BAS -012

AERODYNAMICS - I
BLOCKS AND UNITS

BLOCK 1 : AERODYNAMICS AS A BRANCH OF FLUID

MECHANICS AND FUNDAMENTAL GAS LAWS

UNIT 1 : Aerodynamics and Gas laws

UNIT 2 : Fluid Statics and Dynamics
UNIT 3 : Lagrangian and other approaches to Air flow

BLOCK 2 : TWO-DIMENSIONAL IDEAL FLUID FLOW

UNIT 4 : Circulation and vorticity

UNIT 5 : Rotational and Irrotational flows and Mapping of fluid
flows
UNIT 6 : Lift on rotating cylinder in uniform flow
UNIT 7 : Kutta-Joukowski theorem, Magnus Effect, Paradox of
D’Alembert

BLOCK 3 : COMPLEX POTENTIAL

UNIT 8 : Properties and applications of various flows.

UNIT 9 : Conformal transformation, Joukowski traces for motion
UNIT 10 : General expression for lift and moments

BLOCK 4 : 2- D INCOMPRESSIBLE THIN AEROFOIL

THEORY

UNIT 11 : Lift and pitching moment coefficients

UNIT 12 : Effect of flap on aerodynamic coefficients
UNIT 13 : Experimental methods

1
 Indira Gandhi National Open University BAS-009
School of Engineering & Technology AERODYNAMICS -I

BLOCK 1
AERODYNAMICS AS A BRANCH OF FLUID MECHANICS AND FUNDAMENTAL GAS LAWS

2
Education is …………..

3
Indira Gandhi National Open University BAS-012
School of Engineering & Technology AERODYNAMICS -I

Block

1
AERODYNAMICS AS A BRANCH OF FLUID MECHANICS AND
FUNDAMENTAL GAS LAWS

UNIT 1:

Aerodynamics and Gas laws

UNIT 2:

Fluid Statics and Dynamics

UNIT 3:

Lagrangian and other approaches to Air Flow

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EXPERTS

Air Cmde Sajjad Rahim VSM (Retd)

Prof. D G Shirke
Prof. Muralidhar Patkar

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 Aerodynamic -I
Consequent study of the basic course, Introduction to Aerodynamics as per which the students
have been familiarized to fundamental terminologies and certain calculations related Air plane
design and performance, this is the first step in understanding Aerodynamics. This course
exposes the students to the specific branch of Fluid Mechanics. It provides the application of
Fundamental gas laws, the behavior of fluid in both static and dynamic forms.

The objective of the course is to prepare the students for further study in higher aerodynamics
and understand how various laws are applied

BLOCK – I
Block I familiarizes the students to Aerodynamics as branch of Fluid Mechanics and
recapitulates the Fundamental gas laws in fluid statics and dynamics, as well as the basic
approaches and certain generalized equations.

BLOCK – II
This block deals with two-dimensional ideal fluid, it helps the students to understand the
different types of flows, the importance of circulations and various terminologies such as Source,
Sink, Vertex flow. The student will learn to map the flow fields and determine pressure &
velocity distribution. He will also be exposed to put up Joukowski theorem, the Magnus effect
and the Paradox of D’Alembert.

BLOCK – III
This block deals with Complex Potential, its properties to various flows, Conformal
Transformation and general expressions of Lift and Moment.

BLOCK – IV
This block specifically deals with Two-dimensional in compressible thin aero foil theory. By
studying this, the students will appreciate the lift and pitching moment coefficient variations on
flat plate & curved plates as well as Aero foils, it will also show how flats effects the
aerodynamics coefficients. The block also describes the various types of winds tunnels and the
techniques to measure various parameters.

Suggested Readings

Fundamentals of Aerodynamics – John D Anderson Jr

Aerodynamics for Engineering students - Houghton and Brook
Aerodynamics for Engineering students - Houghton and Carpenter
Introduction to flight - John D Anderson Jr.

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BLOCK - I AERODYNAMICS AS A BRANCH OF FLUID MECHANICS
AND FUNDAMENTAL GAS LAWS

This block consists of 3 units

Unit 1: The unit explains Aerodynamics as a branch of Fluid Mechanics and recapitulates the
gas laws which are applied in the study of Aerodynamics.

Unit 2: The unit deals with fluid behavior in both static and dynamics.

Unit 3: This unit gives the Lagrangian and Eularian approach, it also gives the development of
the Bernoullis generalized equation and provides Navier stokes exact solution.

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UNIT 1 AERODYNAMICS AND GAS LAWS

Structure

1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 Aerodynamics
1.3 Recapitulation of fundamental gas laws

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Objectives

1.2 AERODYNAMICS
Aerodynamics is an applied science with many practical applications in Engineering. All efforts
in Aerodynamics are aimed at one or more of the following objectives.

a. The prediction of forces and moments on, heat transfer to, bodies moving through a fluid
which is generally air, such as generation of lift, track and moments on Aero foils, wings,
fuselage, engine nacelles as well as the whole aircraft configuration. It also aims at
estimation of wind force on buildings, ships, other surface vehicles. It also helps to

8
 calculate the Aerodynamic heating of flight vehicles either supersonic aircraft or
planetary probes while entering the atmosphere.
b. Determination of flows moving internally through depths. To calculate and measure the
flow properties inside rockets and air breathing Jet engines .It may also be required to
know the flow condition in the test section of a wind tunnel.
c. The above applications come under external aerodynamics and internal Aerodynamics
respectively, since these deal with external flow over a body in contrast with flow
internally within ducts.
d. Aerodynamics is a branch of fluid dynamics it is classified so because differences exist
between the flow of liquids and the flow of gases. Different gases have different
properties. Therefore fluid dynamics is subdivided into three areas as follows
i. Hydrodynamics – flow of liquids
ii. Gas dynamics – flow of gases
iii. Aerodynamics – flow of air
e. As seen the word “fluid” is used to denote either a liquid or a gas. The basic difference
between solid and fluid is, when a force is tangentially applied to the surface of a solid,
the solid will experience a finied deformation, in contrast when a tangential force is
applied to the surface of fluid, the fluid will experience a continuously increasing
deformation .The most fundamental distinction between solids, liquids and gases is at the
atomic and molecular level. In a solid the molecules are packed so closely that their
nuclei and electrons form a rigid structure. In liquid the spacing between molecules is
larger. Molecular for intermolecular forces though strong allow enough moment of the
molecules to give the liquid its fluidity. In a gas the spacing between molecules is much
larger hence the influence of intermolecular forces is much weaker. The motions of the
molecules occurs freely throughout the gas.

1.3 RECAPTULATION OF FUNDAMENTAL GAS LAWS

Gases can be compressed or expanded unlike liquids. The expansion and compression of gases
take place in accordance with various laws of thermodynamics as follows:

Boyl’s law

According to this law, at a constant temperature the product of pressure and volume of gases
remain constant. The expansion or compression of a gas taking place according to this law is
known as isothermal process. Suppose p is the intensity of pressure and V is the volume of a gas.
According to Boyl’s Law

pV = a constant

If a gas having initial pressure P1, volume V1 is compressed or expanded to pressure P2, volume
V2 at a constant temperature, then,

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 p1 V1 = p2V2 = a constant

Charle’s law

According to this law if any gas heated at constant pressure, the change in volume varies directly
with the temperature range. This change in volume is constant and is the same for all perfect
gases.

Suppose T = absolute temperature and V = volume.

Then from the Charle’s law

V
T = a constant when pressure p is constant.

Combining both Boyl’s law we get,

pV
= a constant.
T

For one unit mass of gas, this constant is represented by R.

pV
= R.
T

pV
If the mass of the gas is m we have, = mR
T

or pV = mRT.

The equation pV = mRT is known as the equation of state of a gas or characteristic equation of
perfect gases. R is called the gas constant.

Avagadro law

It states that all gases at the same temperature and pressure have the same number of molecules
per unit volume.

This leads to the result that the molecular weight of a gas is proportional to its density.

We know that pV = mRT

p m
T
= V R = constant.

therefore ρR = constant.

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This leads to the result that the product of molecular weight and gas constant R is the same for
all gases. The product of molecular weight and gas constant. T is known as Universal gas
constant.

Dalton’s law

According to Dalton the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of
pressure that would be exerted by each of the gases if it alone were present and occupied the total
volume.

Henry’s Law

It states that amount of any given gas that will dissolve in a liquid at a given temperature is a
Vg
function of the partial pressure of the gas that in the particular liquid will be equal to = αp
V

Vg = volume of the gas dissolved at standard temperature and pressure

V = volume of liquid

α = Bunsen solubility co-efficient at specified temperature

p = partial pressure in atmosphere of the gas above the liquid

Adiabatic process

In this process the change in volume takes place such that the total amount of heat in the system
remains unchanged. In this process

pVk = constant

where k is known as adiabatic constant and it is the ratio between the specific heats at constant
pressure and constant volume.

kp
k= . For air, k =1.4
kr

If the adiabatic process is reversible, it is known as isentropic. It is also known as frictionless

adiabatic.

Isothermic process

An isothermic process is a change of a system in which the temperature remains constant i.e.
Δt=0, this generally occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir and the
change occurs slowly enough to allow the system to continuously adjust to the temperature of the
reservoir through heat exchange.

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Modulus of elasticity E. By Boyl’s law

pV = constant

Differentiating, Vdp + pdV = 0

pdV = - Vdp

−dp
p= = E.
dV /V

It is the same eqn. as obtained earlier.

For adiabatic process, pVk = constant.

Differentiating kp Vk-1d?V + Vkdp = 0

kp Vk-1dV = - Vkdp

dp
kp = - =E
dV /V

This holds good for isentropic process also.

Table: Properties of a few common fluids at S.T.P. (288.15K and 1.013255 x 105 N/m2)

Fluids Mass Dynamic Kinematic Bulk Surface Modulus o

density ρ viscosity μ viscosity γ modulus of tension f elasticity
in kg/m3 in Ns/m2 in m2/s elasticity with air σ E in N/m2
K in N/m2 in N/m

Water 1000 0.001 1x10-6 2.09x109 0.073 1.162x109

Air 1.22 0.000018 15x10-6 ---- ----- ----

Mercury 13550 0.0016 0.118x10-6 26x109 0.505 2.624x109

Lub.oil 930 0.1 1.08x10-6 1.4x109 0.035 1.44x109

Glycerine 1260 0.0015 1.1x10-6 4.03x109 0.06 4.36x109

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Some of the practical applications of gas laws can be seen in our day to day life. Hot air balloon
are a good example of Charles Law that gases expand when they are heated. A Bicycle pump
illustrates Boyle’s Law, If finger is put over the end of bike pump and the pull ender is pushed
the gas pressure of a gas increase and will try to push the finger out of the way. Pressure of a gas
increases with temperature this is why one needs to change the amount of air in a vehicle tyre
when it gets very hot or very cold. It is an example of Gay Luxxace Law. Blowing up a balloon
involves Avogadro law the more gas molecules is blown into the balloon the larger the volume
becomes.

The behavior of gases is affected by three factors, the temperature of gas, the pressure of the gas
and the volume of the gas. The relationships among these three factors have been defined in what
are called the gas laws.

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UNIT 2 FLUID STATICS AND DYNAMICS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objective
2.1.1 Kinematics
2.1.2 Fluid dynamics
2.1.3 Fluid Statics

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Fluid mechanics is a science which deals with the behavior of fluids when subjected to a system
of forces. It involves the study of behavior of fluids at rest or that in motion and development
and testing of theories devised to explain the various phenomenon that occurs.
The subject is clarified into

2.1.1 KINEMATICS

Kinematics deals with space, time relationships of fluid flow, without necessarily considering the
forces and the moments that cause the motion. Further in this chapter various kinematic concept
will be discussed. The material derivative and its role in transforming the conservation equation
from the Lagrangian description of fluid flow that is following a fluid particles to the Eularian
description of fluid flow pertaining to a flow field will be discussed. The flow flied can be
visualized. The four fundamental kinematic properties of fluid motion and deformation are, rate
of translation, rate or rotation, linear strain rate and shear strain rate, it also covers the concept of
veracity rationality and ir- rationality in the fluid flow.

2.1.2 FLUID DYNAMICS

Fluid dynamics deals with fluid flow subjected to forces energy laws and their variations. It has
several sub disciplines which include aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. Fluid dynamics has
wide range of applications including calculation of forces and moments on aircraft, determining
the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipe lines, prediction weather patterns.
The solution to fluid dynamics problems typically involves calculating various properties of fluid
such as velocity, pressure, density and temperature as functions of space and time.

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2.1.3 FLUID STATICS

Fluid statics is the science of fluid at rest . It refers to the mathematical treatment of the subject,
under fluid statics the study involves conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable
equilibrium i.e. the forces acting on the fluid are in equilibrium.

FLUID STATICS AND THE ATMOSPHERE

Before treating the more difficult case of a fluid in motion, let us consider a fluid at rest in static
equilibrium. The mass per unit volume of a fluid is defined as the mass density, usually denoted
by ρ. The mass density is a constant for liquids, but it is a function of temperature, T, and
pressure, for gases. Indeed, for a gas, p, ρ and T are related by the equation of state

P = ρRT

R is referred to as the universal gas constant. T, is the absolute temperature measured in degree
Kelvin in the SI system and degrees Rankine in the English system.

A vertical cylinder of fluid is shown in figure 2.1 having a unit cross-sectional area and a
differential height, dh. The weight of the fluid contained within the cylinder is given by ρghd and
is shown in the figure as a gravitational force acting downward. A normal pressure, p, is shown
acting upward on the bottom of the cylinder and a pressure p+(dp/dh)dh acting downward on the
top where dp/dh is the gradient of the static pressure with increasing height. Since the liquid
element is at rest, all of the forces acting on it must be in equilibrium. Thus, summing forces in
the vertical direction results in an expression for the pressure gradient.

Figure 2.1 static forces acting on differential cylinder of air in the atmosphere.

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 dp
dh
= - ρg (2.2)

The temperature in the atmosphere decreases at a nearly constant rate, known as the lapse rate,
up to an altitude of approximately 11km (36,000 ft). This region of the atmosphere is known as
the troposphere. Above this altitude, in the lower part of the stratosphere, the temperature
remains nearly constant up to an altitude of approximately 23km (75,500 ft). If this
experimentally observed behavior for the temperature is utilized together with equation 2.1 &
2.2, a set of equations can be formulated that model closely the standard atmosphere. Up to
11km, the pressure and temperature are related by

1
dp dT
p
= - T R ( dT ) (2.3)
dh

The standard lapse rate is 6.510Kelvin per kilometer. Thus, the following equation, which relates
the atmospheric temperature and static pressure, is easily obtained for a constant lapse rate.

g
dp dT
p
= - R (
dT
) T
(2.4)
dh

Integrating the above from sea level to h gives the pressure as a function of temperature.

δ= θ5.256 h<11km(36,000ft) (2.5)

δ is the ratio of the pressure of any altitude to the pressure at sea level and is the corresponding
ratio for the absolute temperature.

The density ratio σ , can be obtained immediately from the equation of state and equation 2.5

σ =θ4.256 h<11km(36,000ft) (2.6)

Equation 2.4 & 2.5 are dimensionless and therefore are valid for either the SI or English system
of units.

Since θ is a function of the altitude, h,it follows that the pressure and density can also be found
for any altitude up to 11km or 36,000ft.

Above 11km (36,000ft) up to approximately 23km (75,500ft), the temperature is nearly constant.
In this case, Equation 2.2 integrates to become

−g
δ = δcexp[ RT c
(h−h c) ]
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In this equation, a sub c denotes conditions at 11km or 36,000ft. From the equation of state and
equation 2.7, the density ratio ,is obtained immediately as

δ
σ=
θc

FLUID DYNAMICS
We will now treat a fluid that is moving so that, in addition to gravitational forces, inertial and
shearing forces must be considered.

A typical flow around a streamlined shape is pictured in figure 2.4 note that this figure is labeled
“two-dimensional flow”; this means simply that the flow field is a function only of two
coordinates (x and y), in the case of figure 2.4 and does not depend on the third coordinate. For
example, the flow of wind around a tall, cylinder smokestack is essentially two-dimensional
except near the top. Here, the wind goes over as well as around the stack, and the flow is three-
dimensional. As another example, figure 2.4 might represent the flow around a long, streamlined
strut such as the one that supports the wing of a high-wing airplane. The three-dimensional
counterpart of this shape might be the blimp.

Several features of flow around a body in general are noted in figure 2.4. First, observe that the
flow is illustrated by means of streamlines. A streamlines is an imaginary line characterizing the
flow such that, at every point along the line, the velocity vector is tangent to the line. Thus in
two-dimensional flow, if y(x) defines the position of a streamline, y(x)is related to the x and y
components of the velocity, u(x) and v(x), by

dy v (x )
=
dx u(x)

Note that the body surface itself is a streamline.

In three-dimensional flow a surface swept by streamlines is known as a stream surface. If such

surface is closed, it is known as a stream tube.

The mass flow accelerates around the body as the result of a continuous distribution of pressure
exerted on the fluid by the body. An equal and opposite reaction must occur on the body. This
static pressure distribution, acting everywhere normal to the body’s surface, is pictured on the
lower half of the body in figure 2.4. The small arrows represent the local static pressure, p,
relative to the static pressure, p0, in the fluid far removed from the body. Near the nose, p is
greater than P0; further after the pressure becomes negative relative to P0.If this static pressure

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distribution, acting normal to the surface, is known, forces on the body can be determined by
integrating this pressure over its surface.

In addition to the local static pressure, shearing stresses resulting from the fluid’s viscosity also
give to body forces. As fluid passes over a solid surface, the fluid particles immediately in
contact with the surface are brought to rest. Moving away from the surface, successive layers of
fluid are slowed by the shearing stresses produced by the inner layers.( The term “layers” is used
only as a convenience in describing the fluid behavior. The fluid shears in a continuous manner
and not in discrete layers). The result is a thin layer of slower moving fluid, known as the

boundary layer, adjacent to the surface. Near the front of the body, this layer is very thin, and the
flow within it is smooth without any random or turbulent fluctuations. Here, the fluid particles
might be described as moving along in the layer on parallel planes, or laminae; hence, the flow is
referred to as laminar.

At some distance back from the nose of the body, disturbances to flow (e.g., from the surface
roughnesses ) are no longer damped out. These disturbance suddenly amplify, and the laminar
boundary layer undergoes transition to a turbulent boundary layer. This layer is considerably
thicker than the laminar one and is characterized by a mean velocity profile on which small,
randomly fluctuating velocity components are superimposed. These flow regions are shown in
figure 2.4. The boundary layers are pictured considerably thicker than they actually are for
purpose of illustration. For example, on the wing of an airplane flying at 100 m/s at low altitude,
the turbulent boundary 1.0 back from the leading edge would ne only approximately 1.6 cm
thick. If the layer were still laminar at this point, its thickness would be approximately 0.2 cm.

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Returning to figure 2.4, the turbulent boundary layer continues to thicken toward the rear of the
body. Over this portion of the surface the fluid is moving into a region of increasing static
pressure that is tending to oppose the flow. The slower moving fluid in the boundary layer may
be unable to overcome this adverse pressure gradient, so that at some point the flow actually
separates form the body surface. Downstream of this separation point, reverse flow will be found
along the surface with the static pressure nearly constant and equal to that at the point of
separation.

At some distance downstream of the body, the separated flow closes and a wake is formed. Here,
a velocity deficiency representing a momentum loss by the fluid is found near the center of the
wake. This decrement of momentum (more precisely, momentum flux) is a direct measure of the
body drag (i.e. the force on the body in the direction of the free-stream velocity).

The general flow pattern described thus far can vary, depending on the size and shape of the
body, the magnitude of the free-stream velocity, and the properties of the fluid. Variations in
these parameters can eliminate transition or separation or both.

One might reasonably assume that the forces on a body moving through a fluid depend in some
way on the mass density of the fluid ρ, the size of the body, l and the body’s velocity, V. If we
assume that any one force, F, is proportional to the product of these parameters each raised to an
unknown power, then

F xρa V blc
(2.10)
In order for the basic units of mass, length, and time to be consistent, it follows that

ML M
T 2 = 3
L ( ) ( TL ) L
a b c
(2.11)

Considering M,L and T in order leads to three equation for the unknown exponents of a, b, and c
form which it is found that a = 1, b = 2 and c = 2. Hence,

Fx ρV2l2 (2.12)

For a particular force, the constant of proportionality in equation 2.12 is referred to as a

coefficient and is modified by the name of the force, for example, the lift coefficient. Thus, the
lift and drag forces, L and D, can be expressed as

1
L= ρV2SCL (2.13a)
2

1
D= ρV2SCD (2.13b)
2

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Note that the square of the characteristic length, l2 , has been replaced by a reference area, S.
Also, a factor of ½ has been introduced. This can be done, since the lift and drag coefficients, CL
and CD are arbitrary at this point. The quantity of ρV2/2 is referred to as the dynamic pressure,
the significance of which will be made clear shortly.

For many applications, the coefficient CL and CD remain constant for a given geometric shape
over a wide range of operating conditions or body size. For example two-dimensional airfoil at a
10 angle of attack will have a lift coefficient of more. In addition , CL will be almost independent
of the size of the airfoil. However, a more rigorous application of dimensional analysis (see
Buckingham’s π theorem) will result in the constant of proportionality in equation 2.12 possibly
being dependent on a number of dimensionless parameters. Two of the most important of these
are known as the Reynolds number, R and the Mach number, M, defined by
Vlρ
R = (2.14)
μ

V
M= (2.14)
a
Where l is a characteristic length, V is the free-stream velocity, μ is the coefficient of viscosity,
and a is the velocity of sound. The velocity of sound is the speed at which a small pressure
disturbance is propagated through the fluid; at this point, it requires no further explanation.

The coefficient of viscosity, however, is not as well known and will be elaborated on by
reference to figure 2.5. Here, the velocity profile is pictured in the boundary layer of a laminar,
viscous flow over a surface. The viscous shearing produces a shearing stress of τ w on the wall.
This force per unit area is related to the gradient of the velocity u(y) at the wall by

τw = μ ( dudy ) y=0 (2.15)

Actually, Equation 2.15 is applicable to calculating the shear stresses between fluid elements and
is not restricted simply to the wall. Generally, the viscous shearing stress in the fluid in any plane
parallel to the flow and away from the wall is given by the product of μ and the velocity gradient
normal to the direction of flow.

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The kinematic viscosity, v, is defined as the ratio of μ to ρ

μ
v= ρ

v is defined as a matter of convenience, since it is the ratio of μ to ρ that governs the Reynolds
number. The kinematic viscosity for the standard atmosphere is included in figure 2.3 as a
fraction of the standard sea level value.
A physical significance can be given to the Reynolds number by multiplying numerator and
denominator by v and dividing by l.

ρV 2
R = ( μV )
l
In the following material (see Eq 2.28) the normal pressure will be shown to be proportional to
ρV2 whereas, from equation 2.15, μ V/l is proportional to the shearing stress. Hence for a given
flow the Reynolds number is proportional to the ratio of normal pressures ( inertia forces) to
viscous shearing stresses. Thus, relatively speaking, a flow is less viscous than another flow if its
Reynolds number is higher than that of the second flow.

The Mach number determines to what extent fluid compressibility can be neglected (i.e. the
variation of mass density with pressure). Current jet transports, for example, can cruise at Mach
numbers up to approximately 0.8 before significant compressibility effects are encountered.

At low Mach number. Two flows are geometrically and dynamically similar if the Reynolds
numbers are the same for both flows. Hence, for example, for a given shape, CD for a body 10m
long at 100m/s will be the same as CD for a body 100 m long at 10m/s. As another example,
suppose transition occurs 2 m back from the leading edge of a flat plate aligned with a flow
having a velocity of 50 m/s. Then, a 25m/s transition would occur at a distance of 4m from the
leading edge. Obviously, the effects of R and M on dimensionless aerodynamic coefficient
must be considered when interpreting test results obtained with the use of small models.
For many cases of interest to aerodynamics, the pressure field around a shape can be calculated
assuming the air to be inviscid and incompressible. Small corrections can then be made to the
resulting solutions to account for these “ real fluid” effects. Corrections for viscosity or
compressibility will be considered as needed in the following chapters.

CONSERVATION OF MASS

Fluid passing through an area at a velocity of V has a mass flow rate equal to ρAV. This is easily
seen by reference to figure 2.6. Here, flow is pictured along a stream tube of cross-sectional area
A. The Fluid velocity equal to V. At time t = 0, picture a small slug of fluid of length, l about to
cross a reference plane. At a time l/V, this entire slug will have passed through the reference
plane. The volume of the slug is Al, so that a mass of ρAl was transported across the reference
plane during the time l/V. Hence, the mass rate of flow, m, is given by

21
 ρAl
m = ( l/V )
= ρAV (2.16)
Along a streamtube (which may be a conduit with solid walls) the quantity ρAV must be constant
if mass is not to accumulate in the system. For incompressible flow, ρ is a constant, so that the
conservation of mass leads to the continuity principle

AV = constant

AV is the volume flow rate and is sometimes referred to as the flux. Similarly,ρAV is the mass
flux. The mass flux through a surface multiplied by the velocity vector at the surface is defined
as the momentum flux. Generally, if the velocity vector is not normal to the surface, the mass
flux will be

ρAV .n
With the momentum flux written as
( ρAV .n)V

Reference Plane

Here n is the unit vector normal to the surface and in the direction in which the flux is defined to
be positive. For example, if the surface encloses a volume and the net mass flux out of the volune
is to be calculated, n would be directed outward from the volume, and the following integral
would be evaluated over the entire surface.
❑

∫∫ ρV . n dS
S

Consider the conservation of mass applied to a differential control surface. For simplicity, a two-
dimensional flow will be treated. A rectangular contour is shown in figure 2.7. The flow passing
through this element has velocity components of u and v in the center of the element in x and y
directions, respectively. The corresponding components on the right face of the element are

22
found by expanding them in a Taylor series in x and y and dropping second-order and higher
terms in Δx. Hence, the mass flux out through the right face will be

∂(ρu) ∆ x
[ ρu+
∂x 2 ]
∆y

Writing similar expressions for the other three faces leads to the net mass flux out being

∂ (ρu) ∂(ρv)
[
∂x
+
∂y
∆x∆ y ]
The net mass flux out of the differential element must equal the rate at which the mass of the
fluid contained within the elements is decreasing, given by

∂
- ( ρ ∆ x ∆ y)
∂t

Since Δx and Δy are arbitrary, it follows that, in general,

∂ ρ ∂( ρu) ∂( ρv)
+ + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y

In three dimensions the preceding equation can be written in vector notation as

∂ρ
+ ∇ . ( ρV ) =0 (2.17)
∂t

23
Where ∇ is the vector operator, del, defined by

∂ ∂ ∂
∇=i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z

Any physically possible flow must satisfy equation 2.17 at every point in the flow.

For an incompressible flow, the mass density is a constant, so Equaiton 2.17 reduces to

∇ .V =0 (2.18)

The above in known as the divergence of the velocity vector, div V.

THE MOMENTUM THOEREM

The momentum theorem in fluid mechanics is the counterpart of Newton’s second law of motion
in solid mechanics, which states that a force imposed on a system produces a rate of change in
the momentum of the system. The theorem can be easily derived by treating the fluid particles
and applying the second law. The details of the derivation can be found in several texts (e.g., Ref
2.1) and will not be repeated here.

Defining a control surface as an imaginary closed surface through which a flow is passing, the
momentum theorem states:

24
The sum of external forces (or momentum) acting on control surface and internal forces (or
moments) acting on the fluid within the control surface produces a change in flux of momentum
(or angular momentum) through the surface and an instantaneous rate of change of momentum
(or angular momentum) of the fluid particles within the control surface.

Mathematically, for linear motion of an inviscid fluid, the theorem can be expressed in vector
notation by
❑ ❑ ❑
∂
-∫∫ p n dS+ B=∫∫ ρ V ( V . n ) ds+ ∂ t ∫∫∫ ρV dτ (2.19)
s s v

In equation 2.19, n is the unit normal directed outward from the surface, S, enclosing the
volume, V. V is the velocity vector, which generally depends on position and time. B represents
the vector sum of all body forces within the control surface acting on the fluid. ρ is the mass
density of the fluid defined as the mass per unit volume.

For the angular momentum,

❑ ❑
∂
Q = ∫ ∫ ρ ( V ×r ) ( V .n ) ds + ∂t ∫∫ ∫ ρ(V × r) dτ
s v

Here Q is the vector sum all moments, both internal and external, acting on the control surface or
the fluid within the surface. r is the radius vector to a fluid particle.

Euler’s Equation of Motion

The principle of conservation of mass applied to an elemental control surface led to equation
2.17, which must be satisfied everywhere in the flow. Similarly, the momentum theorem applied
to the same element leads to another set of equations that must hold everywhere.

Referring again to Figure 2.7, if p is the static pressure at the center of the element, then, on the
center of the right face, the static pressure will be

∂p ∆x
P+
∂x 2

This pressure and a similar pressure on the left face produce a net force in the x direction equal
to

∂p
- Δx Δy
∂x

25
Since there are no body forces present and the fluid is assumed inviscid, the above force must
equal the net momentum flux out plus the instantaneous change of fluid momentum contained
within the element.

The momentum flux out of the right face in the x direction will be

∂(ρu) ∆ x ∂u ∆ x
[ ρu+
∂x 2 ](
u+
∂x 2 )
∆y

Out of the upper face the corresponding momentum flux will be

∂( ρv) ∆ y ∂u ∆ y
[ ρv+
∂y 2 ](u+
∂y 2
∆x )
Similar expressions can be written for the momentum flux in through the left and bottom faces.

The instantaneous change of the fluid momentum contained within the element in the x direction
is simply

∂
( ρu ∆ x ∆ y)
∂t

Thus, equating the net forces in the x direction to the change in momentum and momentum flux
and using equation 2.17 leads to

∂u ∂u ∂u −1 ∂ p
+u +v = (2.21)
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂x

Generalizing this to three dimensions results in a set equation known as Euler equation of
motion.

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂ p
+u +v +w − (2.22a)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂ z ρ ∂x

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p
+u +v +w − (2.22b)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂ y

∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w 1 ∂p
+u +v +w − (2.22c)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂ z ρ ∂z

Notice that if u is written as u( x, y, z ,t), the left side equation 2.22 is the total derivative of u.
The operator, ∂( )/∂t, is the local acceleration and exists only if the flow is unsteady.

26
In vector notation Euler’s equation can be written

∂V −1
+ (V . ∇) V = ∇p (2.23)
∂t ρ

If the vector product of the operator ∇ is taken with each term in equation 2.23, equation 2.24
results.

∂ω
+ (V . ∇)ω=0 (2.24)
∂t

ω is the curl of the velocity vector, ∇ x V, and is known as the vorticity.

i j k
∇×V=
∂
∂x
u
| ∂
∂y
v
∂
∂z
w
| (2.25)

One can conclude from equation 2.24 that, for an inviscid fluid, the vorticity is constant along a
streamline. Since, far removed from a body, the flow id usually taken to be uniform, the vorticity
at that location is Zero; hence, it is zere everywhere.

Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli’s equation is well known in fluid mechanics and relates the pressure to the velocity
along a streamline in an inviscid, incompressible flow. It was first formulated by Euler in the
middle 1700s. The derivation of this equation follows from Euler’s equation using the fact that
along a streamline the velocity vector is tangential to the streamline.

dx dy dz
= = (2.26)
u v w

First, multiply equation 2.22a through by dx and then substitute equation 2.26 for v dx and w dx.
Also, the first term of the equation will be set equal to zero; that is, at this time only steady flow
will be considered.

∂u ∂u ∂u −1 ∂ p
u dx+u dy +u dz= dx
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x

Similarly, multiplying equation 2.22b by dy, equation 2.22c by dz and substitute equation 2.26
for u dy, w dy and u dz, v dz respectively. Adding the three equations results in perfect
differentials for p and V2, V being the magnitude of the resultant velocity along the streamline.
This last term results from the fact that

27
 ∂ u 1 ∂u 2
u = and
∂x 2 ∂x

V2 = u2 + v2 + w2

Thus, along a streamline, Euler’s equation become

dp
V dV + =0 (2.27)
ρ

If ρ is not a function of p (i.e., the flow is incompressible). Equation 2.27 can be integrated
immediately to give

1
p+ ρ V 2=¿ constant (2.28)
2

If the flow is uniform at infinity, equation 2.28 becomes

1 1
p+ ρ V 2=¿ constant = p x + ρ V 2x (2.29)
2 2

Here, V is the magnitude of the local velocity and p is the local static pressure. Vx and px are the
corresponding free-stream values. Equation 2.29 is known as Bernoulli’s equation.

The counterpart to equation 2.29 for compressible flow is obtained by assuming pressure and
density changes to follow an isentropic process.For such a process,

p/ργ = constant (2.30)

γ
is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume and
is equal approximately to 1.4 for air. Substituting equation 2.30 into equation 2.27 and
integrating leads to an equation sometimes referred to as the compressible Bernoulli’s equation.

V2 γ p
+ = constant (2.31)
2 γ −1 ρ

This equation can be written in terms of the acoustic velocity. First, it is necessary to derive the
acoustic velocity, which can be done by the use of the momentum theorem and continuity.
Figure 2.9 assumes the possibility of a stationary disturbance in a steady flow across which the
pressure, density and velocity change by small increments. In the absence of body forces and
viscosity, the momentum theorem gives

28
 −dp=( ρ+dρ )( u+du)2 - ρ u2

But from continuity

( ρ+dρ )( u+du) = ρ u❑ or

u dρ=−ρdu

Thus,

dp
u2= (2.32)
dρ

If the small disturbance is stationary in the steady flow having a velocity of u, then obliviously u
is the velocity of the disturbance relative to the fluid. By definition, it follows that u, given by
equation 2.32, is the acoustic velocity.

By the use of equiaton2.30 the acoustic velocity is obtained as

a= ( γpρ ) 1/2
(2.33)

An alternate form, using the equation of state is

a=( γRT )1/2 (2.34)

Thus, equation 2.31 can be written

V 2 a2
+ =¿ constant (2.35)
2 γ −1

The acoustic velocity is also included in figure 2.2 for the standard atmosphere.

Lagrangian approach and Eulerian approach

The fluid flow is anlaysed by two different approaches, Lgrangina approach and the Eulerian
approach.

In Lgrangian method, different single particles of a fluid in the low are pin-pointed and their
flow characteristics such as velocity, acceleration, shape, size, form etc. are closely observed and
noted during their entire course of flow. On the contrary, in Eulerian method, the flow

29
characteristics of all the particles are observed, noted and analyzed at one section or points or
section of the flow at one time. Of the two approaches, the Eulerian approach is considered to be
more useful in the analysis of the practical problems in the fluid mechanics because of its
mathematical simplicity. As such this method will be used in what follows.

It may be pointed out that motion of a fluid at each point or station of low, is specified by
velocity components expressed as functions of space and time as given below:

u = f (x, y, z, t)

v = f (x, y, z, t)

w = f (x, y, z, t)

U = f (x, y, z, t)

Further attempts to understand fluid dynamic drag were made by the French mathematician Jena
Le Rond d’ Alembert, who is noted for developing the calculus of partial differences (leading to
the mathematics of partial differential equations). In 1768 d’ Alembert applied the equations of
motion for an incompressible, inviscid(frictionless) flow about a two-dimensional body in a
moving fluid and found that no drag is obtained. He wrote: “ I do not see then, I admit, how one
can exp[lain the resistance of fluids by the theory in a satisfactory manner. It seems to me on the
contrary that this theory, dealt with and studied with profound attention gives, at least in most
cases, resistance absolutely zero: a singular paradox which I leave to geometricians to explain.”
That this theoretical result of zero drag is truly a paradox was clearly recognized by d’ Alembert,
who also conducted experimental research on drag and who was among the first to discover that
drag was proportional to the square of the velocity.

D’ Alembert’s paradox arose due to the neglect of friction in the classical theory. It was not until
a century later that the effect of friction was properly incorporated in the classical equation of
motion by the work of M.Navier (1785-1836) and Sir George Stokes (1819-1903).The so-called
Navier-Stokes equations stand today as the classical formulation of fluid dynamics. However, in
general they are nonlinear equations and are extremely difficult to solve; indeed, only with the
numerical power of modern high-speed digital computer are “exact” solutions of the Navier-
Stokes equations finally being obtained for general flow fields. Also in the 19th century, the first
experiments on transition from laminar to turbulent flow were carried out by Osborne Reynolds
(1842-1912).In his classic paper of 1883 entitled “An Experimental Investigation of the
Circumstances which Determine whether the Motion of Water in parallel channels shall be direct
or sinuous and of the Law of resistance in parallel channels,” Reynolds observed a filament of
colored dye in a pipe flow and noted that transition from laminar to turbulent flow always
corresponded to approximately the same value of a dimensionless number ρVD/μ, where D was
the diameter of the pipe. This was the origin of the Reynolds number.

30
Exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations

Few physically realizable exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations exist. Even fewer are of
much interest in Engineering. Here we will present the two simplest solutions, namely Couette
flow (simple shear flow) and plane Poiseuille flow (channel flow).These are useful for
engineering applications, although not for the aerodynamics of wings and bodies. The third exact
solution represents the flow in the vicinity of a stagnation point. This is important for calculating
the flow around wings and bodies. It also illustrates a common and at first sight, puzzling
feature. Namely, that if the dimensionless Navier-Stokes equations can be reduced to an ordinary
differential equation, this is regarded as tantamount to an exact solution. This is because the
essentials of the flow field can be represented in terms of one or two curves plotted on a single
graph. Also numerical solutions to ordinary differential equations can be obtained to any desired
acciuracy.

Couette flow-simple shear flow

This is the simplest exact solution. It corresponds to the flow field created between two infinite,
plane, parallel surfaces; the upper one moving tangentially at speed UT , the lower one being
stationary.

Since the flow is steady and two-dimensional, derivatives with respect to z and t are zero, and w=
0. The streamlines are parallel to the x axis, so v = 0. Therefore eqution

∂u ∂ v ∂u
+ =0 implies =0
∂x ∂ y ∂x

i.e. u is a function only of y. There is no external pressure field, so equation

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂2 u ∂2 u
ρ(∂t
+u
∂x
+v
∂y )
= ρ gx−
∂x
+μ +(
∂ x2 ∂ y2 )
∂2u
Reduces to μ =0 implying u = C1 y +C2
∂ y2

31
Where C1 and C2 are constants of integration u = 0 and UT when y= 0 and h respectively, so
equation

∂2u y τ
μ =0 becomes u = UT = y
∂ y2 h μ

Where τ is the constant viscous shear stress.

This solution approximates well the flow between two concentric cylinders with the inner one
rotating at fixed speed, provided the clearance is small compared with the cylinder’s radius, R.
This is the basis of a viscometer – an instrument for measuring viscosity, since the torque
required to rotate the cylinder at constant speed ω is proportional to τ which is given by μωR /h.
Thus if the torque and rotational speed are measured the viscosity can be determined.

Plane Poiseuille flow- pressure-driven channel flow

This also corresponds to the flow between two infinite, plane, parallel surfaces in the figure.
Unlike Couette flow, both surfaces are stationary and flow is produced by the application of
pressure. Thus all the arguments to simplify the Navier- Stokes equations still hold. The only
difference is that the pressure term in equation

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
ρ ( ∂t
+u
∂x
+v
∂y
+w
∂z )
=ρ g x −
∂x
+μ ( + +
∂ x2 ∂ y 2 ∂ z )
Is retained so that it simplifies to

−dp ∂2 u 1 dp y 2
+ μ 2 =0 implying u= +C 1 y +C 2
dx ∂y μ dx 2

The no-slip condition implies that u = 0 at y = 0 and h, so the equation

1 dp y 2
u= +C 1 y+ C 2
μ dx 2

−h2 dp y y
Becomes u=
2 μ dx h
1−(h )
Thus the velocity profile is parabolic in shape.

32
The true poiseuille flow is found in capillaries with round section. A very similar solution can be
found for this case in a similar way to equation

−h2 dp y y
u=
2 μ dx h( 1−
h)
that again has a parabolic velocity profile. From this solution, Poiseuille’s law can be derived
linking the flow rate , Q through a capillary of diameter d to the pressure gradient, namely

π d 4 dp
Q=-
128 μ dx

Poiseuille was a French Physicicna who derived his law in 1841 in the course od his studies on
blood flow. His law is the basis of another type of viscometer whereby the flow rate driven
through a capillary by a known pressure difference is measured. The value of viscosity can be
determined from this measurement by using the equation

π d 4 dp
Q=-
128 μ dx

33
Block -2

Two Dimensional Ideal Fluid flow

Types of flow

Fluid flows can be classified into different types as follows:

i. Steady flow
ii. Un- steady flow
iii. Uniform flow
iv. Non-uniform flow

Steady flow

A flow is said to be steady if the fluid characteristics (also named as dependent fluid variables
such as velocity, acceleration, pressure, density, temperature) at any one given point in the fluid,
do not change with time in the direction of any of the three co-ordinates. This means that the
time rate of change of dependent variables at any one given point is zero.

Thus, mathematically in a steady flow:

∂u ∂ v ∂ w ∂p ∂ρ
= = =0= =
∂ t ∂ t ∂t ∂t ∂t

Most practical engineering flow problems of liquid involve steady flow condition such as flow of
liquid through pipes, orifices, mouth-pieces etc. under constant head. Steady flows may be
uniform or non-uniform.

Un-steady flow

Obviously, in unsteady flow the dependent variables at any one given point change with time in
the direction of any of the three axes.
∂(dependent variable s)
Therefore in unsteady flow ≠0
∂t

Uniform flow

A flow is said to be uniform if the dependent fluid variables, at any given time remain the same
in space, at different points in the direction of flow. This ,means that in a uniform flow, the value
of the dependent variable at any time should remain constant in space, in the direction of the
flow at any section of the flow.

Stated mathematically, for uniform flow

34
∂u ∂u ∂ u ∂ v ∂ v ∂ w
=0= = = = = =0
∂x ∂ y ∂z ∂ x ∂ y ∂ y

Generally, the uniform flow is referred to in terms of the velocity component rather than all
dependent variables. Thus, it can be stated that uniform flow occurs when magnitude and
direction of velocity do not change from point in the fluid.

Non- Uniform flow

Obviously, in non-uniform flow, the dependent fluid variables, particularly the velocity, have
different values at different section at any point of time.

There could be cases where flows may be steady uniform, steady non-uniform, unsteady uniform
and unsteady non-uniform. In steady uniform flow, the dependent variable have constant values
in space and time i.e. the same values in space at different sections of the flow and would not
change with time. In steady non-uniform flow, where- as the variables at any point have the same
value in space but these values change at different sections in the direction of flow. In unsteady
uniform flow the dependent variable has different values in space at a given point at different
times. However these values remain constant at different sections at corresponding different
times. Lastly in case of unsteady and non-uniform flow, it is free for all. The variable change
with space and time, at a point and have different values at different sections in the direction of
the flow.

Considering velocity only out of the five variable, the steady and unsteady flows are related to
dimensional flows as follows:

Dimensional Unsteady Steady

Three dimensional u = f (x, y, z, t) u = f (x, y, z)
Two dimensional u = f (x, y, t) u = f (x, y)
One dimensional u = f ( x, t) u = f (x)

ROTATIOANL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW

Rotational flow
Fluid motion in which the fluid particles rotate about their own axes, is known as rotational flow.

Irrotational fow
Fluid motion in which the fluid particles do not about their own axis is known as irrotational
flow. A steady, irrotational flow is called as potential flow.

Fluid displacements
Fluid particles can under-go the following types of displacements:
(a) pure translation (b) linear deformation
(c) angular deformation (d) rotation

35
These motions have been shown in the figure. Pure translation is shown in fig(a). In this type of
motion, the fluid particles is neither rotated, nor deformed. It, only, moves bodily from one
position to another position in a given interval, such that central lines ab and cd remain parallel.
Linear deformation is shown in fig(b). Linear deformation takes place when liquid flows in a
pipe of uniform cross-section, as indicated.

As may be seen the particle is elongated linearly such that the boundary lines or the central lines
remain parallel as is the case, when flow takes place in a tapered pipe.

Pure rotation is shown figure (c). Here the centre lines undergo rotation. A Liquid in a rotating
tank is an example of a rotating flow in whch the velocity of flow is directly proportional to the
distance from the centre of rotation. Thus forced vortex produced is an example of pure rotation
as shown. The angular displacement is shown in figure (d). It is a combination of linear

36
deformation and rotation. Ifδ ∅=δθ, the motion will be irrotational. If δ ∅ ≠ δθ, there will be net
rotation. Angular displacement takes place in free vortex such as liquid flowing down in a sink.

Mathematical treatment of rotational and irroational flow

Consider a two dimensional flow of a fluid in x-y plane. In this let us consider two mutually
perpendicular streams OA and OB, of elementary lengths δx∧δy respectively as shown in
figure . Let the velocities at O be u and v in x and y axes as shown. Suppose the velocity u at O
∂u ∂v
increases at B by × δy. Similarly, the velocity v at O increases at B by × δx.
∂y ∂x

Since velocities at O and A in y-axis are different, OA will rotate in anti-clockwise (+ve)
∂v ∂v
direction, with angular velocity of , because increase in linear velocity is × δx . Just as
∂x ∂x
v
angular velocity:ω= .
r
∂ v δx ∂ v
Similarly, × =
∂ x δx ∂ x

Accordingly, OB will rotate in clockwise direction, (- ve), velocity at b being more than at A,
∂u
with angular velocity .
∂y
Both the above mentioned rotations are in x-y plane. The rotation will, obviously take place
about z- axis (polar axis).The angular velocity about z-axis will be average rotation of OA and
OB.

37
 1 ∂v ∂u
Therefore ωz = ( −
2 ∂x ∂ y )
1 ∂w ∂v
Similarly, ωx= ( −
2 ∂y ∂z ) and

1 ∂u ∂w
ω y= ( −
2 ∂z ∂ x )
In fluid flow if at every pointω z ,ω x and ω y are zero, the flow will be irrotational.

Thus, condition for irrotaitonal flow are that:

∂v ∂u
( ∂∂ vx − ∂∂ uy ) = 0 or =
∂x ∂ y

∂w ∂v
( ∂∂wy − ∂∂ vz ) = 0 or =
∂y ∂z

∂u ∂ w
( ∂∂ uz − ∂∂ wx ) = 0 or =
∂z ∂x

It may be pointed out that rotation is caused by torque. The torque causes shear stress. Shear
stress is associated with viscosity. Therefore, liquids with higher viscosity have rotational flow.
Fluids like water and air having low viscosity will have irrotational flow.

Stream Line, path lines, streak lines and stream tubes

Stream lines

Consider a fluid flow in x-y plane for simplicity and better understanding. In a flow, stream line
is an imaginary line tangent to which at any point on it, is in the direction of resultant velocity at
that point and at that instant. Similarly, a flow may have a number of streamlines. Since the
resultant velocity of flow is tangential to each point on the stream line, there will be no normal
component of velocity. Therefore, between or across the two adjacent stream lines there will be
no flow. To that extent, as stream line represents a virtual solid surface in a steady flow, since the
velocity at each point remains constant at different instances of time, the pattern of the stream
line will remain the same. In unsteady flow the pattern of stream line may or may not change. It
will not change if the magnitudes of velocity changes but the direction remains constant. Since
the instantaneous velocity at an instant is unique in magnitude and direction, the same point
cannot belong to more than one stream line.

38
Now let us consider a streamline flow in x-y plane as shown in the figure. Suppose the
instantaneous velocity at P is Ú . It has two components: u and v. For infinitesimal displacement
of P by ds, suppose the horizontal and vertical displacement are dx and dy respectively.

dy v
tanθ= = or udy – vdx = 0
dx u

Further Ú = Ú (s, t) and the velocity and displacement equation are

Ú = ui +vj

Ds = dxi + dyj
Since Ú is directed toward ds in a streamline
Ú ×d ś=0.

dy v
From equation tanθ= =
dx u

∂x ∂ y
= for two dimensional flow
u v

∂x ∂ y ∂z
= = for three dimensional flow.
u v w
The above equations hold good for steady, unsteady, Uniform or non-uniform, viscous or
inviscid compressible or incompressible flow.

39
Path lines
Path line is a trace of motion of an identified fluid particle or element. It indicates the positions
passed by a particular particle of fluid while moving in a flow over a period of time at different
instances. The path lines are obtained by Lagrarian approach. The eulerian approach deals with
the study of the flow pattern at different stations in the flow. Thus, Euleran approach is
concerned with stream line pattern of flow.

In a steady flow the velocity of an element of fluid at a point or at an instant does not change
with time. That is to say that in a steady flow the velocity of flow of an element of fluid at
different point or instances shall remain unchanged with time though its value may different
form position(or point) to position during its flow. This means that in a steady flow the stream
lines will be identical or coinciding.

The equations of path lines will be:

x = f1 (t)
y = f2 (t)
z = f3 (t)

dx
u= ∨dx=udt Simialarly,
dt

x=∫ udt
y=¿ ∫ vdt
z=¿ ∫ wdt

Streak lines or filament lines

When different particles of a fluid pass through a fixed point in the flow filed and their
positions at certain instant is located in the flow field, the locus of their respective position are
known as a streak line or filament line. The streak line is obtained by inserting a dye to the fluid
passing a particle point, at different instances and then by observing their position (location) the
steak lines are obtained by joining those positions. In unsteady flow, stream lines, path lines and
streak lines are different but these are identical in a steady flow. It may be noted that path line is
the trace of different positions of a particular element of fluid in the flow whereas the streak line
is the locus of positions, at a particular instant, of different elements of fluid after having passed
through a fixed place or point.

Stream tube

As explained in Stream lines, there is no flow from one stream line to another. As such stream
lines can be termed as stream surfaces synonymous with solid surfaces. Several stream lines

40
closely gouped together will generate a stream surface of any shape or curve. A group of closely
space stream lines forming a stream surface of any shape is known as stream tube.

CIRCULATION

Flow of fluid, around or along a closed curve or a body situated in the flow field, is known as
circulation denoted by Г (gamma). The concept of circulation is used for determining the forces
acting on bodies immersed in fluids.

Consider a closed curve C. Let it be subjected to a two dimensional fluid flow streams as shown
in the figure.

Let point of intersection of a stream-say middle one, with the curve be P as shown. Consider an
elementary surface δs of the curve. Let U be the velocity of the stream at P and β be the angle
between U and δs as shown.

Component of velocity along with δs = U cos β

Circulation on the elementary point : dГ = U cos β ×ds
❑

Circulation on the entire curved surface: Г = ∫ U cos β ds

c

As an illustration, let us find out circulation around rectangular closed curve ABCD shown in the
figure. Let u and v be velocities of flow at A in x and y axes as shown which are increased to

(u+ ∂∂ uy × δy ) and ( v+ ∂∂ vx × δx ) at D and B respectively.

Circulation along AB: ГAB = uδx

41
 ∂v
Circulation along BC: ГBC = v+( ∂x
× δx δy )
∂u
Circulation along CD: ГCD = - u+ (
∂y
× δy δx )
Circulation along DA: ГDA = - (v)δy

Total circulation along with ABCD

Г = ГAB +ГBC + ГCD + ГDA

∂v ∂u
= uδx+ vdy + δx δy- uδx - ×δy δx−v δy
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂u
= ( −
∂x ∂y
δx δy )
Г ∂v ∂u
Circulation per unit area = −
δx δy ∂ x ∂ y ( = 2ωz)
Although in the above illustration, a rectangular curve was chosen for simplicity, yet the
equations hold good for any shape of the curve.
The important conclusion drawn is that the circulation per unit area is two times the rotation
about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the area.

The Purpose of this section is only to define circulation and relate it to vorticity.

Consider a closed curve C in a flow field, as sketched in the figure. Let V and ds be the velocity
and directed line segment, respectively, at a point on C. The circulation, denoted by Г, is defined
as

Г = - ∮ V . ds
c

The circulation is simply the negative of the line integral of velocity around a closed curve in the
flow; it is a kinematic property depending only on the velocity field and the choice of the curve
C. Line integrals, by mathematical convention the positive sense of the line integral is
counterclockwise. However, in aerodynamics, it is convenient to consider a positive circulation
as being clockwise.

42
 ❑

Hence, a minus sign appears in the definition given by the equation Г = - ∮ V . ds to account
c
for the positive-counterclockwise sense of the integral and the positive-clockwise sense of
circulation.

The use of the word “Circulation” to label the integral in the equation may be somewhat
misleading because it leaves a general impression of something moving around in a loop. Indeed,
according to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the first definition
given to the word “circulation” is movement in a circle or circuit”. However, in aerodynamics,
circulation has a very precise technical meaning, namely, Equation. It does not necessarily mean
that the fluid elements are moving around in circles within this flow field- a common early
misconception of new students of aerodynamics. Rather, when circulation exists in a flow, it
simply means that the line integral in equation is finite. For example, if the airfoil in the figure is
generating lift, the circulation taken around a closed curve enclosing the airfoil will be finite,

VELOCITY POTENTIAL

43
It is scalar function of space and time and its negative derivative with respect to any axis gives
the velocity in that axis. It is denoted by ∅(phi). Actually, the velocity potential is a mathematical
form for irrotational flow.
Thus, ∅=f (x , y , z ,t ) and

∂∅
- =u
∂x

∂∅
- =v
∂y

∂∅
- =ω
∂r

The negative sign signifies that ∅ decreases with an increase in the values of x, y or z. Stated
otherwise the flow is in the direction of decreasing ∅.

For incompressible fluid, the equation of continuity for a steady flow is given by

∂u ∂ v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂ y ∂z
∂∅
Substituting for u, v and w from the equation - =u
∂x

∂∅
- =v
∂y

∂∅
- =ω
∂r
∂ −∂ ∅ ∂ −∂ ∅ ∂ −∂ ∅
We get, ( ) ( ) ( )
∂x ∂ x
+
∂y ∂y
+
∂ z ∂z
=0

∂2 ∅ ∂2 ∅ ∂2 ∅
+ + =0
∂ x2 ∂ y 2 ∂ z 2

This equation is known as Laplace equation. Any function of ∅ that satisfies this equation will
correspond to some case of fluid flow.
Further considering the conditions for irrotational flow and substituting for u, v, and w form
equation
∂∅
- =u
∂x

44
 ∂∅
- =v
∂y

∂∅
- =ω
∂r
We get,
1 ∂w ∂v
ω x =¿ ( −
2 ∂ y ∂z )
d −∂ ∅ ∂ −∂ ∅ 1 −∂2 ∅ ∂2 ∅
= { ( ) ( )} (
∂ y ∂z
−
∂z ∂y
¿ +
2 ∂ y ∂z ∂z ∂ y )
2 2
ω y =¿ 1 −∂ ∅ + ∂ ∅ =0
(
2 ∂ z ∂x ∂ x ∂z )
2 2
ω z =¿ 1 −∂ ∅ + ∂ ∅ =0
(
2 ∂x∂y ∂y∂x )
Thus ω x =ω y =ωz =0 which is the conditional for irrotational flow. Therefore, we come to the
conclusion that any function of∅ which satisfies the Laplace Equation is a irrotational flow.

STREAM FUNCTIOM ψ FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Like the velocity potential, stream function is yet another function which in fluid is the function
which describes the form or pattern of flow. Whereas velocity potential has been defined for
three dimensional flow, stream function, denoted by ψ (psi) is defined for a two dimensional
flow. Further, whereas velocity potential exists for irrotational flow, stream function exists for
irrotational as well as rotational flow.

As given above stream function is defined as function of two dimensional flow

∂ψ
=−v
∂x

∂ψ
=u and
∂y

As already explained no fluid can cross a stream line. As such the flow between two stream lines
must remain unchanged. For illustration consider two streams 1 and 2 in x- y plane as shown in
the figure. Let ψ 1∧ψ 2 be the stream function for stream 1 and 2 respectively. The mass flows
between streams 1 and 2 across A1A2 must be the same as across B1 B2 or A1A2. Density of fluid
being constant, the volumetric flow between them must also be constant.

45
Consider two adjacent stream 1 and 2 as shown in the figure. Let ψ be the stream function of 1
and (ψ +d ψ ¿ of stream 2. The flow between origin 0 and stream 1 is due to stream function ψ.
Similarly, the flow between stream 1 and 2 is due to increase in stream function d ψ.

As given above, ψ=f ( x , y ) for steady flow

∂ψ ∂ψ
dψ = δx+ δy
∂x ∂y

∂ψ ∂ψ
But from equation =−v and =u
∂x ∂y
∂ψ −v∧∂ ψ
= =u
∂x ∂y

Substituting above, dψ =−vδx+ uδy

Where −vδx is the flow through 1 -3
uδy is the flow through 2 -3

As such d ψ is the flow between 1 -2 .

∂∅
Relationship between u, v, ∅ and ψ from the equation - =u
∂x

∂∅
- =v
∂y

∂∅
- =ω
∂r
−∂ ∅ ∂∅ ∂∅
Is =u ,− v ,− =w
∂x ∂y ∂z

46
 ∂ψ
But from equation =−v
∂x

∂ψ
=u
∂y
∂ψ
∧−∂ ∅
Therefore −∂ ∅ ∂y −∂ ψ
=u= =v=
∂x ∂y ∂x

Form this, it is evident that velocity potential and stream function are mutually perpendicular.

−∂ ∅ ∂ψ
From these, = this equation is known as Cauchy – Riemann equation for
∂x ∂y
∂∅ ∂ψ
= irrotational flow.
∂ y ∂x

1 −∂ −∂ ψ ∂ ∂ψ
Angular rotation about z- axis ω z =¿
{ ( ) ( )}
2 ∂x ∂x
+
∂y ∂y

1 ∂2 ψ ∂2 ψ
= { +
2 ∂ x2 ∂ y2 }
this equation is known as Poisson’s

Equation

∂2 ψ ∂2 ψ
For irrotational motion ω z =¿ + =0 which is Laplace equation for ψ.
∂ x2 ∂ y 2

∂u ∂ v
Now continuity equation for two dimensional flow is : + =0
∂x ∂ y

∂ ∂ψ ∂ −∂ ψ
( ) (
+
∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂ x )
∂2 ψ ∂2ψ
From which +
∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂x

This holds good if ψ is a continuous function and its second derivative exists. As such
continuous function ψ is a possible case of fluid flow which is rotational or irrotational because
continuity equation is satisfied. Further, functionψ satisfies Laplace equation, it is a possible
case of irrotational.

Equi Potential lines

47
 −∂ ∅ ∂ψ ∂ ∅ −∂ ψ
We have seen previously that: = =u and - = =v
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

In terms of tangential and normal direction, the above equation can be written as

∂∅ ∂ψ ∂ ∅ −∂ψ
- = =V s and - = =V n
∂s ∂n ∂n ∂s

With a view to apply the above concepts, consider a two dimensional, steady and irrotational
flow patter
∅=f (x , y)
ψ=f ( x , y ) ,being known

The lines of ∅ = constant say 0,1,2,3 etc. can be drawn as shown in the figure. Let us consider a
line AB where ∅=3. ∅ being constant,
−∂ ∅
=0
∂n
−∂ ∅
i.e velocity tangential of this line is zero. But ∅ is varying along with s. Therefore, is the
∂s
normal velocity to such a line.

The line along which ∅ is constant are known as and their property is that the flow is always at
right angles to such lines.

Similarly, lines with ψ = constant, can be drawn as shown. Consider such a line CD. Since ψ
∂ψ
is constant along with this line, = V n = 0 i.e., there is no flow at right angles to constant
∂s
−∂ ψ
ψ line. However, =V s exists. Therefore, the flow is always tangential to constant ∅
∂n
lines. Hence ∅ = constant, gives a series of stream lines. Similarly, ψ = constant gives a

48
series of equi-potential lines. Angle between stream lines and equi-potential lines at their
intersection is 900.

For any given problem, combination of equi-potential and stream lines is known as flow net.

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