Cl = +3
hypochlorite ClO – oxidation number of Cl = +1
chlorine Cl2 oxidation number of Cl = 0
chloride Cl– oxidation number of Cl = –1
chlorate ClO 3 –
bromate BrO3 – similar to chlorate
iodate IO – similar to chlorate
The oxidation number is the “apparent charge” on an atom.
The oxidation number of any substance in its elemental form
is defined as 0.
Example: the oxidation number of H in H2 is 0
the oxidation number of H in H 2 O is +1
The oxidation numbers of each of the atoms in a substance
add up to the charge on the substance…
CO3 2– C + O + O + O = –2
x + –2 + –2 + –2 = –2 ∴ x = +4
CH4 C+H+H+H+H=0
x + 4(+1) = 0 ∴ x = –4

7 • Chemical Formulas
Writing and Naming Acids
(9 of 12)
7 • Chemical Formulas
Stock Names vs. Traditional Names
(10 of 12)
7 • Chemical Formulas
Naming Molecular Compounds
(Traditional Method)
(11 of 12)
7 • Chemical Formulas
Determining Ions from Formulas
(12 of 12)
Acids are ionic formulas in which the positive ion is H+.
Use as many H+ ions as the charge on the negative ion.
Three rules for naming:
if the anion ends with: the acid is named:
–ite ********ous acid
–ate ********ic acid
–ide hydro********ic acid
• Acids from sulfide, sulfite, and sulfate include a “ur”
H2 S is hydrosulfuric acid, not hydrosulfic acid
• Acids from phosphate and phosphite include a “or”
H3 PO4 is phophoric acid, not phosphic acid
The Stock System of naming compounds is used…
• when a positive ion has more than one possible charge
(i.e. cuprous, cupric, etc.)
Traditional: mercurous, Hg2 2+ mercuric, Hg2+
Stock: mercury(I) mercury(II)
Traditional: cuprous, Cu+ cupric, Cu 2+
Stock: copper(I) copper(II)
• for molecular compounds where the elements have many
different oxidation numbers (i.e. N in NO2 , NO, N 2 O, etc.)
Stock Name: Traditional Name:
NO2 nitrogen(IV) oxide nitrogen dioxide
NO nitrogen (II) oxide nitrogen monoxide
The first element is named using the name of the element.
The second element always end in “–ide.”
Indicate the number of atoms using the prefix…
1 mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
4 tetra 9 nona-
5 penta 10 deca-
If the first element has only one atom, don’t use the mono-
If the second element is oxygen, drop the vowel…
monoxide, not monooxide
tetroxide, not tetraoxide
Given the formula of an ionic compound, you can determine
the original ions.
Most of these problems are obvious if you have the ions
memorized…
NaCl Na + Cl–
+
K2 SO4 K SO4 2–
Some need a little “detective work”…
CuS Cu + or Cu2+ ?
since S is (memorized) Cu must be 2+ .
2–
You can also figure out ions you’ve never seen before…
Ga(NO3 )3 must be Ga3+ since NO3 – (memorized)

8 • Mathematics of Chemical Formulas
Stoichiometry Terms
(1 of 8)
8 • Mathematics of Chemical Formulas
Calculating Formula Mass
(2 of 8)
8 • Mathematics of Chemical Formulas
Mole Facts
(3 of 8)
8 • Mathematics of Chemical Formulas
Line Equations
(4 of 8)
stoichiometry study of the quantitative relationships
in chemical formulas and equations.
atomic mass weighted average mass of an atom,
found on the periodic table
formula mass sum of the atomic masses of the
atoms in a formula
molecular mass sum of the atomic masses of the
atoms in a molecular formula
gram atomic mass atomic mass written in grams
gram formula mass formula mass written in grams
gram molecular mass molecular mass written in grams
molar mass same as gram formula mass
Formula or molecular mass is found by simply summing
the atomic masses (on the periodic table) of each atom in a
formula.
H2 SO4
1.01 + 1.01 + 32.06 + 16.0 + 16.0 + 16.0 + 16.0 = 98.08 u
2(1.01) + 32.06 + 4(16.0) = 98.06 u or 98.06 g/mole
Generally, round off your answers to the hundredths or
tenths place. Don’t round off too much (98.06 g/mol or
98.1 g/mol is OK, but don’t round off to 98 g/mol)
Units
Use u or amu if you are referring to one atom or molecule
A mole (abbreviated mol) is a certain number of things. It is
sometimes called the chemist’s dozen.
A dozen is 12 things, a mole is 6.02 x 1023 things.
Avogadro’s Number
1 mole of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules
Molar Volume (measured at P = 760 mmHg and T = 0 °C)
1 mole of any gas has a volume of 22.4 Liters
Molar Mass (see gram formula mass)
1 mole of any substance is its gram formula mass
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
23
6.02 x 10 molecules 22.4 L molar mass
A Line Equation is the preferred way to show conversions
between quantities (amount, mass, volume, and number) by
canceling units (moles, grams, liters, and molecules)
The line equation consists of the Given Value, the Desired
Unit, and the line equation itself.
Example: What is the mass of 135 Liters of CH4 (at STP)?
Given: 135 L CH4
Desired: ? g CH4
1 mol CH4 16.0 g CH4
135 L CH4 x x = 96.43 g CH4
22.4 L CH4 1 mol CH4
 The “Mole Map” shows the structure of mole problems
Mass Mass
➀ ➀
Volume Volume
8 • Mathematics of Chemical Formulas ➁
moles ➁ at STP
at STP
Mole Relationships ➂ ➂
(5 of 8)
number of number of
atoms or atoms or
molecules molecules
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
1) 2) 3)
molar mass 22.4 L 6.02 x 10 23 molecules

Percentage Composition quantifies what portion (by mass)

of a substance is made up of each element.

mass of element
Set up a fraction:
8 • Mathematics of Chemical Formulas mass of molecule
Percentage Composition (by mass) mass of element
Change to percentage: 100 x
(6 of 8) mass of molecule

Generally, round off your answers to the tenth’s place.

The percentage compositions of each element should add up

to 100% (or very close, like 99.9% or 100.1%)

Given the Percentage Composition of a formula, you can

8 • Mathematics of Chemical Formulas
Formula from % Composition
(7 of 8)
calculate the empirical formula of the substance.
Step 1 assume you have 100 g of substance so
the percentages become grams
Step 2 change grams of each element to moles
of atoms of that element
Step 3 set up a formula with the moles
example: C2.4 H4.8
Step 4 simplify the formula by dividing moles
2.4 4.8
by the smallest value C 2.4 H2.4 = CH 2
Step 5 If ratio becomes…
1:1.33 or 1:1.66 multiply by 3

The gas density is often converted to molar mass:

Example:
The gas density of a gas is 3.165 g/Liter (at STP). What is
the molar mass of the gas?
8 • Mathematics of Chemical Formulas
Other Mole Problems and Conversions Knowing that 22.4 L is 1 mole, you can set up the ratio:
(8 of 8) 3.165 g molar mass
=
1 Liter 22.4 L
Other metric conversions you should know:
1000 mL 1 kg
1 Liter 1000 grams

9 • Chemical Equations
Equation Terms
(1 of 8)
9 • Chemical Equations
Types of Reactions and other Terms
(2 of 8)
9 • Chemical Equations
Energy Changes
(3 of 8)
9 • Chemical Equations
Showing Phases in Equations
(4 of 8)
equation condensed statement of facts about a
chemical reaction.
reactants → substances that exist before a chemical
reaction. Written on the left of the arrow.
→ products substances that come into existence as a
result of the reaction. Written to the right
of the arrow.
word equation an equation describing a chemical change
using the names of the reactants and
products.
coefficients a number preceding atoms, ions, or
molecules in balanced chemical equations
that showing relative #’s.
synthesis A+B→C
decomposition AB → A + B
single replacement AB + C → A + BC
double replacement AB + CD → AD + CB
precipitate solid that is formed during a reaction
spectator ions ion that undergoes no chemical
change during a reaction
molecular equation equation with reactants and products
written as whole molecules
ionic equation equation with soluble salts written as
individual ions
net ionic equation equation with spectator ions removed
EXOTHERMIC
• reaction gives off energy
• energy is written as a product on the right side of arrow
• reaction mixture generally gets warmer or must be cooled
[combustion] CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2 O + energy
[freezing] H2 O(l) → H2 O(s) + energy
ENDOTHERMIC
• reaction requires or takes in energy
• energy is written as a reactant on the left side of the arrow
• reaction mixture takes warmth from surroundings
or must be warmed... for example
[electrolysis of water] 2 H2 O + energy → 2 H2 + O2
We have seen the phases of matter in earlier chapters. See
page 212 for atomic pictures.
(s) solid phase may be used to show a ppt.
(l) liquid phase
(g) gaseous phase
(aq) aqueous phase -- solid or gas dissolved in water
(ppt) precipitate -- solid (s) formed during a reaction
use Appendix D or solubility rules to predict when
a product is a precipitate.
(l) vs (aq) sugar(l) would be melted sugar
sugar(aq) would be sugar water (dissolved)

9 • Chemical Equations
Molecular, Ionic, Net Ionic Equations
(5 of 8)
9 • Chemical Equations
Writing Word Equations
Things To Remember
(6 of 8)
9 • Chemical Equations
Writing Formula Equations
Things To Remember
(7 of 8)
9 • Chemical Equations
Miscellaneous:
Law of Conservation of Mass
and Complete Combustion Reactions
(8 of 8)
Consider the compounds: silver nitrate + sodium chromate
Ag+ NO3 – Na+ CrO4 2–
molecular equation [balance at this stage]
(use double replacement pattern to predict the products)
2 AgNO3 + Na2 CrO4 → Ag2 CrO4 (s) + 2 NaNO3
ionic equation [use sol. rules to determine (aq) or (s)]
2 Ag+ + 2 NO 3 – + 2 Na+ + CrO4 2– →
Ag2 CrO4 (s) + 2 Na+ + 2 NO 3 –
net ionic equation [remove spectator ions]
2 Ag+ + CrO4 2– → Ag2 CrO4 (s)
Example: Write the word equation of...
SiO 2 + 4 HF → SiF 4 + 2 H2 O
silicon dioxide + hydrofluoric acid
→ silicon tetrafluoride + water
• molecular compounds must be named using mono-, di-,
tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta-, octa-, nona-, deca-.
• watch for acids (ionic compounds ... positive ion is H +)
acid naming rules apply (-ide = hydro---ic acid, etc.)
• ionic compounds do NOT use di-, tri-, etc. unless they
are part of the ion name (e.g. dichromate, Cr 2 O7 2–)
ionic cmpds are named as the positive and negative ion.
Stock names may be used.
Example: Write the formula equation of...
sodium metal + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Na° + H 2 O → NaOH + H2
• metals often are written with the ° symbol to emphasize
that the metal is in the neutral elemental state, not an ion.
• some compounds have common names that you should
just know... water, H 2 O; ammonia, NH3 ; methane, CH4
• remember the seven diatomic elements so they can be
written as diatomic molecules when they appear in their
elemental form. Other elemental substances are written
as single atoms (e.g. sodium metal or helium gas, He)
The law of conservation of mass can be shown by
comparing the total masses of reactants and products.:
Example: Show that the law of conservation of mass
applies to the balanced equation...
C 3 H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2 O
44 g + 5(32 g) = 3(44 g) + 4(18 g)
Combustion (burning) implies a fuel and three chemicals:
O2 , CO2 , and H2 O. Example: combustion of C3 H8 above.
Careful when balancing: C2 H5 OH... Notice: 6H’s and an O.
3
Use fractions to show odd #’s of O atoms, 2 O2 = 3 atoms

10 • Mathematics of Chemical Equations
Coefficients and Relative Volumes of Gases
(1 of 8)
10 • Mathematics of Chemical Equations
Heart of the Problem
(2 of 8)
10 • Mathematics of Chemical Equations
Mass-Mass Problems
Mass-Volume Problems
(3 of 8)
10 • Mathematics of Chemical Equations
Mass-Volume-Particle Problems
(4 of 8)
Since every gas takes up the same amount of room (22.4 L
for a mole of a gas at STP), the coefficients in an equation
tell you about the volumes of gas involved.
Example: N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)
+
The “heart of the problem” conversion factor relates the
Given and the Desired compounds using the coefficients
from the balanced equation.
Example: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
3 moles H
♥ could be 2 moles NH2
3
…which means that every time 2 moles of NH 3 is formed, 3
moles of H2 must react.
moles of Desired
The format is always,
moles of Given
Mass-Mass problems are probably the most common type
of problem. The Given and Desired are both masses (grams
or kg).
The pattern is:
molar mass
♥ x molar mass
Given x of Given x of Desired
In Mass-Volume problems, one of the molar masses is
22.4 L
replaced with depending on whether the Given or
1 mole
the Desired is Liters.
If the Given or Desired is molecules, then the Avogadro’s
6.02 x 10 23 molecules
Number conversion factor, is used
1 mole
and the problem is a Mass-Particle or Volume-Particle
problem.
The units of the Given and Desired will guide you as to
which conversion factor to use:
Mass grams or kg
Volume Liters or mL
Particles molecules or atoms

10 • Mathematics of Chemical Equations
Limiting Reactant Problems
(5 of 8)
10 • Mathematics of Chemical Equations
How Much Excess Reactant is Left Over
(6 of 8)
10 • Mathematics of Chemical Equations
Limiting Reactants
(7 of 8)
10 • Mathematics of Chemical Equations
Lab 16 (Baking Soda Lab) Ideas
(8 of 8)
In a problem with two Given values, one of the Given’s will
limit how much product you can make. This is called the
limiting reactant. The other reactant is said to be in excess.
Solve the problem twice using each Given… the reactant
that results in the smaller amount of product is the limiting
reactant and the smaller answer is the true answer.
Example: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
When 28.0 grams of N 2 reacts with 8.00 grams of H2 , what
mass of NH3 is produced?
(in this case, the N2 is the limiting reactant)
Example: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
When 28.0 grams of N 2 reacts with 8.00 grams of H2 , what
mass of NH3 is produced?
(in this case, the N2 is the limiting reactant)
To find out how much H2 is left over, do another line
equation:
Given: 28.0 g N2
Desired: ? g H2
subtract the answer of this problem from 8.00 g H2
It is difficult to simply guess which reactant is the limiting
reactant because it depends on two things:
(1) the molar mass of the reactant and
(2) the coefficients in the balanced equation
The smaller mass is not always the limiting reactant.
Example: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
1 mole (28 g N 2 ) will just react with 3 moles (6.06 g H2 )
so, if we react 28.0 g N2 with 8.0 g H2 , only 6.06 g H2
will be used up and 1.94 g of H2 will be left over.
In this case, N2 is the L.R. and H2 is in XS.
The reaction: NaHCO3 + HCl → H2 O + CO2 (g) + NaCl
The Point:
We can calculate the mass of NaCl expected from any
starting mass of NaHCO 3
We can also experimentally measure the mass of NaCl left
over after reacting NaHCO 3 and HCl
These two values should match. Percent error is a good
way to report how good your experimental value is.
Techniques:
We used excess HCl. The CO2 escapes as a gas. The H2 O
is driven off by evaporation. Drying thoroughly is impt.
 Pressure is defined as force/area which is measured in
lb N
units of 2 (psi) or (Pa) , atm , mmHg (torr) or kPa
in m2

11 • Phases of Matter At sea level, the air pushes down with a pressure of
Pressure Definition and Units 1 atm = 14.7 psi = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa
(1 of 8)
You can convert from one unit to the other with conversion
760 mmHg 101.3 kPa
factors such as or
101.3 kPa 760 mmHg
101.3 kPa
Example: 500 mmHg x = 66.6 kPa
760 mmHg

A manometer is used to measure pressure.

If difference in height is 155 mm
and atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa,

11 • Phases of Matter convert the difference in the mercury

Pgas levels to kPa and subtract from the air
Manometers and Measuring Pressure pressure because you can SEE that the
(2 of 8) air pressure is greater than the gas
pressure.

A barometer is a special case of a manometer.

(g)
(l) & (g) KE
KE = kinetic
PE energy changes
(l)
11 • Phases of Matter KE which are times
(s) & (l) when the heat
Heating Curve and Energy Changes (s) PE energy speeds up
(3 of 8) KE the molecules.
Time (min)
PE = potential energy changes which are times when
the heat energy separates the molecules from solid to
liquid or liquid to gas.

NRG is REQUIRED NRG is RELEASED

solid → liquid liquid → solid
melting or fusion freezing
liquid → gas gas → liquid
11 • Phases of Matter vaporization condensation
Names of Phase Changes and Energy evaporation or boiling
(4 of 8)
solid → gas gas → solid
sublimation solidification
The energy involved in the phase change is calculated using
heat of fusion (solid → liquid or liquid → solid)
heat of vaporization (liquid → gas or gas → liquid)
 • Gases are tiny particles separated by large areas of empty
space.
• Molecules are in constant, random motion.
• Pressure results from collisions of the gas molecules with
11 • Phases of Matter the walls of the container.
• Molecules of an “ideal” gas show no attraction or repulsion
Assumptions of the Kinetic Molecular Theory for each other. “Real” gases have intermolecular forces of
(5 of 8) attraction (IMF’s) that are strongest in solids and weakest
in gases.
• Some molecules are moving fast, some are moving slowly,
temperature is a measure of the average KE…
corresponds to the average speed.
(Relate this to the KE distribution curve Fig 11-13.)
Phase changes are the balance between KE and IMF’s.

Vapor pressure is the push exerted by the particles of vapor

that escape from a liquid (or solid). It is a good measure
of the IMF’s of a substance.

11 • Phases of Matter Large vapor pressure = small IMF’s

(particles can easily escape the liquid to become vapor)
Vapor Pressure, IMF’s, and KE
(6 of 8) Small vapor pressure = large IMF’s
(particles are tightly held as a liquid)

Greater temperature (KE) allows more particles to escape

against the IMF’s and so as temp ↑, vapor pressure ↑.

Vapor pressure = power to form bubbles.

Boiling occurs when the vapor pressure of a substance =

the air pressure above the liquid.
You can make a liquid boil by increasing the vapor
pressure of the liquid (heating it up) or by lowering the
11 • Phases of Matter air pressure above the liquid. Both were demonstrated.
Boiling Point
(7 of 8) Use a chart of vapor pressure values or a graph to
determine the vapor pressure needed to boil at various
temperature and pressure conditions..
↑ boiling points (BP) ~ ↑IMF’s ~ ↓vapor pressures.
Altitude (low air pressure) lowers the boiling temperature of
water in an open container (increases cooking time).

For most substances, the solid is the most dense form of

matter because the atoms are packed together tightly.

11 • Phases of Matter
Solids, Liquids, and Gases SOLID LIQUID GAS
(8 of 8) Water is unique: when the solid forms, the molecules
spread out and form a stable, but less dense pattern, ice.

SOLID WATER
 General: When P↑, V↓ (inversely proportional)
Formula: P·V = constant or P1 V1 = P2 V2

Restrictions: P 1 and P2 must be in the same units

12 • The Gas Laws V1 and V 2 must be in the same units
Boyle’s Law (P and V)
(1 of 8) Convert pressures using conversion factors using the fact
that 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi
lb
psi = 2
in
101.3 kPa
Example: 730 mmHg x = 97.3 kPa
760 mmHg

Graphically:

V
1/V
12 • The Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law Lab
P P
(2 of 8)
In our lab, we had to add the atmospheric pressure to our
measurements because tire gauges only measure the
pressure ABOVE atmospheric pressure.
1
Consistent (“ good”) data form a straight line (P vs. ).
V

K = °C + 273 °C = K – 273
Examples: 0 °C + 273 = 237 K
25 °C + 273 = 298 K
100 °C + 273 = 373 K
12 • The Gas Laws 300 K – 273 = –27 °C
Kelvin Temperature Scale
(3 of 8) The Kelvin scale is used in gas law problems because the
pressure and volume of a gas depend on the kinetic energy
or motion of the particles.
The Kelvin scale is proportional to the KE of the
particles… that is, 0 K (absolute zero) means 0 kinetic
energy. 0 °C is simply the freezing point of water.

Charles’ Law
General: When T↑, V↑ (directly proportional)
V V V
Formula: = constant or 1 = 2
T T1 T2
12 • The Gas Laws Restrictions: T must be in Kelvins
Charles’ Law (V and T) V1 and V 2 must be in the same units
Gay-Lussac’s Law (P and T) Gay-Lussac’s Law
(4 of 8) General: When T↑, P↑ (directly proportional)
P P P
Formula: = constant or 1 = 2
T T1 T2
Restrictions: T must be in Kelvins
P 1 and P2 must be in the same units

12 • The Gas Laws
The Combined Gas Law
(5 of 8)
12 • The Gas Laws
The Ideal Gas Law
(6 of 8)
12 • The Gas Laws
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
(7 of 8)
12 • The Gas Laws
Why Do All Gases Cause the Same Pressure?
Graham’s Law
(8 of 8)
P·V P ·V P ·V
Formula: = constant or 1 1 = 2 2
T T1 T2
Restrictions: T must be in Kelvins
V1 and V 2 must be in the same units
P 1 and P2 must be in the same units
STP (“standard temperature and pressure”) is often used as
one of the two conditions
T = 0 °C = 273 K P = 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa
Each of the three gas laws is really a special case of this
law.
Example: If T1 = T2 , the law becomes P1 V1 = P2 V2
Formula: P·V = n·R·T or PV = nRT
where P = pressure
V = volume
n = number of moles
R = the ideal gas constant
T = temperature (in Kelvins)
The value of R depends on the P and V units used.
PV
R= so you can use the molar volume info to calculate R
nT
(101.3 kPa)(22.4 L) L·kPa
R= = 8.31
(1 mole)(273 K) mol·K
L·mmHg L·atm
R = 62.4 = 0.0821
mol·K mol·K
When you have a mixture of gases, you can determine the
pressure exerted by each gas separately. This is called
the partial pressure of each gas.
Since each gas has the same power to cause pressure (see
card #8) the partial pressure of a gas depends on how
much of the mixture is composed of each gas (in moles)
Example: Consider air, a mixture of mostly O2 and N 2
P O2 P N2
moles O 2 moles N 2
= =
moles total P total moles total P total
Also: P total = P O2 + P N2
This idea is used when a gas is collected over water
P atm = P gas + P H2 O P H2 O is found on a chart
The gas laws work (to 3 significant digits) for all gases…
that is, all gases have the same power to cause pressure.
At the same temperature, the KE of each gas is the same.
KE = 1 /2 mass·velocity2 … if two particles have different
masses, their velocities are also different. So…
SMALL particles move FAST mv2
LARGE particles move SLOWLY m v2
We can use this idea with numbers as well: (Graham’s Law)
KEA = KEB mAvA2 = mBvB2
[another version of this formula is on pg 323 of the text]

13 • Electron Configurations
Electron Energy Levels
(1 of 4)
13 • Electron Configurations
Showing Electron Arrangments:
Orbital Diagrams and Electron Configurations
(2 of 4)
13 • Electron Configurations
Filling Orbitals
(3 of 4)
13 • Electron Configurations
Valence Electrons
(4 of 4)
The electrons in an atom exist in various energy levels.
When an electron moves from a lower energy level to a
higher energy level, energy is absorbed by the atom.
When an electron moves from a higher to a lower energy
level, energy is released (often as light).
Neils Bohr was able to determine the energy levels of
hydrogen by the visible light energy that is released when
the electron drops from 3 → 2 (red light), 4 → 2 (blue-
green), 5 → 2 (blue-violet) and 6 → 2 (violet).
Transitions to level n = 1 are too high energy to see (UV).
Transitions to level n = 3 are too low energy to see (IR).
4p 3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
A shorthand notation is the electron configuration:
1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 4s2 3d 10 4p 6 , etc.
Three rules define how the orbitals fill:
The Pauli Exclusion Principle
Each orbital can be occupied by no more than two
electrons.
The Aufbau Principle
The electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals
available. The “Ground State” for an atom is when
every electron is in its lowest energy orbital.
Hund’s Rule
When more than one orbital exists of the same energy
(p, d, and f orbitals), place one electron in each orbital
before doubling them up.
The valence electrons are the outermost electrons… those
farthest from the nucleus. They have the largest principal
quantum number, n.
These electrons occupy the s and p orbitals in the highest
energy level. These orbitals are called the valence orbitals.
The columns of the periodic table are labeled, I, II, III, IV,
V, VI, VII and VIII (ignoring the transition and rare earth
elements). This label tell you the number of valence
electrons of every element in that column (except He.)
The valence electrons are important in how atoms bond.
Note that filled energy levels match up with the noble gases.

14 • The Periodic Table
Terms about the Periodic Table
People of the Periodic Table
(1 of 8)
14 • The Periodic Table
Families (Groups) of the Periodic Table
(2 of 8)
14 • The Periodic Table
Terms used in the Trends
(3 of 8)
14 • The Periodic Table
Trends of the Periodic Table
(4 of 8)
period a horizontal row of the table
group / family a vertical column of the table
periodic law properties repeat if you arrange elements
by atomic mass. The modern periodic
law arranges elements by atomic number
Döbereiner triads of similar elements
Newlands Law of Octaves for similar elements
Meyer close to a modern periodic table
Dimitri first to publish, predicted missing
Mendeleev elements, his table was very detailed
hydrogen a family by itself because it acts like both
group I and group VII
alkali metals Family I… forms 1+ ions
alkaline earth Family II… forms 2+ ions
metals
halogens Family VII (salt formers)… forms 1– ions
noble gases Family VIII… He, Ne, Ar are inert
representative Families I – VIII
elements s-block (I & II) and p-block (III – VIII)
main transition elements with unfilled inner shells
elements d-block (often form colored compounds)
inner transition f-block (lanthanoids and actinoids)
elements
ionization energy
energy needed to remove an electron from an atom
ex: Li + energy → Li+ + e–
atomic radius size of an atom
ionic radius size of an ion
negative ions get larger; positive ions get smaller
metallic character (compared to nonmetals)
low ionization energies… form positive ions
low electronegativities high luster
easily deformed (malleable and ductile)
good conductors of heat and electricity
electronegativity… the “pull” or attraction for electrons
Trends you should know and be able to explain:
ionization energy increases
electronegativity increases
atomic radius increases
metallic character increases

14 • The Periodic Table
Explaining The Size of Atoms and Ions
(5 of 8)
14 • The Periodic Table
Explaining Ionization Energy
(6 of 8)
14 • The Periodic Table
Isoelectronic Species
(7 of 8)
14 • The Periodic Table
Clues from the Periodic Table
(8 of 8)
The size of an atom depends on the electron cloud… the
average distance of the valence e– ’s from the nucleus.
Three important factors:
the e– - e– repulsion … making the atom larger
the p+ - e– attractions… making the atom smaller
the principal quantum number, n…
as n increases, the average distance of the valence e– ’s
from the nucleus increases… making the atom larger
• across a period… more p+’s… more attraction… smaller
• down a family… n increases… e– ’s farther… larger
• + ion… lose e– ’s… less repulsion… smaller
–
Ionization energy trends follow the size trends:
As atoms or ions get larger, the electron being removed is
farther from the nucleus… the attractions are less… the
energy needed is less… the ionization energy is less.
Ionization energy greatly increases when you start
removing electrons from an inner shell (n decreases).
Moving across a period, two other factors come into play:
• “p” e– ’s are higher energy… require less energy to
remove than “s” e– ’s with the same quantum number, n
• e– ’s in filled orbitals are easier to remove than e– ’s in
singly occupied orbitals because of e– - e– repulsions.
The elements before and after a noble gas form ions by
gaining or losing electrons until they have the same
electron configuration as the noble gas.
N3– O2– F– Ne Na+ Mg2+ Al3+
all have the electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p 6
We say these ions and atoms are isoelectronic
iso means “same” and electronic means “electrons”
Using ideas from Study Card #5, we see that if the electrons
are the same but there are increasing numbers of
protons, the increased attractions cause the sizes to
decrease.
The group or family number (I through VIII) tells you…
• the number of valence electrons of the elements in each
family (except He which only has 2 valence electrons)
• the ion that commonly forms
• the bonding capacity (the number of bonds it will form)
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
# of valence e– 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ion formed 1+ 2+ 3+ * 3– 2– 1– none
bonding capacity 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
IUPAC family # 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
* Family IV usually shares e– ’s rather than forming ions

15 • Chemical Bonding
Three Types of Bonding
(1 of 8)
There are three general classes of bonds that form between
atoms. You can predict which will form by classifying the
atoms as metals or nonmetals:
metal + metal metallic bond Au-Ag alloy
metal + nonmetal ionic bond MgCl2
nonmetal + nonmetal covalent bond SO2 or CH4
Some compounds can contain both ionic and covalent bonds
such as K 2SO4... the sulfate ion is held together with
covalent bonds... the potassium ions are ionically bonded to
the sulfate ions.
Acids are exceptions... they are ionic only when dissolved.

Many ions can be explained because they have gained or

lost electrons and attain a noble gas configuration.
For example: P3– S2– Cl– Ar K+ Ca2+
all have the same electron arrangement: 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6
15 • Chemical Bonding
The Ionic Bond The importance of this configuration is that this is one
reason why ions form. After these ions form, they stick
(2 of 8) together in a crystal lattice because opposites attract:
+-+-+-+-
- + - + - + - + There are other reasons why some
+-+-+-+- ions (ex: Cu + or Zn2+) form.
-+-+-+-+

The covalent bond between two atoms depends on the

balance of attractions between one atom’s + nucleus and the
other atom’s – electrons and the proton-proton repulsions
as well as electron-electron repulstions.
15 • Chemical Bonding
The Covalent Bond PE
(3 of 8)
Distance between nuclei

If two atoms have half-filled orbitals, the interactions

balance at a small enough distance so the e –’s can be close
to both nuclei at the same time... this is a covalent bond.

Lewis symbols consist of the atomic symbol surrounded by

valence electrons. The four sides represent the four valence
orbitals. Atoms are usually shown in their excited states.
(Families II, III, & IV can also be in their “ground state.”)
15 • Chemical Bonding
Lewis Electron Dot Structures
(4 of 8)
Ions include brackets and charges. Positive ions show no
valence electrons while negative ions show an octet.

[Li]+
2+ 2–
[Mg] [O]
 Example: CO2

Draw the Lewis symbols for O C O

15 • Chemical Bonding each atom.
Drawing Electron Dot Structures
The (Chris) Bednarski Method Connect the unpaired O C O
electrons.
(5 of 8)
Clean up your drawing. O C O

Compound Molecular Ionic

Conducts as Solid NO NO
Conducts as Liquid NO YES
Conducts in Solution NO YES
15 • Chemical Bonding Conducts as Gas NO YES
Comparing Ionic & Molecular Substances Hardness soft hard
(6 of 8) MP / BP low high
Bonding covalent ionic
Examples He, CH4, CO2, NaCl, KI,
C6H12O6 AgNO3

You will be given a chart of electronegativity values.

15 • Chemical Bonding
Electronegativity and Polar Bonds
(7 of 8)
Memorize (F = 4.0) (O = 3.5) and (Cl = 3.0).
The noble gases have no values… no bonds.
Large electronegativity in the upper right of the per. table
and small in the lower left portion of the table.
Classify the bond between any two atoms by subtracting
their electronegativity values (∆e)
Non-polar covalent 0 < ∆e < 0.5
Polar covalent 0.5 ∆e 1.7
Ionic ∆e > 1.7
The more electronegative atom is more negative .
Polar covalent bonds have partial charges δ+ and δ–

Use VSEPR theory to predict the shape of molecules. The

15 • Chemical Bonding
Shapes and Polar Molecules
(8 of 8)
Steric Number (the # of lone pairs + bonded atoms) relates
the shape o f the electron pairs around a central atom.
[1=linear, 2=linear, 3=trigonal planar, 4=tetrahedral]
If each shape is symmetrical, the bond dipoles will cancel
resulting in a nonpolar molecule.
If a shape has lone pairs of electrons on the central atom, the
shape is often unsymmetrical, the molecule is polar.
Polar molecules and ions dissolve well in polar solvents
while nonpolar molecules dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
“Like Dissolves Like”

24 • Organic Chemistry
Historical Ideas
(1 of 12)
24 • Organic Chemistry
Alkane Series -- Saturated Hydrocarbons
(2 of 12)
24 • Organic Chemistry
Structural Formulas Can Be Misleading
(3 of 12)
24 • Organic Chemistry
Alkenes and cis- /trans- Isomerism
(4 of 12)
Chemicals from living things were thought to contain a “vital
force” that could not be duplicated in the lab. This changed
with Friedrich Wöhler who mixed cyanic acid (HCNO) with
ammonium hydroxide making ammonium cyanate (NH4CNO).
O He usually allowed the salt solution to
C evaporate overnight, but tried heating it to
H2 N NH2 hurry the process. The result was a crystal
urea that he recognized as urea (H2NCONH2).
The modern view of organic chemistry is the chemistry of
carbon compounds. C is the key element. It can form four
bonds and that are very strong bonds due to its small size.
The alkanes (paraffins) follow the formula: CnH2n+2:
These molecules contain ONLY single bonds. They are said
to be “saturated” with hydrogens.
Memorize these prefixes also used with alkenes & alkynes.
CH4 methane C6H14 hexane
C2H6 ethane C7H16 heptane
C3H8 propane C8H18 octane
C4H10 butane C9H20 nonane
C5H12 pentane C10H22 decane
Given a formula, you can tell that it contains only single
bonds because it fits the alkane formula.
As the molecules increase in size, they tend to be liquids and
CH4, can be drawn using a structural formula. H
This can be misleading. The molecule is not flat H C H
with bond angles of 90°. You must be aware of
H
the 3-D structure and the 109.5 ° bond angles.
Cl Cl For example, there is only one isomer
H C H H C Cl of dichloromethane, but you can
Cl H draw it at least two ways.
Building models of the molecules is an important part of
strengthening this skill.
Alkenes contain 1 double bond. The formula H H
is CnH2n. They are said to be “unsaturated” C C
(like unsaturated fats). The double bond can H H
be broken and more hydrogens added. ethene
Since double bonds cannot easily rotate (due to the double
bond) cis- and trans- isomers can be formed.
Example: 1,2-dichloroethene can be built two ways.
Cl Cl Cl H
C C C C
H H H Cl
cis -1,2-dichloroethene trans-1,2-dichloroethene
(a polar molecule) (a nonpolar molecule)

24 • Organic Chemistry
Alkynes, Alkadienes, and Cyclic Hydrocarbons
Alkynes contain 1 triple bond H C C H
(unsaturated). Formula: CnH2n-2. ethyne (acetylene)
The triple bond is linear, so no cis/trans isomerism occurs.
Alkadienes are molecules with two double bonds. They
have the same formula as the alkynes, CnH2n-2.
Example: C4H6 is named 1,3-butadiene H

(5 of 12) because the double bonds start on C CH2

H2C C
carbons #1 and #3.
H
H2 Cyclic compounds contain rings having the
C
CH2 same formula as the alkenes, CnH2n.
H2C
Example: cyclopropane, C3H6.

The basic idea is to name the molecule after the longest

continuous chain of carbon atoms. Side groups are listed
with #’s to indicate the C atom to which they are attached.
Side Groups : -Cl chloro -Br bromo -I iodo
24 • Organic Chemistry -CH3 methyl -C2H5 ethyl -C3H7 propyl, etc.
Naming Organic Compounds di- = 2 groups tri- = 3 groups tetra- = 4 groups
(Organic Nomenclature Using IUPAC Rules)
H Br Br H
(6 of 12) 2,2,3-tribromobutane (not 2,3,3-)
Note that we # the carbons from H C C C C H
whichever end results in the
H H Br H
smallest numbers.

A common error when drawing H H H

24 • Organic Chemistry
Common Errors in Drawing/Naming Structures
1-methylsomething & 2-ethylsomething
(7 of 12)
isomers of pentane, C5H12, is naming H C C C H
this structure as 2-ethylpropane.
H CH2 H
(a chain of 3 C’s with an ethyl group)
The longest chain is really four C’s, CH3
& should be named 2-methylbutane.
A similar error is to draw and name “1-methylsomething”.
H H
Two more tips … double check that
H C C O each C has four and only four bonds.
Also, remember that N and O atoms
H H
have lone pairs of e-‘s although they
5 bonds to C are seldom drawn. (Impt. for steric #!)

24 • Organic Chemistry
Aromatic Compounds
Benzene and its Derivatives
H H
C C Benzene, C6H6, is unique. It
HC CH HC CH can be drawn as shown, but
HC CH HC CH the actual structure involves
C C
H H a circular pi bond (sp 2
two resonance structures orbitals & delocalized e-‘s).
Benzene is also shown with a circle as the pi bond.
The carbon #’s can be used for substituted 1

6 2
(8 of 12) benzene. Example: dichlorobenzene
1,2- is known as the ortho- position
1,3- is known as the meta- position 5 3

1,4- is known as the para- position 4

Paradichlorobenzene: the main ingredient in some moth balls.

 Alcohols General formula: R-O-H [R ≈ Rest of molecule]
1
C C atoms are classified as primary (1),
secondary (2), or tertiary (3) by the
C C 1 number of C atoms it is bonded to.
24 • Organic Chemistry 1C
3
C A primary alcohol has the -OH group
2
Functional Groups I bonded to a primary carbon, etc.
This is not a base because the -OH is covalent, not ionic.
Alcohols and Ethers Naming: group + “alcohol” (e.g. ethyl alcohol or ethanol)
(9 of 12) Ethers General formula: R-O-R’ [R’ can = R, but not H]
Naming: two groups + “ether” H2 H2
diethyl ether was the 1st effective C C
surgical and dental anesthetic. H3 C O CH3

Aldehydes Ketones
General formula: O O

C C
R H R R'
24 • Organic Chemistry Naming: names end in “al” names end in
Functional Groups II or “aldehyde” “one”
methanaldehyde propanone
Aldehydes and Ketones (formaldehyde) (acetone)
(10 of 12) Aldehydes and ketones both have a C=O group (carbonyl
group). Aldehydes have it on an end carbon. Ketones have
it on a middle carbon. Reactions: Primary alcohols can be
oxidized into aldehydes. Secondary alcohols into ketones.

Carboxylic Acids Esters

General formula: O O

C C
R OH R OR
24 • Organic Chemistry Naming: names end - “oic names end - “ate”
Functional Groups III acid” ethyl acetate
ethanoic acid (acetic acid +
Carboxylic Acids and Esters (acetic acid) ethyl alcohol)
(11 of 12) Reactions: Acids can be made by oxidizing aldehydes.
Esters are formed (“esterification”) from a carboxylic acid &
an alcohol. Water is removed (a “condensation” reaction).
Esters often have pleasant, agreeable odors (e.g. banana.)

Amines Amides
General formula: H H O
N
C
R R NH2
24 • Organic Chemistry Naming: names contain names end in
Functional Groups IV “amino” or end in “amide”
Amines & Amides “amine” acetamide
(12 of 12) aminomethane
(methylamine)
The N may have 1 or 2 or all 3 H atoms replaced with groups.
The lone pair on the N atom makes these molecules basic.
Your body needs certain amines “vital amines” ≈ “vitamins.”
 CH3 Some molecules have the ability
H2C
H2 to rotate polarized light.
C H CH2 These molecules can be
H3 C C
recognized by a C atom (the
24 • Organic Chemistry -- Extra CH3 chiral carbon) bonded to four
3-
Optical Isomers methylhexane
different groups.
Chiral Compounds This carbon is bonded to H, methyl, ethyl, & propyl groups.
(1 of 4) You can build two versions of this molecule that are
“nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other.” One will
rotate light clockwise, one counterclockwise.
In biology, these are called dextro- and levo- (D and L) forms.

ethene is also called ethylene

propene is also called propylene
H3C 2-methylbutane is also called isopentane.
H2 “Iso-“ means the same… the same two
23 • Organic Chemistry -- Extra HC
C
H3 C methyl groups come branch from C #2.
Common Names You Should Know About CH3 2-methylpentane is isohexane, etc.
(2 of 4)
CH3 2,2-dimethylpropane is called
H3 C C CH3 neopentane. These common names show
up occasionally in names… such as in
CH3 isopropyl alcohol.

Monomer = one part Polymer = many parts

H H One kind of polymer is made up of
C C monomers that contain a double bond.
H H The double bond can break and we can
24 • Organic Chemistry -- Extra “ethylene” ADD to it… “Addition polymerization.”
Polymers I H H H H H H H H
Monomers & Addition Polymerization * C C * + C C → * C C C C *
(3 of 4) H H H H H H H H
Different monomers form different polymers. This polymer
would be called polyethylene. Replace on H on the monomer
with Cl and you can make polyvinyl chloride, “PVC.”

Another polymerization involves condensation reactions.

24 • Organic Chemistry -- Extra
Polymers II
Copolymers & Condensation Polymerization
(4 of 4)
O O H H
HO OH
C R C C C
R
HO OH H H
a di-acid a di-alcohol (a glycol)
Esters form from an acid and an alcohol. Using a di-acid and
a di-alcohol, you can make a continuous chain by removing
water molecules. The resulting polymer is called a polyester.
Soda bottles are made from a polyester, polyethylene
terephthalate ester (PETE).
Nylon (a polyamide) can be made from a di-amine & a di-acid.
 • Wilhelm Roentgen (1845-1923) discovered X-rays, a
high energy form of light. (1895)
• Henri Becquerel (1852-1909) found that uranium ores
emit radiation that can pass through objects (like x-rays)
26 • Nuclear Chemistry and affect photographic plates. (1896)
• Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934) Marie and Pierre
The People worked with Becquerel to understand radioactivity. The
(1 of 12) three shared a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Marie won
a second Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 for her work
with radium and its properties.
• E. O. Lawrence invented the cyclotron which was used at
UC Berkeley to make many of the transuranium elements.

radioactivity the spontaneous breakdown of atomic

nuclei, accompanied by the release of
some form of radiation (also called
radioactive decay)
26 • Nuclear Chemistry half-life time required for half of a radioactive
sample to decay
Terms I-- Radioactivity
(2 of 12) transmutation one element being converted into another
by a nuclear change
nuclides isotopes of elements that are identified by
the number of their protons and neutrons
emission the particle ejected from the nucleus.

decay series the sequence of nuclides that an element

changes into until it forms a stable nucleus

radioactive using half-life information to determine

26 • Nuclear Chemistry dating the age of objects. C-14/C-12 is common.
Terms II--Radioactivity nuclear fission large nucleus breaking down into pieces of
(3 of 12) about the same mass

nuclear fusion two or more light nuclei blend to form one

or more larger nuclei

Alpha particles are the same as a helium nucleus, 42 He, with

a mass of 4 amu. It travels about 1/10th the speed of light
and is the most easily stopped of the three particles (a sheet
of paper will stop them). It is the least dangerous.
26 • Nuclear Chemistry
Types of Radiation Beta particles are high speed electrons, 0e, with a mass of
-1
(4 of 12) 0.00055 amu and travels at nearly the speed of light. It can
be stopped by a sheet of aluminum. It is more penetrating
and therefore more dangerous than alpha.
Gamma rays are extremely high energy light, γ, with no
mass, and are the most penetrating (several cm’s of lead are
needed to stop them). They can cause severe damage.

26 • Nuclear Chemistry
Half-Life Problems
(5 of 12)
26 • Nuclear Chemistry
Half-Life
(6 of 12)
26 • Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Equations
(7 of 12)
26 • Nuclear Chemistry
How Each Type of Decay Can Stabilize an
Unstable Nucleus
(8 of 12)
In each half-life problem there are basically four variables:
• total time • half-life
• starting amount • ending amount
64g 32g 16g 8g 4g 2g 1g 0.5g 0.25g
Question:
If you have 0.25 g of a radioactive substance with a half
life of 3 days, how long ago did you have 64 grams?
Answer: Draw the chart to determine the number of half-
lives to get from the ending amount to the starting amount…
each half-life is worth 3 days…24 days.
The time it takes for half of a radioactive substance to decay.
The graph has a characteristic shape:
#
time
The time it takes for the amount or the activity of the
substance to drop to half is the same WHEREVER you start
on the graph.
Half-lives can range from microseconds to thousands of
years and is characteristic of each substance.
Memorize the symbols for the important particles
alpha beta positron neutron
4 0 0 1
2He -1e +1 e 0n
Decay means the particle is on the right side of the equation:
example: alpha decay of U-238
238 4 234
92U → 2He + 90Th
The 234 and 90 are calculated… the Th is found on the
periodic table (find the element with atomic # = 90).
Several neutrons can be shown together and written as…
1 3
3(0n) and would be counted as 0n in the equation.
Certain values of p+’s and no’s in the nucleus are stable. A
nucleus can be unstable (radioactive) for 3 reasons:
• the nucleus has too many protons compared to neutrons
solution: positron decay
(change a proton into a neutron and a positive electron…
…a positron)
• the nucleus has too many neutrons compared to protons
solution: beta decay
(change a neutron into a proton and a negative beta particle)
• the nucleus is too big (too many protons and neutrons)
solution: alpha decay (lose 2 p+ and 2 n°)
 Radioactive Dating: In every living thing there is a
constant ratio of normal C-12 and radioactive C-14. You
can calculate the time needed to change from what is
expected to what is actually found.
26 • Nuclear Chemistry Radioisotopes: Many substances can be radioactive and
then followed as they move through the body.
Uses of Radioactivity
(9 of 12) Fission Reactors: Current nuclear reactors use fission
reactions to produce heat which is used to turn water into
steam and drive turbine engines that produce electricity.
The Sun and Stars are powered by nuclear fusion… this is
related to the fact that the most abundant element in the
universe is hydrogen… followed by helium.

U-235 is “fissionable” which means it can be split when

bombarded by neutrons.
235 1 141 92 1
92 U + 0 n → 56 Ba + 36Kr + 30 n + energy
The fact that each splitting nucleus can emit neutrons that
26 • Nuclear Chemistry can split other nuclei is the basis for the “chain reaction.”
Fission and Fusion Reactions “Breeder reactors” use different isotopes. See page 774.
(10 of 12)
Fusion in the Sun involves several steps that can be
1 4 0
summed up as: 4(1 H) → 2He + 21 e + energy
Thermonuclear devices use isotopes of hydrogen
2 4 1
(deuterium and tritium): 1 H + 31 H → 2 He + 0 n + energy

Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2 , is the basis for

explaining where the energy associated with nuclear changes
comes from.
When a nuclear change occurs, the mass of the products is
26 • Nuclear Chemistry slightly less than the mass of the reactants. This loss in mass
Energy–Mass Conversions is called the mass defect.
(11 of 12)
E = the energy
m = the mass defect
c = the speed of light, 3.00 x 108 m/s
As stated in your text, 1 kg of mass converted into energy
would be equivalent to burning 3 billion kg of coal!

During beta decay,

1 neutron changes into 1 proton + 1 negative beta particle
(The atomic # increases by one due to the new proton. The
mass # is unchanged… a neutron is gone. To maintain
26 • Nuclear Chemistry electrical neurtality, a negative beta particle is also formed.)
What Happens During 235 0 235
Example: 92 U → –1 e + 93 Np
Beta and Positron Decay
(12 of 12) During positron decay,
1 proton changes into 1 neutron + 1 positron particle
(The atomic # decreases by one due to the loss of a proton.
Since it changed into a neutron, the mass # is unchanged.)
235 0 235
Example: 92 U → +1 e + 91 Pa