Principals systems of a Boing 747 plus

Laura Correa, Diego Duran, Pablo Garzón & Leonardo Hoya.

October 2018.

Universidad de San Buenaventura.

Bogotá DC.

Aircraft systems
 Principals systems of a Boing 747 plus

INTRODUCTION

The electrical, pneumatic, fuel and hydraulic systems are the main systems that make up

the operation of the aircraft. In a new model of the 747 aircraft will appear as hydraulic

system, followed by the pneumatic system to then pass the electrical system, ending with

the fuel system.

For each system the regulations and the different alternatives that are taken in case of

emergency are shown

Description of each system

Hyidraulic System

Is the development the hydraulic system is used as source power in the addition of mechanical

into the aircraft, as for example: Primary and Second control flight, Landing gear in the

system for the extension/retraction, braking and anti-skid systems. For excellent the

hydraulic system has been the method more effective where the pilots can transmitter power

with relation low of power/weight. But something systems are changed for electrics

components in the modern aircraft. These components electrics has a limitation where its

power of operation normally of an electric motor is not high of 3 kW. Commented [HAPP1]: References

For other side, the implementation of something component during the design of a system Commented [HAPP2]: grammar

always has in consideration factors as:

1. Low weight.

2. Low volume.

3. Low cost.
 4. High reliability.

5. Low maintenance.

This factor are completes in each one of the components that integrate with small diameters

in the pipes and tis flexibility of installation and using of lubricants for transmitting of loads

in the actuators that helping to the lubrication of the system and resister overload into of the

limits structural strength and with the introduction of microprocessors has been a tool for the

monitoring and performance of the system with the control of function, as also the arrived of

smart valves and pumps.

Pneumatic System

the pneumatic system is composed of a closing valve that in case of emergency will

be closed to avoid damage to passengers and crew, will have a diaphragm valve

which will be able to provide the necessary pressure for the comfort and welfare of

passengers and the crew, when leaving the pressurized air takes a high temperature

for this it is necessary to use a heat exchanger of opposite flow being this the most

efficient to achieve the desired temperature, it will have a particulate retention filter

to avoid the passage of bacteria and viruses that can enter, said air comes ready to

enter a process of mixing with the air that is in the cabin recirculating constantly
Electrical System

Electric power is necessary for the operation of many systems and instruments of an

aircraft such as: engine start, radios, lights, navigation instruments, and other

services that need this energy for its operation (fuel pump, high-lift surfaces among

others).

To provide the necessary energy to the electrical system, three fundamental

elements are used: the alternator, generator and the battery.

The generation, regulation and distribution of the electric power necessary to cover

all the existing needs on board the plane.

It is important to highlight the great dependence that today's airplanes have on the

power supply, since there are many elements of the plane that need electricity for its

proper functioning, as in the case of the "Boeing 747 Plus".

This system is an essential system in the plane as it serves to guarantee the flight

and its safety, it also provides services to passengers such as: lighting, entertainment

systems, cabin comfort among others. Graph of the electrical system:

Commented [HAPP3]: Spanish????

https://steemitimages.com/0x0/http://i.imgur.com/e0zWTOw.jpg
 Fuel System

The fuel system is responsible for storing the fuel, delivering the precise amount of

fuel and the correct pressure to the engine. The components of the fuel system allow

it to fulfill its function. In this case, the number of tanks allows fuel storage to be

affected.

The fuel is transferred between the tanks of the aircraft in order to maintain the

center of gravity of the aircraft while it is in flight. The supply and control of fuel is

managed by the different components of the fuel system.

When trying to improve the performance of the aircraft, an ideal location for fuel

tanks is sought, in addition to the reduction of components that allow to reduce

weight and fuel pressure losses when arriving at the injector.

Diagram of each system

Pneumatic System
Electrical System

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Fuel System
 Hydraulic system

Regulation

The regulation for the hydraulic system is present in the FAR 25.671 and FAR 25.735 where

mentions the following requirements:

FAR 25.671

a. A warning which is clearly distinguishable to the pilot under expected flight

conditions without requiring his attention must be provided for any failure in the

stability augmentation system or in any other automatic or power-operated system

which could result in an unsafe condition if the pilot were not aware of the failure.

b. The design of the stability augmentation system or of any other automatic or power-

operated system must permit initial counteraction of failures of the type specified in

25.671 © without requiring exceptional pilot skill or strength, by either the

deactivation of the system, or failed portion thereof, or by overriding the failure by

movement of the flight controls in the normal sense.

c. The airplane is safely controllable when the failure or malfunction occurs at any

speed or altitude within the approved operating limitations that is critical for the

type of failure being considered.

FAR 25.735
The brake system, associated system and components must be designed and constructed so

that:

a. If any hydraulic transmitting element fails, or if any single source of hydraulic is lost,

it is possible to bring the airplane to rest with a braked roll stopping distance of not

more than two times that obtained in determining the landing distance as prescribed

in 25.125.

b. Fluid lost from a brake hydraulic system following a failure in, or near, the brakes is

insufficient to cause or support a hazardous fire on the ground or in flight.

Brake control must be designed and constructed so that:

 Excessive control force is not required for their operation. Commented [HAPP4]: In your own words

Stakeholders

System development
In the aviation actual, the hydraulic power is used for differents sub-systems that help to the

functionally correct in the operating aircraft. For starting the design of a new system, the

designer must know function that is design the system and the importance that has in the

operation normal in flight. All aircraft are governed with the same principe for the flight

control, where el the motion is defined in relation to translation and rotation around of the

axes this it allows that the aircraft moving in the space.

The flight controls are organized in two categories: Primary flight control, Secondary flight

control and Utilities.

Primary Flight Control:

This is defined for the motion of the aircraft in pitch, roll and yaw is provided by the follow

control surfaces:

Pitch control is provided by the moving for canards surface (military aircraft) and Elevators.

Roll control is provided by the flaperons and ailerons.

Yaw control is provided by the rudder.

In the Figure 3 to show the located each of this control surface.

Secondary Flight Control:

Are the sections that complete the operating of an aircraft in its flight profile, these are

presents in the Figure 3.

 Commented [HAPP5]: References

Something demands of the hydraulic system will be to move from one position to another. It

can be discrete or bang-bang and all contribute the way of the demand of the required

hydraulic power in the moving of something flight control. These parameters are the

following:

 Pressure

 Integrity

 Flow rate

 Duty cycle

 Emergency or reversionary

 Heat load and dissipation

Something of this requirements or parameters need to be quantified for complete functionally

of the system with the analysis of these parameters help to determine the number of

component necessary where are includes:

1. A source of energy à Engine, APU or RAT.

 2. A reservoir.

3. A filter to maintain clean hydraulic fluid.

4. Multiples redundants in the distribution system.

5. Components of distribution à Pipes, valves, shut-off cocks.

6. Mechanism for hydraulic oil cooling.

7. Actuators, pumps and motor for solving the demand.

8. Accumulator (Storing energy).

Component Description Imagen

Actuator Hydraulic component that

transmits movement and

fluid power mechanically.

Hydraulic Fluid Element of transmition of

power in liquid state.

Pipe Connection Element.

Duct help to the pass of the

hydraulic fluid to each

component of the system.

 The pipe can be flexible or

rigid.

Pumps Mechanical element that is

accompanied by an electric

motor which delivers a

nominal pressure to the

system helping the

circulation of the fluid

Reservoir Hydraulic fluid storage

element.

Accumulator Element that is responsible

for maintaining a nominal

pressure in the system.

Filter They prevent the passage of

solid substances or

impurities throughout the

system.

Its symbol is:

 Packaging Seal located between the Formatted: Highlight

mechanical joints for the

presence of fluid leaks along

the system

Valve Mechanical element

operated manually or

automatically by an

electrical signal its function

is to organize the passage of

fluid through the pipes

System Equations

For the analysis of the hydraulic system and of its components are present the mathematics

model following:

Power of a Pumps:
 Derived Requirements

Source of power for the functionally of the pumps that drives the fluid into of the pipes are

three. This function during the operation, also when the aircraft is in ground:

1. Engine (4 of the Boeing 747).

2. Auxiliary Power Unit.

3. Ground Power Unit.

In the Figure 4 show the distribution of the source inside of the aircraft as also the line

distribution of each one.

Figure 4. Source of energy and Distribution Lines of the Hydraulic fluids.
 Pneumatic system

Regulation

The pneumatic system is regulated by the federal aviation regulations, especially FAR 25,

which refers to the airworthiness standards for transport category airplanes. Sections 1438,

1043, which refer to the different tests, can be based on this regulation. that must pass the

different pieces that make up some type of pressurized system with air as for example the

maximum pressure used in said system must be 2.0 times less than the maximum resisted by

the material.

The pneumatic system is also mentioned in the ATA listing which is an organizational form

of the different components. The ATA 36 refers to the pneumatic system as an integrated air

activated system of swivel accusers or motors that provide thrust. It becomes an element

compound and in this way mechanical strength is obtained. The air is collected in a

compressor and then forced through the lines to the different users.

The Colombian aeronautical regulation RAC section IV, chapter II and chapter V refers to

the extended range operation monitoring procedures where the pneumatic system is

considered critical for flight safety.

Stakeholders
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System development
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Design of a pneumatic system for theBoeing 747 aircraft, which supplies the necessary Formatted ...
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amount of air to the entire airconditioning system, pressurization, etc. Using stage 6 of the Formatted ...
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compressor using alower temperature than usually used.
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Specific objective
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of the environmental control system.
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- Acquisition of air at a lower temperature that allows the length reduction of the heat

exchanger.

System synthesis

Design 1

In this first design, the air from stage 6 of the high compressor located in the jet engines of

the aircraft will be collected, followed by a shut-off valve with a temperature sensor, which

will close in the event that the engine fails and undergoes an incineration so that highly

contaminated air does not enter the cabin and different sections of the aircraft, then a

diaphragm pump will be placed to provide pressure to the air flow necessary for optimal

pressurization for comfort and well-being of passengers and crew, later a tube heat exchanger

and counter flow will be collected to obtain a higher heat transfer efficiency, then a High

Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) particle retention filter will be placed to clean the

impurities with which it could enter flow, followed by the bleeding of the engine a non-return

valve will be placed to avoid the pressure loss found in advance in the cabin.

Design 2

This second design will collect air from the 6th stage of the high compressor located in the

jet engines of the aircraft, after this an alternative plunger pump will be placed to add pressure

to the flow, followed by this a heat exchanger will be placed cross flow to carry out a heat

transfer and reach an adequate and comfortable temperature for passengers and crew, then a

High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) particle retention filter will be placed to clean the

impurities with which it could enter flow, in Next, a pressure control valve will be placed so
that there is no back flow that could interfere with our process of introducing the new air that

will be mixed later with the air that is recirculated inside the different parts of the cabin.

System Analysis

Design 1

This design will collect air from the bleeding of the 6th stage of the compressor of the jet

engine of the aircraft, it will have an impurity detection system that what it will achieve by

means of a shut-off valve will prevent the passengers and the crew from seeing each other

Mainly affected in the event of the incineration of an engine, there will be a diaphragm valve

that provides a greater pressure to the fluid that will be the same pressurization that the cabin

will get later, will have an opposite flow exchanger which will allow a greater efficiency in

the transfer of heat from the fluid.

Design 2

This design will collect the air from the engine bleeding exactly from the 6th stage of the

engine compressor, the flow will go directly to the alternative plunger pump which may

reflect an increase in weight of the aircraft since it is much more robust, It will require a

greater number of preventive maintenance since it is required to be synchronized so as not to

have any type of loss, it will have a cross flow heat exchanger and a pressure control valve

to keep the cabin pressurization.

System Selection

The most suitable design between these two alternatives is the first since it contains a shut-

off valve that will prevent high impurities from entering in case of emergency that could

cause physical damage to passengers and crew, as well as having a slightly less robust pump.
And that requires less maintenance processes; also this has parts that can be easily

replaceable.

System development and Current engineering Commented [HAPP6]: Not required

Components

COMPONENT SYMBOL OR PICTURE CHARACTERISTIC

Shut-off Valves A valve designed for and

capable of positive closure

to prevent flow within a

piping system.
 Sensor responsible for the

measurement of incoming

particles to the pneumatic

system

Flexible Pipes Connection Element.

Intercooler is responsible for cooling the

compressed air by the

turbocharger

Pump Pressure increase is made by

the push of elastic walls that

vary the volume of the

chamber, increasing it and

decreasing it alternately

Filters reduce the spread of

pathogens through

recirculate air

Equations

Meanwhile, the air is in the ground, it is not used, the pressurization system, the air, the

pressure, it is seen, it is reached, the cabin, the pressure, the atmosphere, the 14.7 psi, the
speed of the account with a cruising speed of 917 km / h that is to say approximately Mach

0.855 the air of the compressor is extracted approximately to 200 degrees Celsius and a

pressure of 5psi obtaining this data it is possible to calculate the temperature and the initial

flow of the flow that will be used.

the heat exchanger must be powerful enough to go from 200 degrees to 18 which is the

temperature at which the cabin is entered, since it is the most comfortable for the passengers

without affecting any system of the aircraft. Commented [HAPP7]: Results?

Derived requirements
Architecture system
 ELECTRIC SYSTEM

Regulation

Below are some of the most relevant and important rules that the elements of the aircraft's

electrical system:

MIL‐STD‐704E–“Aircraft electric power characteristics”.

MIL‐E‐7016F–“Analysis of Aircraft Electric Load and Power Source Capacity”.

MIL‐STD‐810C–“Enviromental test methods and engineering guidelines”.

MIL‐W‐5088L–“Wiring. Aerospace vehicle”

ISO 1540–“Aerospace – Characteristics of Aircraft electrical system”.

MIL‐STD‐1757A – “Lightning Qualification Test Techniques For Aerospace Vehicles

And Hardware”.

FAR 25

The Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 25, states some important conditions for electrical

system (FAR 25 C.F.R. § 25.1353 Electrical equipment and installation), (Federal Aviation

Administration, 2008):

(FAR 25 C.F.R. §25.1357 Circuit protective devices),(Federal Aviation Administration,

2008):

Every single electrical circuit in the aircraft must have the capacity of keep operating

inclusive in abnormal operation or in case of an incident or an accident. So that, this section

establishes the essential requirements that the aircraft (Boeing 787-400 in this case) must to

achieve:

A) Automatic protective devices must be used to minimize distress to the electrical system

and hazard to the airplane.

B) The protective and control devices must be designed to de-energize and

(FAR 25 C.F.R.§25.1363 Electrical system tests.),(Federal Aviation Administration, 2008):

Also, all the designs of the electrical system must pass some tests that indicates what design

is the most appropriate and satisfy the regulations. Bellow, are exposed the tips of how the

test must be made:

• The tests must be performed on a mock-up using the same generating equipment used in

the airplane.

• The equipment must simulate the electrical characteristics of the distribution wiring and

connected loads.

The different aspects of electrical systems in aircraft make constant reference to the

international standards (standards) such as: SAE-ARP-AS-AMS, EUROCAE, RTCA, ISO,

MIL-STD, among others.

Stakeholders

Electric power is necessary for the operation of many systems and instruments of an aircraft

such as: engine start, radios, lights, navigation instruments, and other services that need this

energy for its operation (fuel pump, high-lift surfaces among others).
To provide the necessary energy to the electrical system, three fundamental elements are

used: the alternator, generator and the battery. Formatted: Highlight

The generation, regulation and distribution of the electric power necessary to cover all the

existing needs on board the plane.

It is important to highlight the great dependence that today's airplanes have on the power

supply, since there are many elements of the plane that need electricity for its proper

functioning, as in the case of the "Boeing 747 Plus".

This system is an essential system in the plane as it serves to guarantee the flight and its

safety, it also provides services to passengers such as: lighting, entertainment systems,

cabin comfort among others. Graph of the electrical system:

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System development

 Problem definition

it is necessary to design the electrical system for the aircraft "boeing 747 plus" taking into

account all its components and the integration with the other aircraft systems, complying
with the regulations stipulated by the regulatory bodies, achieving an efficient, safe and

reliable system.

For this, the different elements that make up the electrical system of a commercial airplane

are exposed, including the different electric power generation and distribution systems, for

this we will rely on the regulations and the requirements demanded by the "Boeing 747

plus". Where it is observed that more and more the airplanes depend in greater part on the

electrical system.

 Choice of objectives

General:

Design the electrical system of an aircraft

Specific:

Implement an emergency system

Integrate the electrical system with the other systems

Make an efficient, reliable and resilient system

 Systems synthesis, systems analysis and alternatives

The synthesis of a system consists in the creation of possible alternative systems to

accomplish the objectives previously presented. Two possible solutions will be described.
Option 1:

The first option consists of adding to the system a “RAT” :is a small wind turbine that is Formatted: Highlight
Formatted: Highlight
connected to a hydraulic pump, or electrical generator, installed in an aircraft and used as a Formatted: Highlight
Formatted: Highlight
power source. The RAT generates power from the airstream by ram pressure due to the
Formatted: Highlight
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speed of the aircraft. this allows us to obtain a system in case of emergency which provides
Formatted: Highlight
us with electric power for the minimum operation of the aircraft while it manages to land, Formatted: Highlight
Formatted: Highlight
although this turbine produces drag is a very efficient emergency technique. Formatted: Highlight
Formatted: Highlight

Option 2:

From the initial system of two generators, add two more to provide more energy. This gives

us the benefit of being able to have redundancy but at the same time it generates more

weight and more fuel consumption, causing greater resistance in the structure to support

them.

 System development

The system that we develop to meet the required needs for power generation,

transformation and power distribution. For this, the generation is carried out by different

units installed in the airplane such as the main generators, the auxiliary generation GPU

("Ground Power Unit") systems for ground power service and APU ("Auxiliary Power

Unit") or auxiliary power unit that can be used both on land and in flight, the emergency

generators are responsible for supplying power in case of failure of the main and auxiliary

systems.
The batteries can also be included in the generation system since they allow the storage of

energy that can be used in the event of a total failure of the electrical system in which all

the main, auxiliary or emergency generation systems are inoperative.

Due to the great variety of equipment on board the "Boening 747 plus" and which in many

cases do not work at the same voltage level as that supplied by the main generation sources,

it is necessary to have the transformation and conversion units (rectifier transformers,

investor, among others) that are responsible for adapting the voltage to that required by the Formatted: Highlight

loads.

On the other hand, the distribution system can be divided into two blocks, the primary

distribution and the secondary distribution, both have the necessary equipment for

distribution as busbars, protection devices (circuit breaker fuses ), switching elements loads

(contactors and relays) and conductors. The primary distribution constitutes the first link

between the generation system and the rest of the electrical system, including some high

consumption loads that are fed in alternating current.

The secondary distribution consists of alternating current and DC circuits fed from different

distribution bars, these bars receive energy directly from the primary distribution bars or

through the transformation and conversion units.

Components

Battery.
The battery or accumulator, as its name suggests, transforms and stores the electrical

energy in a chemical form. This stored energy is used to start the engine, and as a limited

reserve source for use in the event of failure of the alternator or generator.

No matter how powerful a battery is, its capacity is notoriously insufficient to satisfy the

energy demand of the aircraft's systems and instruments, which would discharge it quickly.

To alleviate this insufficiency, the aircraft are equipped with generators or alternators.

Generator / Alternator.

Moved by the rotation of the motor, they provide electrical power to the system and

maintain the charge of the battery. There are basic differences between generators and

alternators.
With the engine at low speed, many generators do not produce enough energy to maintain

the electrical system; for this reason, with the little revolutionized engine the system is fed

by the battery, which in a short time can be discharged. An alternator, on the other hand,

produces enough current and very constant at different speeds. Other advantages of the

alternators: they are lighter in weight, less expensive to maintain and less prone to suffer

overloads.

Alternator

The electrical system of the plane is thus powered by two sources of energy: the battery and

the generator / alternator. The battery is used exclusively (except emergencies) to start the

engine; once started, it is the alternator that goes to power the electrical system.
The output voltage of the generator / alternator is slightly higher than that of the battery.

For example, a 12-volt battery. it is usually powered by a generator / alternator of 14 volts.

or a 24 volt battery. it is powered by a 28 volt generator / alternator. This difference in

voltage keeps the battery charged, with a regulator controlling and stabilizing the output of

the generator / alternator to the battery.

Ammeter.

It is the instrument used to monitor the performance of the electrical system. In some

aircraft the ammeter is analog, in others it is digital, others do not have an ammeter but

instead have a light indicator that indicates an anomalous operation of the alternator or

generator, and in others this detector complements the ammeter.

The ammeter shows if the alternator / generator is providing an adequate amount of energy

to the electrical system, measuring amps. This instrument also indicates whether the battery

is receiving sufficient electrical charge.

A positive value in the ammeter indicates that the generator / alternator is contributing

electrical charge to the system and the battery. A negative value indicates that the alternator

/ generator contributes nothing and the system is being fed from the battery. If the indicator

fluctuates rapidly it indicates a malfunction of the alternator / generator.

Fuses and circuit breakers.

The electrical equipment is protected from electrical overloads by means of fuses or

breakers (circuit breakers). Breakers do the same function as fuses, with the advantage that

they can be restored manually instead of having to be replaced. The breakers have a button

shape, which jumps out when subjected to an overload; the pilot only has to press on the

breaker ("button") to restore it again.

APU

The auxiliary power unit APU is an autonomous gas turbine engine that operates on the

ground and in flight and whose main function is to supply, if necessary, electric and

pneumatic support or emergency power. The supply of pneumatic and electric power is

possible simultaneously or independently.

In no case the function of the APU will be to propel the aircraft, but it is reserved for tasks

such as: starting engines, supplying electric power and pneumatics with the main engines

turned off and providing energy during the flight in cases of emergency such as the loss of

power in some of the main engines, that is, acting as a backup system. The power unit is

usually installed in the tail of the plane so that the combustion gases generated are

evacuated.
GCU

The GCU is a device in charge of the protection and control of the operation of the

generation equipment, a GCU is installed for each alternator and its basic functions are:

regulation, protection and control, signaling and failure registration.

GPU

The airplanes when they are parked in the airport with the stopped motors need energy for

their correct maintenance and tuning, as it has been indicated previously this demand of

energy can replace the APU, although the consumption of fuel and the environmental and

acoustic contamination What it produces makes its use only necessary when the airport

does not have ground power systems GPU ("Ground Power Unit").

The ground systems to provide three-phase electrical power 115/200 V at 400 Hz are

diverse and can be classified into fixed installations and mobile devices. Sometimes it may

also be necessary to use DC power at 28 V, in these cases the voltage level is achieved by

connecting batteries or by processing the alternating signal.

TRU

The feeding in direct current of many loads makes necessary the use of devices able to

rectify the signal of alternating current generated in the main alternators, for it they use the

denominated units of transformation and rectification TRU ("Transformer Rectifier Unit").

These units are responsible for converting the alternating signal from 115 V to 28 V in

direct current, normally the TRU installed in the airplanes are not regulated so their output

voltage can vary depending on the loads connected, this type of units have the advantage of

being simpler and lighter in addition to more efficient but on the contrary the ripple of

signal output is greater and can influence for example the recharge of batteries making it

necessary to incorporate a charger to regulate the recharge and maintain a constant voltage.
Investors

The inverters are devices responsible for converting the direct current from batteries into

alternating current at the frequency of 400 Hz.

These equipment can be of one phase or multiphase with the advantage of the latter being

lighter for the same power but with the associated problems of distribution and load

balance. They work with an input voltage level of 26-29 Vdc and are capable of delivering

more than one voltage signal; for example, 26 Vac in one channel and 115 Vac in the other.
Fuses

Fuses are thermal protection devices formed by a wire or sheet of conductive material

(copper, zinc or silver alloy) encapsulated that melts when its temperature increases due to

the presence of short circuits or overloads. In this way it protects the conductors and the

loads associated with that circuit.

This plane uses fuses of two types:

 Cartridge fuses: formed by a glass tube or ceramic body, two conductive terminals

and a fusible element (sheet or wire) of conductive material.

 Fuses of high capacity of rupture or slow: they are destined to its installation in

points of the network of distribution of energy, for example in the interconnection

of bars of distribution. They are installed by means of mounting brackets and bolts
 and are characterized by being more precise than the previous ones since they are

not affected by a momentary flow of intensity greater than that which have been

calibrated, they also do not produce flame when melted and are not affected for the

ambient temperature.

Wire

Equations

ELA(electrical load analysis)

Medium power
Medium Q

Apparent power

Distortion

Power factor
Derived requirements

For the electrical system, the designer must consider the multiple integrations between

systems, subsystems and components (Derived Requirements). The following table shows

the requirements:
Architecture system

Integration system

E=Electrical En=entertaiment
P=pneumatic H=hydraulic

F=flight control Em=emergency

Fu=fuel

A=avionic

EN=engines

S=structure

Integration Component Image

E-S-En-Em APU

E-S-A-En-Em BATTERIES

E-P-EN PIPES-APU
E-H EH PUMPS

E-F-Fu TRANSFER PUMS

E-A-F POSITION SENSORS

E-A-P PRESSURE SENSORS

E-S-EN GENERATOR
E-A-En-Em Temperature and Level

sensors

E-A-Fu Zener diode

E-Fu-EN INYECTOR SENSORS

E-A WIRE
E-Em-A Lights

E-A-En Displays

E-A-F Displays in cockpit

 Fuel system

Regulation

The fuel system is regulated for FAR 25 section 951 to 1001. In this case is the regulation

for a airplane of transport category.

Each fuel system must be constructed and arranged to ensure a flow of fuel at a rate and

pressure established for proper engine and auxiliary power unit functioning under each

likely operating condition.

Multiengine aircraft must have a fuel system configuration where a failure of a component

doesn’t stop more than one engine.

Proper fuel system functioning under all probable operating conditions must be shown by

analysis and those tests found necessary by the Administrator. Tests, if required, must be

made using the airplane fuel system or a test article that reproduces the operating

characteristics of the portion of the fuel system to be tested.

The fuel system must be designed to prevent the ignition of fuel vapor by lightning strikes.

The fuel system must be free from vapor lock when using fuel at its critical temperature.

Allowing the supply of fuel to each engine through a system independent of each part of the

system supplying fuel to any other engine.

If fuel can be pumped from one tank to another in flight, the fuel tank vents and the fuel

transfer system must be designed so that no structural damage to the tanks can occur

because of overfilling.
Each fuel tank must be able to withstand, without failure, the vibration, inertia, fluid, and

structural loads that it may be subjected to in operation.

For pressurized fuel tanks, a means with fail-safe features must be provided to prevent the

buildup of an excessive pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the tank

It must be shown by tests that the fuel tanks, as mounted in the airplane, can withstand,

without failure or leakage, the more critical of the pressures resulting from the conditions

specified

An internal pressure of 3.5 psi

Each fuel tank filler connection must prevent the entrance of fuel into any part of the

airplane other than the tank itself

An automatic shutoff means must be provided to prevent the quantity of fuel in each tank

from exceeding the maximum quantity approved for that tank

5.2 Stakeholdes
5.3 Systems Development

5.3.1 Problem definition

Obtain the design of a fuel system for the B747 aircraft, permitting operation of four motors

simultaneously and individual performance, by controlling the supply delivered to power

supplies, storage conditions of the fuel in the aircraft and the transfer of fuel between the

different tanks located in the aircraft, being mostly automatic.

5.3.2 Choice of objectives

General objetiveobjective

Obtain a Fuel System for aircraft B747 that is lighter than the current one and is capable of

supplying the fluid to the four engines simultaneously and individually.

Specific objectives

Obtain a controlled operation in the supply delivered to the combustion chamber for the

generation of combustion.

Maintain a controlled balance, allowing the proper movement of fuel between the tanks.

Set a storage system which controls fuel conditions.

5.3.3 Systems systhesissynthesis

Design 1

The fuel system has two tanks located in the fuselage, the main tank will be in the

separation of the wings, the backup tank will be in the tail of the aircraft; This distribution

will allow to control the balance of the aircraft that will be controlled by a valve program to
allow the passage of a certain amount of fuel every determined time from the backup tank

to the main tank. The main tank will have four fuel outlet pipes, each outlet pipe will be

directed to one of the engines, valves will be located in the pipe to control the amount of

fuel delivered to each engine and prevent the return of the engine. fluid to the tank. The fuel

ejected from the main tank will be filtered to avoid improper particles in the combustion

process.

Design 2

The fuel system has three tanks located in the fuselage and the root of each wing, the main

one will be in the tail of the aircraft while the two distribution tanks will be located in the

root of each wing; This distribution will allow to control the balance of the aircraft that will

be controlled by two valves programmed to allow the passage of a certain amount of fuel

every determined time from the main tank to the two distribution tanks. Each distribution

tank will have two fuel outlet pipes, each outlet pipe will be directed to one of the engines,

valves will be located in the pipe to control the amount of fuel delivered to each engine.

The fuel ejected from the main tank will be filtered to avoid improper particles in the

combustion process.

5.3.4 Systems analysis

Design 1

This design allows to store the fuel in the tanks in such a way that from the beginning of the

flight it is feasible to fly without inconvenience, since the greater amount of fuel will be

found in the main tank; the weight of the fuel contributes to maintain the center of gravity

of the aircraft and when falling the greater amount of weight very near the center of gravity
it will allow that the cost of each flight is smaller. The cost of each flight decreases because

the surfaces generate less effort to maintain balance, this decrease in effort allows other

systems to consume less energy allowing lower costs of flights made by the Boeing 747.

Design 2

This design allows to store the fuel in the tanks in such a way that the supply of the fuel is

functional for the operation. It is a design that for faults could generate greater viability,

since the supply of fuel is made from different tanks; this distribution allows to close the

supply from the tank which allows to fly with two operating engines, allowing control of

the aircraft in case of fire in an engine. The distribution of the tanks produces that the lifting

surfaces generate a greater effort in flight because the greater amount of fuel relapses in the

tail of the aircraft what produces a control of center of gravity of greater difficulty.

5.3.5 System selection

The most suitable system for a transport aircraft is the first design.

The first design generates a handling of center of gravity of greater controllability, which

allows a greater stability in flight granting a calmer flight for the pilots. The effort made by

the support surfaces different to the wing is smaller since the center of gravity will be more

controllable than in design two. In the design two the weight of the fuel falls on the tail of

the aircraft generating the center is close to the rear balance limit for the aircraft.

The distribution of fuel to the engines is adequate and allows the failure of an engine cut

the fuel supply to it, allowing a controllable operation with the other engines.
5.3.6 System development
5.3.7 Current engineering
5.4 Describe the components operational and characteristics

The following table are the main components for the fuel system and its characteristics of

operation:

Component Symbol or Picture Characteristic

Collector Tank Gathers The fuel
coming from two
principal tanks and
central tank send to the
engines.
Central Tank Element storage fuel
located in the fuselage.
Principal Tank Element storage fuel
located on the wings.
Flexible Pipes Connection Element.

Check Valves Type of valve that

allows the fluid to go in
one direction but closes
when the flow tries to
go in the opposite
direction.
Shut-off Valves Prevent fuel transfer
from one tank to
another.
Stemming the flow of
fuel to an engine.
Two-step valve,
powered by electrical
signal.
Solenoid Valves The fuel management
system has the
control over the
operation of the fuel
refueling valve.
Vent Valves To vent the aircraft fuel
tanks during refueling.

To keep a pressure
stable in the tank.

Filters They prevent the

passage of solid
substances or
impurities throughout
the system.
Booster Pump Is used for feeing the Formatted: Highlight
engine, also for prevent
cavitation and aeration
in the lines of fuel.
In the design employ
for regular the pressure Formatted: Highlight
intro of the fuel lines. Formatted: Highlight
Transfer Pump Pump send fuel of the
tanks (principals and
central) to the collector
tanks.
Electric Motor Ac Change electrical
energy of a source AC
to mechanical energy Formatted: Highlight
towards the hydraulic
pump.

Zener Diode Element of measure

that is in the inside of
tanks for get a value of
the level of fuel.
It is usually used in the
general aviation by
precision and
reliability.
5.5 Pressure of injector

the pressure in the injector can be determined by the Bernoulli equations starting from the

maximum pressure in the fuel tanks. Losses of pressure are taken into account from the loss

by accessories, taking into account the constant of loss of each of the valves.

5.6 Derived requirements

5.7 System architecture
Emergency system

Emergency of each system

Hydraulic System

In an emergency in the failure of one of the motors there will be the closing of the

valves that connect the transmission of the fluid along the pipeline as shown in Figure 4.

Parallel to that will be replaced with the second line of distribution connected to the actuators

distributed throughout the aircraft for the flight control surfaces. In each of the sections of

the flight controls and other elements such as the landing gear have 2 redundancies of the

circuit for normal operation. In Figure a simplified scheme of the hydraulic circuit is Commented [HAPP8]: To simplified
Formatted: Highlight
presented. Formatted: Highlight
 Pneumatic System

In case of emergency or failure in the automatic system, in the case of being expelled

masks, in the upper part of each one, in which there will be an air retention bag and a mask

that will provide the necessary air to that all passengers can breathe correctly approximately

40 minutes; the crew will have some oxygen tanks (air pipettes) in the lower part of the seat Formatted: Highlight

each with their respective mask which will provide oxygen for approximately 1 hour.

In case the pneumatic system took the route to the nearest runway to avoid some type of

accident of the aircraft.

Electrical System

In the electrical system, the most critical case would be the simultaneous loss of the main

engines and the APU in flight, leaving the main alternators and sources of electrical

generation of the aircraft out of service. In the event that this situation arises, the aircraft

has the following elements to generate power and achieve an emergency landing.

♦ RAT (Ram Air Turbine). Air impact turbine. Commented [HAPP9]: Batteries??
Formatted: Highlight
♦ Backup or Backup Generators. Formatted: Highlight

These devices are of such great importance that they alone are capable of saving lives.

 Air impact turbine RAT

The air impact turbine or RAT is used to generate power when all the motors and the APU

auxiliary power unit have failed and their generators are inoperative, it is formed by an air

turbine housed inside the fuselage of the aircraft normally in the belly of the plane near the

rear landing gear, on the nose of the aircraft or under the wings. In case of a total loss of
power in the main alternating current bars the turbine is deployed automatically, although it

can be deployed manually through a push button located in the cabin panel. The period

between the total loss of power and the deployment of the turbine (usually not usually more

than 8 seconds) is covered by the energy supplied by the batteries.

The speed of the plane in the air makes the turbine turn and move the pump that provides

hydraulic energy, this energy can be used to power some hydraulic circuit of the plane and

also to provide power to the hydraulic motor responsible for moving the emergency electric

generator. To ensure that the output voltage of the generator is 115/200 Vca and 400 Hz,

the RAT has a control unit responsible for regulating the output voltage of the generator

through an electrohydraulic servo valve that is responsible for controlling the flow or the

pressure of the fluid towards the hydraulic motor to achieve that the movement of this is

linear.

Some of the advantages that the RATs have over other emergency or backup devices are:
They do not require fuel to generate energy.

 Unlimited duration in power generation.

 Low maintenance cost.

 High degree of readiness and operability.

With all these qualities the air turbine is the most efficient method of providing power to

the aircraft in case of emergency.

 Backup or backup generators

This system of emergency power generation is developed from the entry into force of the

ETOPS regulation that applies to twin-engine aircraft that cover long routes or these are

through environments such as deserts or oceans where the nearest airport is located. to

hundreds of kilometers.

The backup generators are driven by the main engines and are mounted on the same fairing,

but are completely independent of the primary alternators, that is, their drive shaft is

different but share the same gearbox. If the main alternators or the APU are not operational

due to a fault, the backup generators are responsible for supplying power to the vital loads

of the system.
 These generators are of variable frequency which depends on the speed of rotation

of the primary motors, so it is necessary to treat the signal generated by a converter that

rectifies the signal to provide a three phase output 115 / 200V at 400 Hz.

Fuel System

Engine feed: The engine feed is the system that is in charge to manage the fuel and decide

where to move it in flight

Collector tank: The collector tank is in charge to feed the engine, if it fails, the system have

the obligation to feed directly the engine but it remove the option of trim the aircraft

distribution the weight along the aircraft in flight.

Fuel booster pump: the booster pump is in charge to release the fuel inside the engine or to

feed the devices that have to spry it into the combuster chamber
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