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Manual Practico Del Juicio Oral Cristal Gonzalez Obregon
Manual Practico Del Juicio Oral Cristal Gonzalez Obregon
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
RECONSTRUCTION
Topic 862 of the Traffic Accident Investigation Manual
by
Lynn B. Fricke
and
J. Stannard Baker
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . .. 3
2. Definition of Friction .............................. 3
3. Basic Assumptions for Friction ...•......•..•......... 4
4. Definition of Drag Factor ........................... 7
5. Friction Circle ................................... 8
6. Drag Factor/Friction Coefficient for an
Actual Accident .....................•............ 9
7. Velocity Equations for Skidding ...................... 13
8. Speed Estimates from Irregular
Skidmarks ...............•...................... 20
9. Drag Factors After a Collision .••.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
10. Vehicle Center of Mass Location ...........•.......... 35
11. Other Acceleration Values .......................... 37
12. Summary ...............•....................... 37
13. Sources ......................................... 38
62-3
wheel is generally very short. Hard br~king tests done using
a Ford LTD at 40 milhr on a tar and gravel-chip pavement'
gave a delay of 0.12 sec for the first wheel to lock from the
time the brakes were first applied. Reed 2 suggests that wheel
lockup could take slightly longer (in the neighborhood of 0.5
secs). Nevertheless, the amount of time that static friction
could be considered is very short as 'compared to the total
time a vehicle is 'normally skidding. Thus, fi.x accident recon-
struction purposes, there is little reason to be concerned with
static friction. If you have a case with a vehicle equipped with
air brakes, there may be a much greater delay in wheel lockup ,
from the time brakes were first applied. For a !TIore thorough
discussion of heavy-truck braking, see Topic 878.
62-4
For passenger cars the friction force (with locked wheels force on the tire is developed by the road. When this force
and similar tires) that can be generated over a given pavement begins, elastic tire material is pressed into road surface ir-
does not differ significantly between sizes of cars. For exam- regularities (asperities). Thus, the drag force stretches the
ple, if you ha:e a compact car and an int.ermediate/full-size tread rubber for an instant while the body of the tire begins
car sliding wIth locked wheels at 30 ml/hr over the same to slow down. At this point, the speed of the tire close to the
pavement with similar tires, expect to get essentially the same road surface compared to the vehicle's speed has increased.
friction values. As the braking force is increased, the tire loses its grip on
the pavement and starts to slip. As slipping increases, the
Dynamic and Static Friction amount of time for the rubber to grip the road surface be-
comes Jess and less. When the wheel reaches lockup, the tire
In discussing the transition from static to dynamic friction, now has 100 percent slip. At 100 percent slip, the tire is sliding
it is useful to consider how the drag of the road on a tire varies with dynamic friction. As can be seen in Exhibit 3 (which
from onset to a locked wheel skid. This is illustrated in Ex- is for a particular tire), the friction force reaches a maximum
hibit 3. Before braking, the wheel has full rotation; but where at 10 to 20 percent slip for the tire.
the tire touches the road surface, there is, momentarily, no For panic braking situations, drivers generally apply their
movement relative to the road surface. Compared to the vehi- brakes very rapidly and very hard. This will lock the wheels
cle's speed, the speed of the tire in contact with the road is rapidly (for non-antilock brakes), thus causing nearly all of
then 0 percent. As soon as brakes are applied, a retarding the braking to occur at 100 percent slip.
1.0
I- 0.9
I
CJ
0.8
W
S
--. 0.7
W
0
a: 0.6
0
LL 0.5
0
~ 0.4
a:
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
NO SLIP LOCKED
WHEELS
PERCENT SLIP
Exhibit 3. As a tire first starts to slip on a hard surface, the friction force increases and reaches a maximum. Then the friction force de-
creases somewhat. There is not much difference in the friction force at high values of slip.
62-5
z
0 1.10
I-
a- OVERALL AVERAGE
a:
LL
LL 1.00
0
I-
Z
W
-a 0.90
LL
LL
W
0
a 0.80
SPEED (MPH)
Exhibit 4. It is generally found with normal passenger car tires that the coefficient of friction reduces with increasing speed. This
shows the results of one such study.
Friction Force Related to Sliding Area .cident Investigation Manual has suggested that higher
In some instances a greater tire-pavement interface area are expected at speeds lower than 30 mi/hr for the same
will contribute to a higher friction force. For bald (no tread of pavement. Research in the area supports this. In
grooves) tires on a clean, dry, hard surface, it is possible that 4 Ohio researchers 1 took average friction values for four
a higher sliding force will be generated'. Definitely, a lower hicles tested over three surfaces at the indicated
value would not be expected. Also, a higher value of friction Small, intermediate and large cars were represented. A
can be obtained with bald tires on ice. up truck was also tested. A conclusion of their study
For wet pavement conditions, bald tires do not give better
friction values. Tires are designed with grooves and sipes . . . the average calculated friction coefficient de-
(see Topic 825) which allow a place for the water to go when creases as speed increases, falling rapidly as the nom-
the tire contacts the wet pavement. Thus, as a pavement inal prebraking speed goes from 10 to 30 mi/hr and
becomes wet the presence of tread becomes increasingly slowly between 30 and 60 mi/hr.
important.
This indicates that if tests are done with a vehicle to
Velocity Effects on Friction mine the coefficient of friction, it would be appropriate
The effects of velocity on friction on typical passenger-car do them above or below 30 milhr - whichever is
tires is noticeable. For years, the table given in the Traffic Ac- the accident vehicle's speed. Collins4 suggests reduction
62-6
rs for coefficients of friction where the expected accident surface. This is not the case for drag factor. Drag factor and
:;ced is greater than 40 mi/hr. Friction reduction factors are coefficient of friction will be equal only in cases where all
used in some computer programs. wheels are locked and sliding on a level surface.
62-7
Recall the basic definition of drag factor from equation
(4):
f~ Flw
5. FRICTION CIRCLE
Essentially, all of the normally occurring forces on a car
are transferred through the tires at their interface with the
road surface. Other forces not considered are such things as
air loads (wind resistance) and collision forces. If a car is
steered, the wheels are turned and a side force is generated
because of the slip angle between the plane of the tire and
the direction of motion of the car. When a car is braked, the
slip between tires and pavement might reach 100 percent. At
that point there is no significant friction left to steer the car.
For example, the skidrnarks shown in Exhibit 5 were made
by locked wheels due to hard braking. After the wheels were
locked, the steering wheel was turned hard to the left. The
car continued to travel straight ahead; the steering of the
wheels had no appreciable effect. All of the available friction
had been used in the 100 percent slip in braking. In Exhibit
6, which is a continuation of the tire marks shown in Exhibit
5, the brakes were released at Point A in the photograph.
Then the car immediately started turning in the direction of
the steering and ultimately went into a yaw.
If both of the rear wheels are locked on a passenger car
while the front wheels continue to rotate, an unstable condi-
tion develops. Because the front wheels are free to rotate, Exhibit 6. This photograph is a continuation of the mark
they can continue to have side friction forces. However, with Exhibit 5. The driver began to steer while the car was
locked wheels. Then the brakes were released and the car
the rear wheels locked, they have no effective friction avail- into a yaw. Note how different the striations are from those in
able to keep the rear of the car from sliding to the left or the hib;t 5.
62-8
7. Only the rear wheels have been locked by the Exhibit 8. This photograph shows the continued movement of the
<i(e,me,'ge"cy brake. The rear-tire/pavement interface can no longer car from the point shown in Exhibit 7. Note how the car has come
enough side friction to keep the rear wheels in line with the around a considerable amount.
The rear has started to slide sideways.
right. If the pavement has a cross slope, the rear tires will In Exhibit 9 A the force on the tire is a driving force and
'tend to slide in that direction. Once the rear has started to a steering force. The vector sum of the lateral and longitu-
~s1ide sideways with only the rear tires locked, the car will dinal force is clearly less than the maximum allowable. In
<» cantirme rotating (if there is enough speed) until the car is Exhibit 9B there is some steering and a considerable amount
backward. If the driver steers hard as the rear tires are of braking force, In Exhibit 9C the tire is skidding and the
the back of the car will slide in the direction of the direction of motion is opposite the resultant friction force.
j,~,ti~::~:~~;~~!force caused by the steering. An example of this A more detailed discussion of the effects of braking and
<1 is shown in Exhibits 7 and 8. These marks were yawing together is included in the topic on yaws, Topic 872,
by locking the rear wheels with the emergency brake,
the case shown in Exhibits 5 and 6, all the friction was
in the braking(IOO percent slip) and no other significant 6. DRAG FACTOR/FRICTION COEFFICIENT
s~de force was available. FOR AN ACTUAL ACCIDENT
'" To describe more effectively what is happening in the two If you are working on an accident case in which you need
~;;"previous examples, the forces being applied to the tire will to know the appropriate drag factor (friction coefficient) to
~,:be discussed. This is often diagrammed as the/riction circle use, there are several methods for determining this:
:>~hown in Exhibit 9. As you can see, the lateral and longitu-
dinal directions of force are indicated on the tire. The lon- 1. Test-skid the accident vehicle or an exemplar vehicle.
~ gitudinal forces are either for braking or for driving the car 2. Slide a test tire (not the whole vehicle) to get a friction
forward. The lateral is, of course, for steering. If the tire coefficient.
could have equal friction both laterally and longitudinally, 3. Use existing highway department skid numbers for the
then the friction circle would indeed be a circle, Actually, the road in question.
friction capability is not quite identical for every direction the 4, Look up friction coefficients in a table and apply the ap-
~ force is applied to the tire, so the circle is more of an ellipse; propriate adjustments to them for the case at hand.
but for this explanation a circle will be adequate, The
maximum force available is the radius of the circle. The di- Each method has its own merits and problems, The method
rection of the force indicates how much force is being used you select wil1 depend on such variables as time, cost, dis-
in the longitudinal and lateral directions. ruption to traffic, and safety.
62-9
MOTION MOTION
LONGITUDINAL
DRIVING
LATERAL
r-+-----~~~--~ 4-----+4~. .--~
BRAKING
RADIUS __--I-~
R = FMAX = pN
A B c
Exhibit 9. In A a tire is rolling with a slip angle. This gives a lateral force that does not exceed the maximum available. In B there is a
along with a braking force. The resultant force approaches the maximum friction available. In C there is a locked wheel, and the tire
the same line as the motion vector.
Test Skids Without Special Equipment brakes are applied too slowly or not strongly enough,
For the ideal test, use the same vehicle that made the acci- hicle loses considerable speed before wheels lock
dent skidmarks (if it is not too severely damaged), at the slide. Skidmarks are then too short for the initial
same spot, with the same load and surface conditions. Drive ing, and the calculated coefficient of friction too high,
the test vehicle at what you believe may have been the speed ing in a high estimate of accident speed. Reed 6
of the vehicle that made the marks. You need not make the 15 to 30 percent of the initial energy of a car may
tests at an extremely high speed just to be near the accident pated before clearly (easily) visible skidmarks are
vehicle speed. If the ideal test situation is not possible - (This does not mean that 15 to 30 percent of the
which is usually the case - then approximate it as closely been lost before the marks are seen). This clearly
as possible. It is important to use the same pavement in the
same condition; it is less important to lise the same vehicle.
Drive the vehicle at the estimated accident speed. Again. do
not go over a reasonably safe speed. A good test speed is the
speed limit (if it is 35 mi/hr or less). Then, if the accident
skids are longer than the speed-limit skids, there is direct
proof that the vehicle's speed was greater than the speed
limit. Hold the speed constant as the vehicle reaches the right
place on the road, note the speed shown on the speedometer,
hold the steering wheel steady, put on the brake very hard and
very quickly, and hold it until the vehicle stops. Now measure
the the length of each mark. Repeat the test at the same
speed. If there is a difference of only 10 percent or less be-
tween the two tests (compare the longest skid from the first
test to the longest skid from the second), consider the test ad-
equate. If not. repeat the test until consistent results are ob-
tained.
Good skid tests are more difficult to make than you might
think. Adjusting speed and holding the indication on the
speedometer can give trouble, but the main difficulty is ap-
plying brakes quickly and strongly. It may take several trials, Exhibit 10. This device fires a pigment on the road surface
especially with massive tires and without power brakes. If braking starts. Both inertial and electrical models are used.
62-10
imipolrt3I1Ce of detecting where the vehicle first started to
62-11
Exhibit 12. This model of accelerometer allows several minutes of data to be stored. Later it can be transferred to a personal computer for
ing or storage.
be carrying. It is generally accepted that the friction capabil- this. Indeed, one commercial drag sled manufacturer7
ity of a rubber tire on pavement tends to deteriorate as the suggested reduction factors.
load is increased. It is also argued that at typical skidding If you are in a location where skidding a car is i'rrheTerrt]
speeds, the tire is heated due to friction. However, it is not dangerous, using a test tire could be appropriate.
expected that the heating of the pulled tire (or part of a tire) test tire might not be appropriate, however, on soft turf,
will have the same effect as the heating of a tire on a car that gravel, or other soft surfaces. A car skidding on such
is being skidded, Thus, it is generally expected that friction will normally have material build up in front of the
data collected in this manner should be reduced to reflect tires; whereas the sliding test tire may not weigh enough
Exhibit 13. Coefficient of friction can be measured by dragging a tire of known weight along the pavement and measuring the pull
You must make corrections of the angle of pull.
62-12
mal passenger car would have. Thus, it may be just as well
to do your own tests with an exemplar vehicle to eliminate
these criticisms. However, if you get the case three years after
the accident date and the road has since been repaved, a high-
way department skid number obtained near the accident date
can be a useful place to start.
62-13
COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION OF VARIOUS ROADWAY SURFACES
DRY WET -
DESCRIPTION
OF Less than More than Less than More than
ROAD SURFACE 30 mph 30 mph 30 mph 30 mph
PORTLAND CEMENT
New, Sharp .80 1.20 .70 1.00 .50 .80 .40 .75
Traveled .60 .80 .60 .75 .45 .70 .45 .65
Traffic Polished .55 .75 .50 .65 .45 .65 .45 .60
ASPHALT orTAR
New, Sharp .80 1.20 .65 1.00 .50 .80 .45 .75
Travelled .60 .80 .55 .70 .45 .70 .40 .65
Traffic Polished .55 .75 .45 .65 .45 .65 .40 .60
Excess Tar .50 .60 .35 .60 .30 .60 .25 .55
GRAVEL
Packed, Oiled .55 .85 .50 .80 .40 .80 .40 .60
Loose .40 .70 .40 .70 .45 .75 .45 .75
CINDERS
Packed .50 .70 .50 .70 .65 .75 .65 .75
ROCK
Crushed .55 .75 .55 .75 .55 .75 .55 .75
ICE
Smooth .10 .25 .07 .20 .05 .10 .05 .10
SNOW
Packed .30 .55 .35 .55 .30 .60 .30 .60
Loose .10 .25 .10 .20 .30 .60 .30 .60
Exhibit 15. This table lists coefficients of friction of various roadway surfaces. This table is not intended for large, heavy trucks.
Of course, acceleration is related to drag factor by equa- The initial velocity is calculated from equation (1):
tion (2):
a = fg (2) Vi = II v,2 - 2ad (I)
= II 0 2( - 24.2)(95)
2
-
Again, remember that if a vehicle is slowing, you must in-
= 67.8 fllsec
sert a negative sign, -, in front of the value for acceleration.
A simple example problem follows. Assume a car skidded
Validation of Equation (1)
to a stop (v, = 0) with a drag factor (f) of 0.75 over a distance
(d) of 95 ft. The acceleration, a, is calculated from equation At times the application of equation (1) to accident recon-
(2): struction has been questioned. One of the objectives of the
a = fg (2) study listed as Reference I was to look at equation (I) coupled
- (.75)(32.2 ft/sec/sec) with equation (2) to determine whether other equations could
= - 24.2 ftlsee/sec be more accurate. The NHTSA researchers concluded that the
62-l4
the theoretical equations, (I) and (2), is valid; they where fR = drag factor on the vehicle,
use 0 f . .
the most accurate of the equatIOns tned. The research- if = drag factor on the front axle,
we~urther conduded that the assumptions used in the theo- fr = drag factor on the rear axle,
ers. al equations are valid. Concerns such as constant deceI- Xf = horizontal distance of the center of mass from
reUC . .
the front axle as a decimal fraction of the wheel-
ation throughout the skid were shown to be essentially COT-
er t The difference in deceleration throughout the skid was base, and
~~d to be too small to affect the results. They did point out z = height of the center of mass as a decimal
~e concern to do your test skids at a similar speed. Once fraction of the wheelbase.
wheels lock, they stay locked, leaving marks. Not always
would a wheel lock. This was found not to cause problems
during hard (panic) braking. The effect of other forces, such Consider the following example. Assume the height of the
as aerodynamic drag, was found to be insignificant when vehicle's center of mass is 2.08 ft and is located 4.22 ft behind
compared to the braking force. Finally, the slide friction coef- the front axle. The wheelbase of the car is 9.39 ft. Therefore,
ficient of a wheel was found to depend only on the vehicle's z is equal to .222 (2.08/9.39 = .222) and Xf is equal to .449
(4.22/9.39 = .449). Assume there is no braking on the front
overall weight, tire type, and pavement composition (as long
as the speed effect was taken care of as stated before). Vari- axle, resulting in a drag factor determined only by the rolling
ations in at-rest loads on the tires, weight shift, and temper- resistance, 0.01. Assume the rear wheels are locked by brakes
ature were found to be insignificant. and slide on a pavement with a coefficient of friction averag-
ing 0.65. Then summarizing, the values for the required quan-
tities are:
Tables and Nomographs to Determine Skidding
Vehicle Speeds
z = 0.222
For those not used to using equations, tables have been de- Xf = 0.449
veloped to determine the initial speed of vehicles that skid if = 0.01
to a stop. Typical tables are shown as Exhibits 16 and 17. Ex- i, = 0.65
hibit 16 has been worked in the units of mi/hr. To use the
table you must first determine the drag factor and length of Substitute these values for the symbols in the equation:
the slide to stop in feet. You need to know the same variables
to use Exhibit 17. However, Exhibit 17 requires that the length 0.01 - 0.449 (0.01 - 0.65)
of the slide to stop be measured in meters, with the resulting 1 - 0.222 (0.01 - 0.65)
speed in km/hr.
Another method that can be used to determine the initial fR = 0.297/1.14
speed of a vehicle that skids to a stop is to use a nomograph. fR =0.26
Two such nomographs are Exhibits 18 (for U.S.A. units) and
19 (for metric units). Put a straight edge on the appropriate Therefore, the drag factor for the whole vehicle is 0.26.
drag factor and distance at which the vehicle slid to a stop.
Where the straight edge intersects the speed line, read the in- Drag Factors for Other Vehicles
itial speed in either mi/hr or krn/hr. This topic does not discuss how to determine drag factors
for motorcycles and articulated vehicles. These vehicle types
Unequal Drag Factors on Axles are discussed in Topics 874 and 878. Unlike passenger cars
Passenger cars do not have the same load on each axle and pickup trucks, the operators of motorcycles and articu-
when they are not being accelerated (i.e., when at rest or lated vehicles generally have the option of applying brakes
moving at constant velocity). During hard braking, load is on only some of the axles. Therefore, do not assume that the
shifted to the front axle. Because of this load shift, no Correc- drag factors for motorcycles and large trucks are the same
tion needs to be made when all wheels are locked. If, how- as the values that can be obtained for four-tired vehicles.
ever, one axle has a drag factor different from that of the other
axle, you cannot assume the car was braked with a drag factor Drag Factor on a Grade
equal to locked wheel conditions (that is, drag factor for the For the case where a vehicle is skidding with all wheels
Whole vehicle equal to the sliding coefficient of friction). locked on a non-level surface (that is, up or down a grade),
Equation (6) addresses this (see Topic 890 for the derivation): the drag factor is not equal to the coefficient of friction. In
Topic 890 it was shown that the drag factor on a grade is given
by the following formula:
(6)
iG = (11- + G)/V I + G2 (7)
62-15
Exhibit 16
U.S.A. Units
SPEED IN MILES PER HOUR REQUIRED TO SLOW TO A STOP
Length
of 1"===~ce=====;~__________________~~A=ve=r=a~g=e=d~ra~g~f~acpt~or~dGO~n~·n~g~S~lid=e=t=o:s=to=p============~___________________
If Ice ________ .. Clean, wet paving ----
slide
to _________ Snow - - ~--___ Gravel - - .__________ Clean, dry paving - - - - - - - - - -
stop
,n - Illegal brakes ............... _ Fair brakes Good brakes - - - - - Excellent brakes_
feet 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.10 Go
5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 a
2 2 2 3 4
5 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12
4 2 3
13 13
3 4 6 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 14 15
6
7 8 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 16 17
8 3 5
10 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 18 19
10 4 5 8 9
10 11 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 18 18 19 20 21
12 4 6 8
11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 21 22
14 5 6 9
12 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 18 19 20 20 21 21 22 23 24
16 5 7 10
15 16 16 17 18 19 19 20 21 21 22 23 23 24 25
18 5 7 10 13 14
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 20 21 22 23 23 24 24 26 27
20 5 8 11
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 25 26 17 17 29 30
25 6 9 12
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 33
30 7 9 13 16
19 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 32 34 35
35 7 10 14 18
20 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 38
40 8 11 15 19
25 26 27 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 40
45 8 12 16 20 22 23
24 26 27 29 30 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 39 41 42
50 9 12 17 21 23
26 27 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 39 40 41 43 44
55 9 13 18 22 24
27 28 30 31 33 34 35 37 38 39 40 41 42 44 46
60 9 13 19 23 25
28 30 31 33 34 36 37 38 39 41 42 43 44 46 46
65 10 14 20 24 26
31 32 34 35 37 38 40 41 42 43 45 46 48 50
70 10 14 20 25 27 29
28 30 32 34 35 37 38 40 41 42 44 45 46 47 50 52
75 11 15 21 26
31 35 36 38 39 41 42 44 45 46 48 49 51 54
80 11 15 22 27 29 33
30 32 34 36 37 39 41 42 44 45 47 48 49 50 53 55
85 11 16 23 28
33 35 37 39 40 42 43 45 46 48 49 51 52 54 57
90 12 16 23 28 31
32 34 36 38 40 41 43 45 46 48 49 51 53 53 56 56
95 12 17 24 29
35 37 39 41 42 44 46 47 49 50 52 53 55 57 60
100 12 17 24 30 32
35 38 40 42 43 45 47 49 50 52 53 55 56 59 61
105 13 18 25 31 33
36 39 41 43 44 46 48 50 51 53 54 56 57 60 63
110 13 18 26 31 34
37 39 42 44 45 47 49 51 53 54 56 57 59 62 64
115 13 19 26 32 35
40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 55 57 58 60 63 66
120 13 19 27 33 35 38
41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 56 58 60 61 64 67
125 14 19 27 34 36 39
37 39 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 59 61 62 65 66
130 14 20 28 34 70
43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 60 62 64 67
135 14 20 28 35 38 40
71
41 43 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 61 63 65 68
140 14 20 29 35 38 72
47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 64 66 69
145 15 21 29 36 39 42 44
54 56 58 60 62 64 65 67 70 73
150 15 21 30 37 40 42 45 47 50 52
55 57 59 61 63 65 66 68 72 75
155 15 22 30 37 40 43 46 48 51 53
51 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 69 73 76
160 15 22 31 38 41 44 46 49
51 54 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 70 74 77
165 16 22 31 39 42 44 47 50
58 60 62 64 66 68 70 71 75 7B
170 16 23 32 39 42 45 48 50 53 55
58 61 63 65 67 69 71 72 76 79
175 16 23 32 40 43 46 49 51 54 56
66 68 70 72 73 77 80
180 16 23 33 40 43 46 49 52 54 57 59 61 64
52
47 50 53 55 58 60 62 65 67 69 71 73 74 78
185 17 24 33 41 44 83
48 51 53 56 58 61 63 65 68 70 72 74 75 79
190 17 24 34 41 45 54
48 51 54 57 59 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 80
195 17 24 34 42 45
62 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 81 85
200 17 24 35 42 46 49 52 55 57 60
60 63 65 68 70 73 75 77 79 81 85 59
220 18 26 36 44 48 51 54 57
68 71 73 76 78 80 83 85 89 93
240 19 27 38 46 50 54 57 60 63 66
71 74 76 79 81 84 86 88 93 97
260 20 28 39 48 52 56 59 62 65 68
71 74 77 79 82 84 87 89 92 96 100
280 20 29 41 50 54 58 61 65 68
56 60 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85 87 90 92 95 99 1M
300 21 30 42 52
58 62 66 70 73 76 80 83 86 88 91 94 96 99 104 108
325 22 31 44 54
65 69 72 76 79 83 86 89 92 94 97 100 102 107 112
350 23 32 46 56 61
67 71 75 79 82 85 89 92 95 98 101 103 106 111 116
375 24 34 47 58 63
400 24 35 49 60 65 69 73 77 81 85 --'8"'8'-----.::.92_--'9'-'5_ 98 101 1 04 ~10,,7__~10,,9'----_':.-',,5'----_':::.:20
62-16
Exhibit 17
Metric Units
SPEED IN KILOMETERS PER HOUR REQUIRED TO SLOW TO A STOP
Length
of I~
"===~:.=====~__________________~~~~~~~~~~SI~;d~e~IO~~==========~______________________
~ ~
slide
10 ________ Snow--- ~ _ Gravel- ~ Clean, dry pavingr------------------------
slOp
;n brakes ~--- Fair brakes Good brakes-- ~- Excellent brakes-
meters
1 4 5 7 9 9 10 11 11 11 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 16 17 17
2 5 7 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 19 20 20 21 22 22 24 25
3 6 9 12 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 25 26 27 28 29 30
4 7 10 14 17 19 20 21 22 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 32 33 35
5 8 11 16 20 21 22 24 25 26 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 42
6 9 12 17 21 23 24 26 26 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 41 44
7 9 13 19 23 25 27 28 28 31 33 34 35 36 37 39 40 41 42 44 46
8 10 14 20 25 27 28 30 32 33 35 36 38 39 40 41 43 44 45 47 49
9 11 15 21 26 28 30 32 34 35 37 38 40 41 43 44 45 46 48 50 52
10 11 16 22 28 30 32 34 36 37 39 41 42 44 45 46 48 49 50 53 55
11 12 17 24 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 44 46 47 49 50 51 53 55 58
12 12 17 25 30 33 35 37 39 41 43 44 46 48 49 51 52 54 55 58 60
13 13 18 26 31 34 36 38 41 43 44 46 48 50 51 53 54 56 57 60 63
14 13 19 27 33 35 37 40 42 44 46 48 50 51 53 55 56 58 59 62 65
15 14 19 28 34 36 39 41 43 46 48 50 51 53 55 57 58 60 62 65 67
16 14 20 28 35 38 40 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 60 62 64 67 70
17 15 20 29 36 39 41 44 46 49 51 53 55 57 58 60 62 64 66 69 72
18 15 21 30 37 40 42 45 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 67 71 74
19 16 22 31 38 41 44 47 49 51 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 69 73 76
20 16 22 32 39 42 45 48 50 53 55 57 59 62 64 66 67 69 71 75 78
22 17 24 33 41 44 47 50 53 55 58 60 62 65 67 69 71 73 75 78 82
24 17 25 35 43 46 49 52 55 58 60 63 65 67 70 72 74 76 78 82 85
26 18 26 36 44 48 51 54 57 60 63 65 68 70 73 75 77 79 81 85 89
28 19 27 38 46 50 53 56 59 62 65 68 70 73 75 78 80 81 84 88 92
30 19 28 39 48 52 55 58 62 65 67 70 73 75 78 80 83 85 87 91 95
32 20 28 40 49 53 57 60 64 67 70 73 75 78 80 83 85 88 90 94 99
34 21 29 41 51 55 58 62 66 69 72 75 78 80 83 85 88 90 93 97 102
36 21 30 43 52 56 60 64 67 71 74 77 80 83 85 88 90 93 95 100 105
38 22 31 44 54 58 62 66 69 73 76 79 82 85 88 90 93 95 98 103 107
40 23 32 45 55 59 63 68 71 75 78 81 84 87 90 93 95 98 101 106 110
62 28 40 56 69 74 79 84 88 93 97 101 105 108 112 115 119 122 125 131 137
64 28 40 57 70 75 80 85 90 94 99 103 106 110 113 117 121 124 127 133 139
66 29 41 58 71 76 81 87 91 96 100 104 108 112 115 119 122 126 129 135 141
68 29 41 59 72 78 83 88 93 97 102 106 110 114 117 121 124 128 131 138 144
70 30 42 60 73 79 84 89 94 99 103 107 111 115 119 123 126 130 133 140 146
75 31 44 62 75 81 87 92 97 102 107 111 115 119 123 127 131 134 138 144 151
80 32 45 M 78 84 89 95 100 105 110 115 119 123 127 131 135 139 142 149 156
85 33 46 66 00 87 92 98 1M 109 114 118 123 127 131 135 139 143 147 154 161
90 34 48 67 ~ 89 95 101 1W 112 117 123 126 131 135 139 143 147 151 158 165
95 35 49 69 85 92 98 104 110 115 120 125 130 134 139 143 147 151 155 163 170
100 36 50 71 87 94 100 107 112 118 123 128 133 138 142 147 151 155 159 167 174
110 37 53 75 91 99 105 112 118 124 129 134 140 144 149 154 158 163 167 175 183
120 39 55 78 95 103 110 117 123 129 135 140 146 151 156 161 165 170 174 183 191
130 41 57 81 99 107 114 123 128 134 140 146 152 157 162 167 172 177 181 190 199
140 42 59 84 103 111 118 126 133 139 147 152 157 163 168 173 178 183 188 197 206
62-17
EXhibit 18.
U.S.A. Units
NOMOGRAPH RELATING STOPPING DISTANCE AND TIME, INITIAL SPEED,
AND AVERAGE DRAG FACTOR
0.1 400
350
BRAKING
300
TIME BRAKING
SECONDS DISTANCE
FEET 250
0.2
U.S.A 200
150
0
z
0.3 0
0
W
<J)
0:
a.W
0.4 zo "0
Cz 100
Oz a: Uo 00:
-0 g W'" 90
!;to U 00
..JW wO
Q.I
a:<J) W<J)
0.5 wO: <nO:
..Jw U': >0:
..Jw
W
..Jo.
80
Wo. <a.
0.6
U>-
WW
at±'
"a<
a:
->-
f-w
zW
<<J)
;::w
-~
z-
70
0.7 ~ ~
-"-
~
-"
~
60
100
0.8 50
80
0.9 100 45
100 90 60
1.0 80 80 40
70 50
60
50 60 40 35
40 50 35
1.0 30 30
30 40
1.5 0.8 25
20 0.6 25
30 20
15 0.5
0.4 25
15
2.0 10 0.30 20 20
8
6 0.20 15 10
2.5 5 9
0.15
8
4 15
10 7
0.10
3.0 3 9- 6
O.OB 8
2 7 5
0.06
0.05 6 4
4.0 0.04 5- 10
0.03 3
4 9
5.0 8
3 - 2
7
6.0
2 -
BRAKING 6
7.0
BRAKING
TIME - 1
DISTANCE
8.0 SECONDS 5
FEET
9.C
10.0 4
62-18
Exhibit 19.
Metric Units
NOMOGRAPH RELATING STOPPING DISTANCE AND TIME, INITIAL SPEED,
AND AVERAGE DRAG FACTOR
0.1
100
90
.0
BRAKING
70 BRAKING TIME
DISTANCE SECONDS
0
60 METERS z
0
55
METRIC 0
W 0.2
50
a:
'"wa:
45 0 ::> a.
>2 0 0
0 I 2
40 1-
-0 a: zO
Uw Ow 00 a:
35
0'"
..Ja:
LOa.
LO", -'"
!<ca:
0
I- 0.3
LOW a. a: a: w U
>a. (/)W
3J ..J'"
",a:
..J>-
",W
LOa.
..J'" it
LOa:
_w
1->-
-w
z-
;;;" -'"
E9 U W
U~ "'"
a:
0 0.4
25 "'''
4. 4. 4. 4.
200 20
0.5
20 150 15
6
•7
30
25
5.0
4.0
0.5
0.4
6
20 3.0 0.3
5 2.0
5 0.25
15 2.0 0.20
4
1.S 0.15
2.5
4 3
10 1.0 0.10
2 •
7
0.08
0.06
3.0
3 6 0.05 3.5
1.5 0.04
5
4.0
0.03
4
1.0 4.5
0.02
3 5.0
2 0.'
0.7 S.5
0.6 0.01 6.0
2
O.S
BRAKING 7.0
BRAKING
DISTANCE
TIME
SECONDS '.0
METERS
9.0
10.0
62-19
where fG = drag factor on a grade, based on coefficient of friction to estimate speed as it h
fL = coefficient of friction between the already been described. as U
tires and pavement, and 3. There are definite skidmarks from all wheels, but th load
G = the percent grade expressed as a de- vary considerably in length. ey sign
cimal [positive ( +) for an upgrade 4. Some, but not all, wheels make skidmarks. leas
and negative ( - ) for a downgrade J.
firsl
The last two of these cases are irregular skid marks.
calI:
To estimate speeds from skidmarks, you need to kno L
Consider the following example. Assume the coefficient of values for drag factor (deceleration) and the distance throu; firs1
friction, fL, is equal to 0.80 and the vehicle in question is slid- which it operated. In Case 1, there were no skidmarks, so no will
ing down a 4 percent grade (G = - .04). Substituting into estimate of speed from skidmarks is possible. In Case 2, the
equation (7), the effective drag factor on a grade is calculated
rna'
length of the longest skidmark indicates the distance and the in r
as follows: fact of sliding determines the drag factor, so estimating the tim
speed the vehicle had to be going when it started to slide to The
fa = (f-L + G)IY I + G' (7) a stop is a simple matter. For Cases 3 and 4 (irregular skid. thai
= (0.80-0.04)/Y I + ( - .04)2 marks), adjustments have to be made to get the equivalent bra
= 0.76/1.0016
complete skid or an equivalent reduced drag factor. me'
Two different assumptions are commonly made in speed wit
= 0.76
estimates based on irregular skidmarks: eql
L Average skid mark length is assumed to be the equivalent am
As you can see in this example, the denominator is so close
all-wheel sliding distance. tire
to 1.0 that there is little reason to include it in the calculation.
Because of this, equation (7) is normally shortened to the fol- 2. The longest skidmark is assumed to be the equivalent alI- I.
wheel sliding distance. 2.
lowing:
In both cases, pavement coefficient of friction is the basis for
fa=f-L+G (8) drag factor estimates and calculations.
Implications of whatever assumptions are made must be for
For the example that was just worked, there is no significant understood to be able to appraise the significance of the es~ api
difference whether equation (7) or (8) is used. With a down- timate based on them., These implications will be discussed in~
grade or upgrade as high as 12 percent (G = - 0.12 or 0.12), ~!1d illustrated by applying each assumption to the same ex~ bn
there is no significant difference between the answers ob- ample of a set of irregular skidmarks. en
tained by using either equation. A grade of ]2 percent is
Skid marks from All Wheels gr:
hardly ever seen on a typical roadway. Thus, for nearly all
If all wheels do eventually leave genuine skidmarks, two br:
cases, the use of equation (8) is very acceptable.
conclusions are immediately warranted: ap
ce
8, SPEED ESTIMATES I. Brakes were capable of locking all wheels.
reJ
FROM IRREGULAR SKIDMARKS 2. The driver was able to apply sufficient pedal pressure to
Four different patterns of skidmarks are encountered in cause them to do so.
du
examining the roadway after an accident: As brake pedal pressure increases for one or more of sev· ab
I. No sign of skidmarks is found, although there may be eral reasons, some wheels lock before the others. ai,
other kinds of tire marks. In this case, there is no indica- Differences in pavement are sometimes responsible. or
tion on the road of any braking whatsoever. This does not Other things being equal, the wheel with the least pavement m
mean there was no braking, only that braking was insuffi- coefficient of friction will lock first as brake pedal pressure or
cient to lock wheels or that skidmarks disappeared before increases. A pavement may have greater coefficient of fric~ il
they were observed. There may be other indications of tion in some places than in others because of wear; because b,
braking, such as the reports of witnesses. The car might of foreign material such as loose dirt, oil spatter, or moisture; w
have been equipped with an anti-lock braking system or because of different surface material, for example in th
(ABS). With ABS-equipped cars, skidmarks mayor may patched paving. JU
not be seen. Differences in weight on wheels may also account for te
2. Skidmarks of nearly the same length are made by all some wheels skidding and others not. Other things being
equal, the wheel with the least load on it will lock first as A
wheels. No mark is more than 5 percent longer than the
shortest mark. Such marks indicate that all wheels were brake pedal pressure is increased. Differences in static load
locked suddenly and that the whole vehicle slid. This is a are produced in two ways: a
common circumstance. Unless there is reason to believe 1. Uneven loading of passengers or freight; Co
otherwise, one may conclude that the wheels were locked 2. Crossways tilt of the road, which shifts weight from the a'
by braking. Use the longest skidmark and a drag factor uphill to the downhill side.
62-20
Unequal load, front and rear, due to weight shift (dynamic all wheels eventually lock, all will be doing some braking -
I d) in braking may be compensated for III vehICle brake de: often much braking - from the instant brakes are applied.
?a As brake pedal pressure is increased, the wheel with Thus, average skidmark length gives a low speed estimate.
sign.t weight in proportIOn .Its br ak'mg strength WI'11 1ock
. to Such a "conservative" speed estimate favors the defendant
Ieas
first. Cars equipped with ABS brakes compensate automati- who is being tried for speeding. In civil cases, however, what
ally for differences III wheel loads. benefits the defendant is disadvantageous to the plaintiff, and
c Differences in tire radius may affect which wheel locks the "conservative" skidmark assumption may do as much
first. Other things being equal, the wheel with the least radius harm as good.
will lock first as brake pedal pressure is increased. The Example. Exhibit 20 shows a set of four skidmarks vary-
maximum torque (rotational moment) of a wheelan a vehicle ing considerably in length. To begin with, the investigator
in motion is the coefficient of friction of the tire on the road must be sure that these are really skidmarks, especially to-
times the weight on the tire times the leverage (moment arm). ward the end where the vehicle swerves. That they are indeed
The moment arm is the distance from the axle to the road - skidmarks is indicated by the fact that striations throughout
that is, the tire radius. With equal road friction, weight, and the marks are parallel to the marks. (See Topic 817 for a de-
brake resistance to rotation, the wheel with the greatest mo- tailed description of skidmarks).
ment arm can overcome brake resistance, while the wheel The speed limit at this point was 55 mi/hr. The pavement
with the least moment arm cannot- Thus, with increasing but was dry, clean, well~traveled Portland cement concrete and
equal brake effort, the wheel with the least radius (moment had a three percent downgrade (G = - 0.03) in the direction
arm) will be the first to start sliding. The rolling radius of a of travel.
valent
tire may be decreased by two things: The vehicle turned almost end for end during the last part
1. Tread wear; of its approach to the collision point. This is because the rear
lt all-
2. Overdeflection due to overloading or underinflation or wheels locked first. Having used all available traction by
both. skidding, the rear wheels offered no more resistance to side~
;is for slipping downhill to the right on the cross slope of the pave-
If brakes are applied very quickly and very hard, brake
ment surface. The front wheels, not locked, had surplus fric-
'st be force will almost instantly lock all wheels; but if braking is
tion which kept them from sliding downslope toward the
;e es~ applied gradually, the wheel with the least resistance to lock-
right, resulting in the vehicle's assuming an angle to the road-
issed ing locks first, followed in turn by the others. Such gradual
way. The angle continued to increase rapidly until the vehicle
,e ex w brake application often produces skidmarks varying consid-
was moving almost backward.
erably in length.
The vehicle was nearly stopped when it reached the tracks,
In ordinary vehicle operation, brakes are usually applied
where it was snagged by the passing train and carried off the
gradually and rarely to the full extent of the capabilities of
roadway.
" two brakes and driver. In emergency braking, brakes may also be
The four skidmarks measured
applied gradually because the driver does not, at first, per-
ceive the need for maximum braking or because the driver is
reluctant to do as much braking as he can, Right rear 407ft
lfe to
During partial skidding, tires which are sliding are pro- Left rear 201
ducing all the drag of which the pavement at that point is cap- Left front 115
f sev~ Right front 96
able. The other tires, which have not yet started to slide, are
also being braked and so are also producing a slowing drag
sible, Total 819
on the vehicle. Indeed, a wheel which leaves no skid mark
::ment
may produce more road drag but with less drag factor than Average 205 ft
'ssure
one which is skidding. This may be due to greater weight on
, fric-
it or because the pavement under it has greater friction or
cause Lacking test skids, the coefficient of friction range given
both. These conditions give the tire a better grip on the road-
~ture; in Exhibit 15 can be used. For high speed on the pavement
way so it can use more of the brake system capability. Fur~
de in described, this would be 0.60 to 0.75. With a grade of - 0.03,
therrnore, the friction drag of the tire on the road is greatest
the drag factor would be between 0.57 and 0.72 for all wheels
just before the tife begins to slide (static friction compared
It for to dynamic friction). locked.
being For an equivalent sliding distance of 205 ft and a drag fac-
rst as tor of 0.57 to 0.72, Exhibit 16 gives slide-to-stop speeds of
Assumption 1 - Average Skid mark Length
load 59 to 66 mi/hr. Because this method gives an inherently low
Using average skidmark length as the basis for estimating estimate, the best conclusion might be that the speed at the
a slide~to~stop speed assumes that there is the equivalent of beginning of the slide was definitely more than 59 mil hr.
n the complete locked-wheel skidding for a distance equal to the Some people who use average skidmark length in estimat-
average skidmark length, but no other braking. However, if ing speed justify this method by pointing out that the average
62-21
G= 0.03 TR4VELEDPORTIANDCEMaVT(~OrvCh~
A
r ---,
.
L
~---------------------------.202FT.--------------------~
A
I"
Exhibit 20. This diagram is used for an irregular skidmark case to illustrate a method of dividing braking distance into sections to
initial speed more accurately.
of several measurements is more reliable than any of the in- Of course, if the vehicle did not slide to a stop
dividual measurements. This is a spurious explanation, be- stopped by a collision, minimum and maximum
cause measuring the lengths of four skidmarks is not the same speeds would both be greater.
as four measurements of the same skidmark. Such a wide range of estimated values for br:,ke,-to
speed could make the estimate almost useless. But if
Assumption 2 - Longest Skidmark value obtained from average skidmark length or
Using the longest skidmark as a basis for estimating speed value obtained from the longest skidmark serve the
assumes that there was braking on all wheels throughout the for which the estimate was made, the estimate is satisla.CI
length of the longest skidmark, and that braking on wheels
that did not make marks was as much as it would have been More Precise Estimate
if the tire had been sliding. The fact that wheels eventually
If the simple assumptions just described are .
locked indicates that all wheels had braking. As explained
more precise estimates with a lower range of values
earlier, it is possible that a wheel that left no skidmark was
made. A more accurate estimate can be illustrated by
actually developing more pavement drag - and so contribut-
ing the procedure to the same example, Exhibit 20.
ing more to slowing the vehicle - than another wbeel on the
purpose, the same range of values for coefficient of
same vehicle which was sliding and making a mark.
will be continued, with the understanding that the
Example. Apply the longest-skidmark assumption to the
range might be further narrowed by achieving a lesser
skidmarks illustrated in Exhibit 20. Using the appropriate
of values for coefficient of friction.
equations (v; = Vv/ - 2ad and a = /g), the longest mark, Center of mass movement. If the vehicle rotates
407 ft, gives a brake - to-stop speed of 83 to 94 mi/hr. Be- skidding, as in Exhibit 20, the longest skidmark
cause the longest-skidmark method gives an inherently high the distance the vehicle as a whole slid while rotating.
estimate, the best conclusion might be that the speed at the it is better to consider the length of skid as the distance
beginning of the slide was definitely less than 94 milhr. by the vehicle's center of mass. In the example, the
Comparison of the two assumptions is as follows: skidmark is 407 ft, but the center of mass movement
I. Average skidmark - more than 59 mi/hr ures 395 ft - that is, the vehicle moved 395 ft while
2. Longest skidmark - less than 94 mi/hr Using this distance, the brake-to-stop speed estim,le·
comes 82 to 92 mi/hr. The reduction from the 83-to-
Using both assumptions, you would conclude that the brake- hr range is not much for such a long skid, but it is
to-stop speed was between 59 and 94 mi/hr. curate. The difference would be greater for a shorter
Part of this combined estimate range is due to using a skidding distance.
range of values for coefficient of friction. If careful examina- Dividing the skidding distance into sections and
tion of the road surface or skillfully made test skids provide equation (I) below (working backward from the
a lesser range of values for coefficient of friction, the esti- final position) will give a better final estimate than
mate could be somewhat more precise. the assumptions heretofore described.
62-22
c
WHEEL SKfDMARKS
FI-t22FI-+-t ---104FT.----I
c o E
(I) what you know about the situation, you must choose values
or limits which can reasonably be expected to embrace the
range of possibilities. This gives the following reasonable
careful analysis of the rate of slowing as determined values for front and rear axle drag factors:
the coefficient of friction during movement in each section
also contribute to the reliability of the estimate. Refer Section B to C
'again to the example. Exhibit 20. There are four sections, as Axle Minimum Maximum
follows:
Front,f, 0.29 0.65
1. A to B 202 ft - one skidmark Rear,fc 0.57 0.72
2. B to C 67 ft - two skidmarks
3. C to D 22 ft - three skidmarks
4. D to E 104 ft - complete skidmarks
These values can now be applied as described for irregular
braking. Assume, for example, that the vehicle involved has
These are center-of-mass distances. Their sum is 395 ft.
Begin with the simplest section, D to E. During these 104
a wheelbase 1= 10 ft, that its center of mass is x,l = 4.3 ft
behind the front axle, and that the center of mass is zJ = 2.0
ft, the vehicle was completely sliding with all four wheels.
ft above the road surface. Then x, = 0.43 and z = 0.20.
Calculating the slide-to-stop speed for this distance, there-
The equation for resultant total drag factor when axles have
fore, is not difficult. The usual equation, with the previously
different drag factors is
used drag factor range of 0.57 to 0.72, gives a slide-to-stop
speed estimate of 42 to 47 mi/hr.
The remaining incomplete skids are more complicated.
, _ ff - X, iff - f,)
JR - (6)
Consider the movement from B to C, 67 ft. It is clear that 1 - zif, - fc)
both rear wheels are sliding. Therefore, the rear axle develops
the full drag factor provided by roadway friction. But the roIl- Substitute the vehicle constants in this equation for re-
ing front wheels are not developing that much drag factor, peated use:
despite their being on the same surface. Front wheel drag fac-
tor is therefore less than pavement coefficient of friction, but fR = ff - 0.43 iff - f,)
certainly much more than rolling friction, because beyond I - 0.20if, - fc)
Point C the front wheels begin to skid. Now a drag factor or
range of drag factors between rolling plus air resistance and Substitute the minimum axle drag factors for this particular
maximum roadway drag factor must be chosen. A reasonable section of the skid, noting thatff - f, = 0.29 - 0.57 = - 0.28:
assumption would be that the non-sliding front wheels devel-
oped at least half of the minimum roadway drag factor _ , _ 0.29 - 0.43 ( - 0.28)
that is, 0.5712 = 0.29 - and as much as nine tenths of the JR -
I - 0.20( - 0.28)
maximum roadway drag factor - that is, (0.9)(0.72) = 0.65.
The half and nine tenths suggested here are simply matters fR = 0.4104/1.056
of judgment on the part of the investigator. On the basis of fR = 0.39
62-23
Thus, the minimum drag factor with the assumptions noted
is equal to 0.39. Repeat this for the maximum axle drag fac-
tor. The result is f = 0.67, maximum.
Section
Movement from section A to B is made with only the right
rear tire sliding. That wheel would have the full roadway drag DtoE 0.57
factor. Use the same values for reduced drag factor as before. CtoD 22 0.48 0.70 67.1 76.2
The front axle would then have the same drag factor range BtoC 67 0.39 0.67 78.6 93.3
as for section B to C, namely, 0.29 to 0.65. The left rear AtoB 202 0.34 0.66 102.9 131.5
wheel, not sliding, would have the same range, but the right
Overall 395 0.41 0.68
rear wheel, sliding, would have the drag factor range of the
pavement. The rear axle drag factor would be the average of
Exhibit 21. Summary of example of velocity
the rear wheel drag factors - that is, a minimum of (0.29 incomplete skidmarks illustrated in Exhibit 20.
+ 0.57)/2 = 0.43 and a maximum of (0.65 + 0.72)/2 =
0.69. This gives the following reasonable values for front and
rear axle drag factors. The calculated corresponding values
for the whole vehicle are also shown. The table shows the initial velocity at A to be between
and 131.5. Round off these velocities to be between 103
and 132 ftl sec. The average drag factor for the entire
Section A to B
ranges between 0.41 and 0.68. The velocity in ftlsec
Axle Minimum Maximum to the units ofmi/hr gives a range of 70 to 89 mi/hr.
Front,f, 0.29 0.65 Although an estimate of 70 to 89 mi/hr may seem
Rear,f, 0.43 0.69 large range, it is certainly much better than the millimUl
59 mi/hr obtained by averaging skidmarks and the
Vehicle 0.34 0.66 of 94 mi/hr from the longest single tire mark. From the
precise estimate of a minimum of 70 milhr, you call "JOe!
with confidence that the vehicle was exceeding the
The remaining section, C to D, can be calculated in the
limit of 55 mi/hr.
same way:
Further adjustment might be made in the precise
mate. The method outlined assumes that the drag
Section C to D constant throughout each section of the slide. This
at the end of each section of skidding, the drag factor
Axle Minimum Maximum
have to increase instantly to a greater value as another
Front,f, 0.43 0.69 begins to skid. This is, of course, impossible, esrleci;all~~!
Rear,!,. 0.57 0.72 cause the pattern of the skidmarks strongly suggests
Vehicle 0.48 0.70 driver steadily increased brake pressure during the
mately 8 sec of skidding. It would be more accurate to
that the estimated drag factor for, say, section A to B
The initial velocity of the vehicle can now be calculated, be- A and that the drag factor increased steadily to B. The
cause the drag factor (or acceleration value) is now known tive drag factor for the A to B section would be the
for each section. Use the equation of the drag factors at A and B. For example, Exhibit 21
that the minimum drag factor assigned to the A to B
is 0.34, and that for the B to C section is 0.39. If these
v·, = II v, 2 - 2ad (I) the values at the beginning of each section, the more
drag factor for A to B would be (0.34 + 0.39)/2 ~
Furthermore, if brakes are applied gradually, there
to calculate the end velocity of the preceding section. Re- undoubtedly have been brake application before any
member that a = fg. For these calCulations, a will always be started to slide. This braking would have had an average
negative. For example, use the distance and drag factors to factor between zero and the beginning of skidding at
calculate the initial speed at D, using the distance and accel- where it is assigned a value of 0.34. That makes an
eration values from D to E. The initial velocity calculated at non-skid distance with an average minimum drag
D is the end velocity for the C to D section. Then use that (0 + 0.34)/2 = 0.17. The distance is indeterminate.
end velocity for the C to D section to calculate the initial vel- Both of these adjustments increase drag factor estim"te
ocity at C. Continue this procedure until the initial velocity in all but the last section and so increase the total b"tke··!C
is finally calculated at A. This procedure is summarized in stop speed estimate. This increase would be small, and
Exhibit 21. view of the broad range of possible values assigned to
62-24
nt coefficients of friction, would add little to the speed es- It is also possible that skidmarks from some wheels may
me tes Omitting such an adjustment makes the speed esti- be so faint or obscure as to escape notice and so go unre-
urna '" .. .
te_ both minimum and maXimum, slIghtly on the low side. ported. Occasionally those matters can be cleared up by care-
maA~other refinement might also be considered. In estimat- ful examination of photos.
. axle drag factors for the example, no distinction was made
:~ween right and left wheels. That is the same as assuming Some Wheels Making No Skid marks
that right and left wheels were equally loaded. The fact of If some but not all wheels make skidmarks, other consid-
cross slope in the vehicle's lane because of road crown means erations are involved. Two circumstances are possible:
that, even if the vehicle has equal weight on right and left
sides. the right wheel will carry a little more load than the I. All wheels were braking, but some not sufficiently to lock
left. This can produce two effects on skidmarks which can the wheel.
only be distinguished by close observation: 2. Some wheels were doing no braking at all.
I. Both right and left tires on the axle slide, but the onc with If some wheels make no skidmarks when others do, it is im-
less load heats so little that the mark it makes is faint and portant to discover whether these wheels were without
may go unnoticed. brakes. There are three possibilities:
2. The wheel with more load, usually on the downhill side,
1. A wheel has no brake ~ for example, a wheelan a small
grips the roadway a little better and so does not lock,
trailer or a wheel on the front axle of a tractor and semi-
whereas the opposite wheel on the axle, with less load,
trailer.
docs slide and leave a mark.
2. A wheel has a brake, but it was not used - for example,
In the example discussed, Exhibit 20, the uphill left tire at the front wheelan a motorcycle or a wheelan a tractor-
first makes no mark that was reported. Perhaps that tire was trailer combination with independently controlled trailer
also sliding but making a mark too light to be observed, or brakes.
perhaps it carried enough weight because of lopsided loading
3. A brake fails to function.
to grip the pavement better than the right downhil1 tire. It is
also possible that the road surface had different characteris- Which wheels have no brakes can be ascertained ordinarily
tics for right and left tires, that the brakes were somewhat dif- by vehicle inspection or by statements from the vehicle
ferent in their rate of application, or that right and left tires operator or owner. Whether independently operated brakes
had a somewhat different rolling radius. These are imponder- were used can sometimes be discovered by questioning the
ables which must be considered even if they cannot be driver. Sometimes careful mechanical examination will re-
evaluated. In the example, the cross slope of the traffic lane veal that a brake could not have functioned. Driver statements
is small and the conclusion is warranted that the effect of are not to be trusted with respect to whether brakes failed to
these circumstances would be small and surely within the function.
broad range of the speed estimate produced by the range of If it is clear that a wheel was without braking, its drag fac-
values chosen for pavement coefficient of friction. tor is only that of rolling resistance, which may be taken as
Judgment is required in choosing limits of values to make 0.01 or simply omitted altogether. Therefore, it is possible to
speed estimates, as it is in many other kinds of engineering. ascribe a very small but definite drag factor to wheels with-
It is important that the ultimate estimate have sufficient range out brakes. Then the matter can be handled as described for
reasonably to embrace conceivable variables. In the illustra- irregular braking, in which wheels and axles have different
tive example and in most similar problems, the judgments in- drag factors and weight shift can be taken into consideration.
volve consideration of such matters as: This is essentially what was done for the skid from A to D
• Selection of a range of roadway coefficients of friction in Exhibit 20 where some wheels made no skidrnarks.
• Selection of values of drag factor for wheels that are brak- If wheels with optional braking make skidmarks, the skid-
ing but make no tire marks marks are proof that brakes were applied; the skidmarks es-
tablish a drag factor for the wheel based on the roadway coef-
• Consideration of possible rates of brake application
ficient of friction. If the skidmarks made by such wheels are
• Evaluation of reliability of reported observations and mea- approximately as long as skidmarks from other wheels, treat
surements of tire marks on the road the case as one of complete braking with all wheels locked
• Interpretation of possible effect of distribution of load and and tires sliding. If the mark made by a wheel with optional
cross slope on roadway. braking is shorter than the others, the brake on that wheel was
A lesser range of speeds in the final estimate is most easily apparently applied later or sooner than the others. Consider
achieved by more careful evaluation of coefficient of friction. as a complete skid the distance the vehicle moved while all
Well made test skids or skillful examination of the road sur- wheels made skidmarks. The remaining distance is compli-
face may yield a lesser range of values than those suggested cated, because there is no way to know how much the optional
by Exhibit 15. brake was applied. The drag factor for the nonskidding wheel
62-25
must then be handled as a range of values, possibly as little 2. The measurements were made from the beginning to th
as rolling resistance drag factor and as much as full skidding. end of a rear or front tire mark, in which case 50 feet rep_e
The exact values may be governed by what has been learned resents the length of a complete skid.
from any source about the possible application of brakes.
Both distances must be used as a basis for estimating, a d
Thus, the partial braking may be treated as two sections: one
this may add greatly to the range of the final brake-ta_st~
distance in which skidding is complete, with a drag factor
speed estimate. P
based on the coefficient of friction; and the other distance an -;
--
If tire marks continue straight for 50 ft (15 m) or more,
estimated possible range of drag factors. The calculated r-~
the front wheels can be assumed to have locked first becaUse L...........,
brake-ta-stop speeds for the two sections are then combined
if the rear wheels had locked while the front ones Were roll~
in the usual manner. This usually gives a wide range of esti-
ing, the vehicle would probably have turned around during
mated speed, but there is no help for that.
the last part of the skid as illustrated in Exhibit 20.
Finally, if all brakes are applied by the same control and
there is nothing to suggest brake malfunction, you can infer,
Braking Distance
if skid marks are irregular, that all brakes were contributing
to slowing. Then the matter can be handled like the first three If braking distance from a specified speed is wanted, esti-
sections of the skid described in Exhibit 20, perhaps with a mates are less complicated because brake capabilities are
greater range of drag factor for wheels which do not make stated. If sliding is involved, maximum and minimum drag A
skidmarks. factors need to be assigned only to pavement coefficient of
friction. One of several levels of brake performance may be EJeI
Clues from skidmarks may indicate to some extent what init
specified, such as:
braking took place and so aid in assigning upper and lower
limits for drag factors. If a skidmark is made from only one • Brakes meet but do not exceed legal requirements. Drag
side of a vehicle and this mark is quite straight for 50 ft (15 factor is then determined by the law and by the roadway
grade. as
m) or more, you can infer that there was about the same brak-
ing, more or less, on both sides of the vehicle. With signific- Brakes lock all wheels. Drag factor is then determined by l.
antly unequal braking, the vehicle would be expected to the roadway coefficient of friction and grade. 2.
swerve. Without such a swerve, the drag factor of the wheels Brakes lock certain specified wheels but not others. Resul~ 3.
on the side where there was no mark can be considered about tant drag factor is then calculated as described for irregular 4.
the same as the drag factor on the side which did make marks. braking. This requires special data on the vehicle as loaded. 5.
The possibilities of difference are reflected in the range of
drag factors selected. Conversely, if there is a swerve wilh Once the applicable drag factor has been determined, the
skidmarks from only one side of the vehicle, you can infer brake-to-stop distance for the specified speed is found from ca
that braking was unequal. Then a range of possible drag fac- the appropriate equation, table or nomograph.
tors can be assigned to reflect this difference with regard to
the direction of the swerve. In this connection, you must be Skidmarks Leaving One Surface and Entering
very careful to distinguish between braking skidmarks and of
Another
steering yawmarks. (See Topic 817 for a discussion of the dif- be
To determine the speed required to skid to a stop when
ference between the two).
skidmarks show that the vehicle slid from one surface to sli
Sometimes there are definite skidmarks from the right and
another, you need to know the coefficients of friction of the fn
left sides of the vehicle but it is not clear whether these are
surface and, to be precise, the location of the vehicle's center dr
from front wheels, rear wheels, or both. If rear wheels track
of mass. Calculations are accomplished by dividing the total av
closely in the path of front wheels, it may not be clear where
skidding distance into a number of sections, depending on 0..
the marks from front or rear wheels begin. Careful examina-
how many wheels are on each surface. Start at the vehicle's m
tion of the marks or even detailed examination of photo-
rest position and work backward to its initial braking point
graphs can settle questions of this kind.
using equation (I): or
If there is no way to find out how far individual wheels sh
slid, you must assume a minimum and a maximum possibility
which will give a greater range of speed in the final estimate.
v-, = V,
V 2 - 2ad (I) cil
fr,
The most common circumstance of this kind is a report that sh
there were, for example, "50 feet of skidmarks." From this You will recall that a = fg and a is negative for a skidding
D
information alone, you have no way of knowing whether condition.
th
An example, Exhibit 22, illustrates how such an estimate
ar
1. The measurements were made from the beginning of the is made. All wheels make skidmarks, and rear-wheel skid-
fo
rear tire marks to the end of the front tire marks, in which marks follow front-wheel skidmarks closely. The pavement's
case the actual sliding was 50 feet minus the wheelbase coefficient of friction is taken as 0.75 to 0.90, that of the
of the vehicle. shoulder as 0.45 to 0.65. There is no grade.
62-26
NEWPORT~NDCEMENTCONCRETE
21-0/-01Q.joo-------81-------loo10..1 - - - - - 64 - - - - - - I
A B C (FEET) D E F
ExhlbH 22. This diagram of skidmarks on two surfaces is used to illustrate a method of dividing the total distance into sections to estimate the
initial speed more accurately.
The center-of-mass movement is divided into five sections 0.60 - 0.43 (0.60 - 0.75)
as follows: fR I - 0.20 (0.60 - 0.75)
62-27
Finally, the section drag factors are entered into I;:xhibit One or more wheels may be jammed in the damage
23. Minimum and maximum values for the initial and end ·rotatIOn
are unabl e to rotate or have t helr · restricted. and
velocities for each section are then calculated and inserted The vehicle will most likely have rotated, causing th
into Exhibit 23 to come up with the initial velocity when skid- weight to shift from one set of axles to the other and fr e
. oil]
ding started. The resulting initial velocity range is 82.0 to one sIde to the other.
94.5 ft/see. Converted to mi/hr, the range is 56 to 64 mi/hr.
After the collision, it is possible that the vehicle will have
For this example, the estimate can be simplified without
traveled over more than one surface.
much loss of accuracy by neglecting the two short transi-
tional sections B to C and D to E. The first section is then In the case of a two-vehicle collision, the vehicles may sta
entirely on the roadway, the second section half on the road- tog~ther, which can produce complicated after-conisio~
way and half on the shoulder, and the third entirely on the motion.
shoulder. The vehicle drag factor for the second section is the • The vehicles' shapes are often considerably altered (even
average of those provided by the shoulder and the roadway. to the e.xtent of a vehicle being in two. pieces), which may
The lengths of these sections are determined by the point at cause tires and other parts of the vehicle to be in COntact
which the center of mass crosses the edge of the roadway, with the surface.
making the data as follows: It is often necessary to know deceleration rates (drag fac-
tors) after a collision, because this is needed to do a momen_
Drag Factor tum analysis (see Topic 868 for a discussion of momentum
considerations).
Section Length Max Min
DEtoF 69 0.45 0.65 Two Vehicles Engaged After Collision
BCtoDE 91 0.60 0.78 After a two-vehicle coIIision, the vehicles sometimes
AtoBC 26ft 0.75 0.90 move off as one unit. This may occur as shown in Exhibit
All 186ft 24. The bullet car front has struck the target car's side. Be-
cause the target car had little forward movement at the time
of the collision and the principal direction of force (thrust)
Using these data and the same equations as before, the result-
was directed through each vehicle's center of mass, the two
ing initial speed range for the entire 186 ft is 56 to 65 mi/hr,
cars stayed engaged and moved together, essentially in a
compared to 56 to 64 fii/hr for the more accurate calcula-
straight line, to their rest position. The question to be
tions. Therefore, no significant difference is found between
answered is the velocity of the two vehicles as they moved
the two methods.
off after the collision.
The data given for this example are as foHows:
9. DRAG FACTORS AFTER A COLLISION
• Target car weight equals 2,200 Ibs_
Perhaps the most difficult situation for estimating an ap-
propriate drag factor is after a collision. This is complicated • Bullet car weight equals 3,100 Ibs.
by several conditions: • After-collision travel distance equals 135 ft.
l~_ _
w= 2200 Ib, ,u=0.80
w=31001b.
[I E
c
135 ft. - - - - - - - - - 1
Exhibit 24. Because the 2,200-lb. car has essentially zero velocity and the direction of force in the collision is through both vehicles' centers of
mass, the vehicles move down the road together in the same direction in which the striking car was traveling before the collision.
i
;l'avemem coefficient of friction (1-') equals 0.80. In virtually all cases, the weight on each wheel of a car
will be different, even in a static condition. In adynamic con- II
road is level.
dition as the vehicles decelerate to a stop. it is even more
J
n actual case like this, you should inspect the bullet car
likely that the weights will be different. For the case depicted
,', ""< ,.~. a whether the front wheels are jammed in as a result of
in Exhibit 24, it is more important to evaluate the effect of
»".".S:msion. It is also possible that as a result of the collision, the increased load on the front axle (and of course the re-
front wheels of the bullet car are partially supported by
duced load on the rear axle) of the bullet car. This can be
',c' ,.•". target car. This, of course, adds more weight to the target done as before by developing another table like Exhibit 25.
For this case, assume that the front wheels of the bullet
Assume that 70 percent of the bullet car's weight is on
were jammed due to damage and would not rotate.
the front axle. Then the weight on the front axle will be 2,170
equal weight is assumed for each car's wheels as they Ibs and the rear axle will be 930 Ibs. Assume the weight is
·····y·.mv'ov to their final position, a simple estimate of the drag equal on each of the two front wheels (1,085 Ibs) and on the
factor of the unit (the two cars together) can be easily caleu-
rear wheels (465 Ibs). As long as the four wheels on the target
lated. Recall that drag factor is simply the total force in the
car are sliding, the distribution of the target car's weight over
direction of the acceleration divided by the vehicle's weight the four wheels will not affect the final drag factor for the
if~ Flw). The weight on each wheel of the target car would
unit (two cars together). Insert these values into Exhibit 26.
be 550 Ibs (2,200/4 = 550). The weight on each wheel of
the bullet car would be 775 Ibs (3,10014 = 775). All four
Bullet Car Target Car
wheels on the target car would have been sliding because the
car was traveling completely sideways. Thus, the drag factor Wheel w f F w f F TotalF
on each wheel of the target car would be equal to the coeffi-
cient of friction. The bullet car would have drag factors of RF 1.085 0.80 870 550 0.80 440 1.310
the front wheel equal to the coefficient of friction. However, LF l.ms5 0.80 870 550 0.80 440 1.310
there is no reason to believe that the rear wheels would be RR 465 0.01 5 550 0.80 440 445
locked due to damage. For this case, assume that the bullet LR 465 0.01 5 550 0.80 440 445
car is a front - engine, front-wheel-drive car. Thus, the drag Total Drag Force 3,510 Ib
factor on the rear wheels of the bullet car is equal to the roll-
ing resistance if = 0.01). Exhibit 26. Calculations to determine the drag factor for the after-
The drag force (F) in pounds on each wheel can be calcu- collision movement of the combined vehicles shown in Exhibit 24
with 70 percent of the bullet car's weight on the front axle.
lated by mUltiplying the drag factor ifJ of each wheel times
the weight (w) in pounds on the wheel (F = fw). The total As before, the total drag force is divided by the total weight
drag force on the unit (both cars together) is the sum of the of the unit to calculate the unit's drag factor. A drag factor
drag forces on each wheel. Then the drag factor for the total of 0.66 is obtained (3,510/5,300). When equal weight on all
unit is equal to the total drag force divided by the total weight wheels was assumed for the bullet car, the drag factor was
of the unit. The drag factors and forces for each wheel are 0.57; this time it is 0.66. When the initial speed after the col-
now entered in Exhibit 25. lision is calculated, there is not as much difference as you
might think. The calculations are shown below.
62-29
time with even more weight shifted to the front axle of the the sum of the work done in each distance increment. Eq
U
bullet car. The equation for weight shift could be used as be- this to the initial kinetic energy at position A and sOlve : te
fore for braking. However, the car is obviously modified the initial velocity. In equation form this becomes: Or
somewhat because of damage, which may make the assump-
tions for horizontal and vertical locations of the center of
mass incorrect if you have assumed the characteristics of an
undamaged car. (7)
Single Vehicle Translating and Rotating v = V(2g work rowl J/w (8)
After Collision
Consider the foJIowing situation. A car has significant The number of terms for the right side of equation (7) de.
front-end damage. The damage is completely across the front pends on the number of surfaces. You could have more than
of the car, and the front wheels are jammed-in due to the four terms, as indicated in equation (7).
damage. Neither front wheel will rotate because of the dam- Often a vehicle does not travel over the same surface after
age. The car rotates counterclockwise 180 degrees, while at a collision. If, for example, the car that rotated 180 degrees
the same time it translates a distance, d, until it comes to rest. in Exhibit 27 traveled over three surfaces, the coefficient of
This situation is shown in Exhibit 27. friction would most likely be different over each surface.
At position A the car is essentially moving sideways; not Thus, the resulting drag factors on the car as it travels to a
only are the front wheels not rotating (they are locked be- stop would also be different. If it is known how the vehicle f
cause of damage) but also the rear wheels are not rotating moves over the surface (that is, how it translates and rotates),
because of the sideways movement. Therefore, at position A the same approach can be used. Say, for example, that the
the drag factor on the vehicle would be equal to the coeffi- car in Exhibit 27 first traveled over a hard surface for the first
cient of friction. At position B the rear wheels are free to rol1, third of its total after-co11ision distance, then traveled for the
while the front wheels provide a drag factor of more than 50 next third over gravel, and for the final third over grass. Test
percent of the friction coefficient (if more than 50 percent values for the coefficients of friction were found to be 0.80
of the vehicle's weight is on the front wheels). At position C for pavement, 0.50 for gravel, and 0.40 for grass. Exhibit 30
the vehicle is again moving sideways, so the drag factor is shows how the drag factor could be re-plotted to show how
equal to the coefficient of friction. Thus, it can be seen that drag factor varied on the vehicle from position A to B to C.
the drag factor at position A decreases to something near
one-half the coefficient of friction at position B and then in- Case Study: Front Half of Car
creases to the maximum again at position C. This is plotted Exhibit 31 shows the front part of a car. The car hit a large
in Exhibit 28 as a function of distance. f
utility pole broadside and broke into two pieces. One question
If the vehicle in Exhibit 27 decelerated to a stop at position that needs to be answered is the speed of the front part of
C, the initial velocity at position A could be calculated. Most the car after it hit the pole. So the problem is to determine
likely, you would want to use the following equation: the drag factor of the "vehicle" (that is, the front of the car)
as it traveled approximately 80 ft after the coIIision.
Vi = V v/ - 2ad (I) There were no marks in the grass to indicate that the vehi~
c1e was digging into the turf as it moved to its final position.
However, acceleration (a) or drag factor if) constantly There is no reason to believe that the vehicle was moving
changes from po!)itions A to B to C. Thus, to use the above through the air. No apparent vertical component of force was
equation, an average value of drag factor would have to be acting on the vehicle to make it travel through the air. Thus,
assumed for the entire distance. An option that should yield the vehicle must have been in contact with the ground. An
more accurate results i!i to divide the total distance into smal- eccentric force was applied to the vehicle that would have
ler distances and apply the equation for each of the smaller caused it to rotate at least 180 degrees. Inspection of the ve-
f
distances. For each distance increment a different drag factor hicle showed that the two wheels were free to rotate. Actually,
would be used. For example, note how the distances are di- the two wheels looked to be essentially normal. This is a rear- O.Be
vided into equal increments in Exhibit 29. Each increment wheel-drive car, so there was no transaxle to act as a de-
has a drag factor associated with it. (That is, for d l use fl' celerating force on the two wheels. Therefore, it would appear
for d 2 usef2' etc.). You would then start at the rest position, that a two-wheeled vehicle (almost like an ox cart) rotated at DAD
C, and "back up", u!iing the above equation until you get to least 180 degrees and translated with free-rolling wheels ap-
position A. proximately 80 ft without digging into the turf This does not
Another option to determine the initial velocity at position suggest a very high drag factor. Clearly. it would be more than
A is to calculate the work done in each increment of distance rolling resistance on a hard surface. The grass would be more
shown in Exhibit 29. The work done is simply the drag factor difficult to roll over than would a hard, smooth surface. The
times the distance times the weight. The total work is simply vehicle did rotate. However, consider the effort required to
62-30
B
- --- -HI;i1[tJ--
27. The car shown in the drawing has its front wheels locked due to damage. At A it is sliding essentially sideways while it continues
::;;;;~;;;'unt'er-clocklNise. The deceleration on the car decreases as it moves to A. At B the rear wheels are free to roll. Then, as the car moves
deceleration on the car continues to increase until the drag factor is equal to the coefficient of friction.
- - - - •
B
-
DISTANCE
The drag factor has been plotted against distance for the movement of the car shown in Exhibit 27. Notice how the drag factor de-
" ' : OJ"8."05 from A to B and increases from B to C.
- -
.;;.l"o----l"1.-----I_--- d2--------:-Ij.----- d3 - - - - - '
- - B
J
..
I;~t' i:!.::~~~ ,~To~~ca~/:~c.~u/:~ate the velocity of the center of mass of the vehicle at A shown in Exhibit 27, you can divide the total distance into smaller
average drag factor for each distance.
PAVEMENT
c
GRAVEL .. B
GRASS
DISTANCE
Exhibit 30. If the vehicle shown in Exhibit 27 traveled over several surfaces from A to C, you must take into account the difference in the drag
factor caused by this. One way is to determine how the drag factor varied over each surface, as illustrated here.
62-31
Exhibit 32. This photograph shows two cars still engaged in their rest positions. In this case, the cars clearly attain a common velocity.
62-32
a two-wheeled trailer. If the weight is balanced fairly The cars moved as a unit for 40 ft over grass and 80 ft
over the two wheels, one person can push the tongue over the concrete. Then the velocity after maximum engage-
'id,ew.,ys and cause it to rotate without any great effort. If ment can be calculated using equation (I) twice, as follows:
resistance (drag factor) is omon a hard, kvel surface,
it would be very difficult to support any drag factor in (I)
of 0.10 for this case.
velocity estimate of the vehicle as it left the pole can be '110 2 - 2( -0.34)(32.2)(40)
by using the equation a = Ig and equation (I):
= 29.6 ftlsec
'live' - 2ad (I)
Thus, as the cars start to slide on the grass, they are traveling
y02 - (2)( - 0.10)(32.2)(80) 29.6 ftlsec. Use this value as the end velocity, v" in equation
(I):
= 22.7 ftlsec = 15 milhr
(I)
argument could be made that the drag factor is too high.
Howe'ver, if this speed estimate is combined with the speed = '1129.62 - 2( - 0.56)(32.2)(80)
>,.0"1""[0 to break the car into two pieces, it can be clearly seen
this is a fairly insignificant value. With the data given, = 61.3 ftlsec
'i.' it would be very difficult to support a larger drag factor. For
i. example, if someone suggests a value approaching 0.50, there The approach used above assumes that the weight on each
be nothing in the data to support such a conclusion. wheel is equal. Clearly, this is not going to be the usual situ-
ation. If the rear axle of the bullet car (Plymouth) had less
Case Study: Two Vehicles Together from Maximum than the assumed weight, then the assumed drag factor for
'!,.Enlga!QerneI1t to Rest Positions the two vehicles together after the collision would be less than
Exhibit 32 shows two vehicles (Plymouth and Pontiac) still what the two vehicles would experience. To check the sen-
togeth,,,at their rest positions. Exhibit 33 shows the after-ac- sitivity of this analysis, assume that the rear axle has 20 per-
/ ••• n" cident situation map. Exhibit 34 shows maximum-engage- cent of the Plymouth's weight. The gross weight of the
ment positions of the two vehicles and intermediate positions Plymouth is 3,700 Ibs, that of the Pontiac 3,600 Ibs. The
the vehicles travel together to their rest positions. Test skids easiest way to understand the effects of the assumptions is to
on the Portland cement concrete gave a coefficient of friction create a table similar to Exhibit 26. This has been done in
0.75. Test skids on the grass gave a coefficient of friction Exhibit 35 for the sliding across the pavement. The target car
0.45. The data clearly supports that the Pontiac slid side- (Pontiac) has been assumed to have equal weight on all four
the entire distance after the collision. Thus, all four of wheels. This clearly is not the case. However, because all four
"'.;;'.';; > Its wheels were sliding without rotation. As a result of the wheels were sliding sideways, there will be no difference in
collision, the Plymouth's driveshaft came off the car (note its the total resisting force. If you had a case where the weight
final position). Thus, the rear wheels were free to rotate. This distribution was not equal and all the wheels were not sliding,
this should be considered. The total resisting force is 4,930
:c.;.;........case
. is similar to the scenario described in Exhibit 24.
As a first-cut analysis, assume that the weights on all the Ibs and the total weight is 7,300 Ibs (3,600 + 3,700). Thus,
wheels were equal when the two vehicles moved as one unit the drag factor across the pavement is 4,93017,300 if = Flw)
to their rest positions. If that was the case, then six of the
.eight wheels were not rotating, while the other two were free Plymouth Pontiac
to rotate. If the weight was equal on all eight wheels, then
the drag factor acting on the combined unit would be six- Wheel w f F w f F TotalF
eighths, or 75 percent of the drag factor over the two surfaces. RF 1.480 0.75 1.110 900 0.75 675 1,785
LF 1,480 0.75 1,110 900 0.75 675 1.785
Thus, the drag factors were:
RR 370 om 5 900 0.75 675 680
LR 370 om 5 900 0.75 675 680
Grass: 1 = 0.75JL
= (0.75)(0.45) Total Drag Force 4.9301b
= 0.34
Concrete: 1 = 0.75JL Exhibit 35. Calculations to determine the drag factor on
thePlymouthlPontiac vehicle as it moves across the pavement,
= (0.75)(0.75) with 20 percent of the Plymouth weight on the rear axle and an
= 0.56 equal weight distribution on the Pontiac wheels.
62-33
n
)
S.R.38
'\
"8 IT
""""
LlJo
SCALE
AFT£R-ACCIDENT SITUATION
SR.38 a '-69
Exhibit 33. This diagram shows the after~Bcc;dent situation map for the cars in Exhibit 32.
J
J
S.R.38
MAXIMUM
ENGAGEMENT
'\
-8 IT
NO'' "
WJO
SCALE
AFTER-ACCIDENT SITUATION
• SR 38 B '-69
E)o:JT 1-69
Exhibit 34. The movement of the two· vehicles from engagement to final positions is depicted here.
62-34
o68. The first estimate of the pavement drag factor (as-
or :ng equal weight on all eight wheels) was 0.56.
sum1
Another table can be developed for the sliding across the /
grass. This is done in Exhibit 36. Again, an equal weight dis-
tribution is assumed for the wheels of the PontIac. The total
sliding force is 2,960 lbs. This gives a d~ag factor of 2,960 I
7,300, or 0.41. The previous drag calculatIOn for equal weight
on all wheels was 0.34.
Plymouth Pontiac h
Wbeel w f F w f F TotalF
62-35
In terms of static weight on the front axle, h = the height the rear wheels were hoisted in fto
r = radius of tire and wheel together in ft or rnrrn",
(10) Wf = level weight on front axle in lbs or N, and'
w h = weight on front axle after hoisting in lbs or N.
where w is equal to the total weight of the vehicle. Similar
equations can be developed to obtain a horizontal center-of- If the front of the car is lifted, the term (lVh - w,) is replaCed
mass measurement from the rear axle. The wheelbase length by (Wh - w,). Of course, Wh would be the weight on there.,
(expressed as a decimal fraction) between the center of mass after it was lifted, and wr would be the level static weight on
and one axle is proportional to the vehicle weight on the other the rear wheels.
axle. If a vehicle's weight distribution is given as a percentage The height of the center of mass, expressed as a decimal
of total weight on one axle, the vehicle's center of mass is fraction of the wheelbase, is
the same percentage of wheelbase length away from the other
axle. z = 1,11 (12)
To obtain the static weight on front and rear axles, drive
only the front wheels of the vehicle on a commercial platform Example. The vehicle is the same as in the previous exam.
scale and weigh it. Then place only the rear wheels on the pIe (see Exhibit 38 for the following dimensions). The wheel.
scale and weigh again. The entire vehicle may be weighed to base, I = 9.39 ft; weight on the rear axle with the car level
verify the measurements. Therefore, Wf + Wr = w. Wr = 1,425 Ibs; weight on rear axle with front axle hoisted
Example. On a given car, the front wheels (axle) carry a h ft, Wh = 1,525 Ibs; total weight, w = 3,175 Ibs; distance
weight, W f , of 1,750 Ibs, and the rear a weight, w" of 1,425 from ground to wheel center with wheel hoisted, 3.43 ft·
Ibs. The total weight of the vehicle is therefore 1,750 + 1,425 radius of wheel with tire, r = 0.99 ft. Then the distance th;
= 3,175 lb. The position of the center of mass behind the axle was hoisted is h = 3.43 - 0.99 = 2.44 ft. Substitute
front axle is these values in the equation for lz with the front lifted:
62-36
longer available, it is often possible to obtain a similar vehicle
and load it, for purposes of testing, approximately as the ac- I'
tual vehicle was loaded. However, it is usually impractical to
tilt a loaded vehicle to obtain the height of the center of mass.
Then the vehicle's center of mass and the load's center of
c mass may be estimated separately and combined by calcula-
tions. Sample calculations illustrating this methodology are
shown in the topic on heavy trucks (Topic 878).
W= 3175
t
wh"" 1520
11. OTHER ACCELERATION VALUES
As stated earlier in this topic, the quantity / is simply the
Exhibit 38. Dimensions for hoisted car.
number of g's of acceleration a vehicle has. Normally, f is
used in the context of slowing (that is, decreasing velocity).
The height of the center of mass can also be found by The quantity / can also be used for positive acceleration (in-
weighing the right and left sides of the vehicle and then creasing velocity). If a car pulls away after stopping at a stop
weighing one side with the other side hoisted. The same equ- sign, the car is clearly accelerated. It may be useful to calcu-
ation is used, except that the track width of the vehicle is used late the maximum velocity a car could have accelerated by
instead of the wheelbase. Hoisting one side of the vehicle, using an appropriate acceleration rate. 'TYpical/values (and
however, is less convenient than hoisting one end, especially the resulting acceleration values in ftl sec 2 and ml sec 2 ) are
given the layout of most available platform scales. shown in Exhibit 39 8 Also shown in Exhibit 39 are typical
1/ data are not available to calculate the height of the cen- deceleration values for vehicles that do not have locked wheel
ter of mass, a useful estimate can be made of its position. skids. Note that positive ( + ) and negative ( - ) signs are used
The center of mass is generally near where the most weight to indicate positive acceleration (increasing velocity) and
is concentrated. Hence, except in unusual vehicles, it would negative acceleration (decreasing velocity) conditions.
not be below the center of the wheels or much above the top Exhibit 39 gives typical values for normal and rapid accel-
of the wheels. By noting whether the engine and other heavy eration rates of passenger cars. As would be expected, a car
parts are set high or low, a reasonable judgment can usually cannot maintain the same acceleration rate as its speed in-
he reached as to a range of levels between which the height creases. Representative values are suggested in Exhibit 39 to
of the center of mass would be located. The limit of this range reflect this. Some cars may have better performance values
can be used in preliminary calculations, whkh will indicate than the values listed. Nevertheless, the driver has the ulti-
whether more refined methods of locating the height of the mate decision on how much acceleration is selected.
center of are needed. If calculations made using the estimated Typical slowing drag factors are included in Exhibit 39. As
high and low figures do not differ significantly, some esti- noted, these are not skidding values. They have been included
mated figure between them can be used with reasonable con- to give you an idea of typical deceleration values encountered
fidence that calculated results are not greatly in error. under several situations that do not involve locked wheel
skids or very hard braking.
Crossway Location of Center of Mass
Crossway position of center of mass can also be found by 12. SUMMARY
weighing right and left wheels separately and using track
This topic has explained the difference between drag factor
width instead of wheelbase length. In most vehicles, the cen- and coefficient of friction. Clearly, they are not the same
ter of mass is very close to the longitudinal (lengthwise) quantities. Perhaps the most often observed misconception
centerline of the vehicle. Therefore, unless there is reason to
regarding drag factor occurs when after-collision drag factors
believe that there is a significant difference between load on
are estimated. A drag factor is often assumed to be equal to
left and right wheels, one can assume that the center of mass
the coefficient of friction for a vehicle after a collision. Usu-
is on the longitudinal centerline. The right and left positions
ally this is not the case. Such an assumption can result in mis-
of the center of mass have little significance in most problems
takenly high values for first-contact speeds.
relating to slowing to a stop.
Other errors in estimating drag factors stem from assum-
ing that large trucks and motorcycles have the same values
Load Effects
cars have. Rarely is this appropriate. Large-truck and motor-
Load must be included in center-of-mass calculations. If cycle drag factors are addressed in Topics 874 and 878. Con-
the vehicle is available as loaded; it is not difficult to deter- sult these for more information.
~ine the longitudinal position of the center of mass by weigh- Determining drag factors for automobiles and pickup
mg the front and rear wheels separately. If the load has been trucks is not always such an easy task. Test skids of exemplar
removed fron the vehicle or if the vehicle and load are no vehicles can help considerably. If tests are not done, tables
62-37
2. Reed, Walter and Keskin, A. Taner, Vehicular
Acceleration, a Emergency Braking, Society of Automotive Enginleel-8.
Drag Meters Feet 870501, 1987.
Condition Speed range factor per per 3. Barzelay, Martin E., and George W Lacy,
j=a/g sec2 sec 2
tomobile Accident Reconstruction. Matthew Bender
Free fall + 1.00 +9.81 +32.2 New York, 1988.
62-38
Traffic Accident
Reconstruction
Volume 2 of The
Traffic Accident
Investigation Manual
Lynn B. Fricke
NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
ENTER FOR PUBLIC SAFETY
PUBLICATION HISTORY
Most of the material in this volume is being published for the first time. The
only exceptions are parts of the "Reconstruction" chapter found in the 1975
edition of The Traffic Accident Investigation Manual (Volume 1) and the Traffic
Institute publication "Estimating Vehicle Stopping Time and Distance," which
also covered certain material used in this book. Otherwise, the topics found in
this volume represent new material.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any electronic or mechanical means including photocopying, recording, or by
any information storage and retrieval system, except for the purpose of short
quotations within book reviews, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
ISBN 0-912642-07-6