JURISPRUDENCE PROJECT

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE: ACTING AS A POVERTY INDEX

JOHN ROWLS : DISTRIBUTIVE THEORY

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED BY:

SOMESH CHAUDHARY
NAVNEET LAKRA
NAVNEET LAKRA MR. RABINDRA PATHAK

SEM. V, SEC- BA FACULTY (JURISPRUDENCE)

Roll No. 537

- 693

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF STUDY AND RESEARCH IN LAW, RANCHI

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 ABSTRACT

Distributive Justice or economic Justice or the reasonable share principle suggests is truly
worried with the social and monetary welfare of the residents. It says that an equal society is
that where there is a fair allocation of the material items and services between the entire
sections of the society. John Rawls, the fundamental theorist of Distributive Justice offers two
normal principles of fairness or reasonable Share related to Distributive Justice. The
constitution of India, via Article 14, 15, 16, 38, 39, 39(A) enforces the precept of distributive
justice. Distributive justice exists in a society the place there exists no inequality, so the Indian
structure via these articles tries to eliminate the prevailing inequalities in the society.
Underneath Article 38 the State shall strive to advertise the welfare of the individuals and
strengthen a social order empowered to bestow upon distributive justice in the form of social,
financial and political justice. So, sincerely Distributive Justice is involved with the welfare of
the plenty. There exists inequality in all spheres of lifestyles be it schooling, health, equality of
possibility, availability of services or any other field. Poverty can be one of the vital extrinsic
proofs of Inequality that's most evident in our Indian society. As a result, the query of study
postulated on this study paper deals with the thought of poverty and the role of distributive
justice in poverty indictment of country. As a consequence, my research question is Can
Distributive Justice Act as an Index of Poverty?

INTRODUCTION

Distributive Justice is an authorized and philosophical inspiration that revolves around a

society‘s rules for the distribution of goods and offerings. Frequently experience, it refers to the
welfare of the individuals and the society. Distributive Justice is sometimes called ―financial
Justice‖1.It is worried with giving all the individuals of the society a ―reasonable Share‖ of the
advantages and burdens to be had. These advantages and burdens span the entire dimensions of
social lifestyles and expect all forms including sales, economic wealth, political vigor, taxation,
work duties, education, safe haven, healthcare, army carrier, neighborhood involvement and
devout events. The historians of distributive justice concept, suggests that a society has a duty

1
C.K.Allen, Aspects of Justice, 3rd ed(2009).

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to distribute the assets amongst its individuals and to see that they've access to common human
requirements2. Distribution of assets on the basis of want implies that individuals who want
extra will get extra, even as folks who need much less will get less. Reasonable allocation is a
very arguable hassle in Distributive Justice. The presence of equality in a society may also be
gauzed if in a society each citizen is handled equally, all have identical rights, liabilities,
responsibilities and protections, despite his or her contribution to society.3

The idea of justice as propounded by means of John Rawls says that this concept is nothing
however an easy concept. The concern related with distributive justice is to compensate
participants for misfortune. There are some persons who are already blessed with fortune and
excellent luck, nonetheless there are various which can be cursed with bad good fortune, and it
is the collective accountability of the society at big to change the distribution of items and evils
that arise inside the sphere of human life. These born with all of the richness: well-being,
wealth, mind and physique, are the ones who can be viewed as lucky beings. However, apart
from them there are a lot of who are usually not born with any of the richness and are simplest
supposed to unfasten.

So distributive justice try and diminish the line of difference current between the two, it wishes
the lucky to switch a few of their good points received by means of luck, to the ones who're
born unlucky4. Accordingly, the basic concept of Distributive Justice means that society
inherently owes person rights and protections. These owed obligations may comprise things
like laws protecting free speech or freedom of religion, however may additionally comprise
basic items and offerings visible as imperative to human survival and dignity. Critics of
distributive justice most of the time cite that individual responsibility will not be taken under
consideration in improving fair allocation5. A person who can't work seeing that he's disabled
could also be more entitled to advantages than one who chooses to not work due to the fact he's
lazy. In this illustration, critics generally recommend it is unfair to distributive resources and
efforts to citizens who do not take personal accountability for their lot in lifestyles. it's also
argued that designing a approach of allocation to advantage the bad discourages private

2
Mauro Cappelletti, Toward Equal Justice: A Comparative Study of Legal Aid In Modern Societies (1978).
3
Chris Armstrong, Global Distributive Justice: An Introduction (Cambridge University Press, 2012).
http://books.google.com/books?id=LJU0djAZ1osC.
4
RichardArneson,Rawls,Responsibility and Distributive Justice, August 27, 2007,
http://philosophyfaculty.ucsd.edu/faculty/rarneson/RawlsResponsibilityproof.pdf
5
Explaining Bargaining Impasse: The Role of Self Serving Biases, Journal of Economic Perspectives, pp 109-126

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motivation and may just lead to a gradual broaden in the quantity of residents that want or
need to acquire state-furnished benefits. Michael Walzer (1976), for instance, writes that
―Distributive justice is a large concept,‖ and for John Rawls (1976) ―Justice is the primary
advantage of social institutions.‖ as a consequence, it is largely viewed as a most important idea
and influential drive in philosophy and the social sciences.6

RAWLS THEORY OF DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

John Rawls is the 20th Century political thinker who has tried to enhance a theory of justice in
his own designated manner. Rawls conceives standards of justice from the standpoint of free
and rational people who are concerned to additional their own interests accepting the
proposition that being free and equal on the initial, the regulation which they type to enter into
associations to form the government for social cooperation is justice as fairness. These
associations or executive assign basic rights and responsibilities and verify the division of social
benefits. there is a ‗veil of lack of information‘ in keeping with Rawls , earlier than individuals
decide on principles of justice on account that no one knows what's his situation in society prior
to forming a social contract as people can be in a state of nature which is a hypothetical
difficulty. The ‗veil of lack of expertise‘ ensures that no person is advantaged or disadvantaged ,
nor are they mindful of their social status , neither are folks equipped to design concepts in a
single or other‘s favor , principles of justice are the outcomes of reasonable government or cut
price.7

In step with John Rawls, the elements of justice as equity are:

(1) Events in the initial hindrance are rational and together disinterested

(2) Men and women who seem themselves as equals are entitled to press their claims upon one
a further for the principle that some could also be entitled for lesser potentialities than the
bigger sum of advantages enjoyed by others8

6
James Konow, Which Is the Fairest One of All? A Positive Analysis of Justice Theories, Journal of Economic
Literature, pp. 1188-1239. (2003)
7
Autar Krishen Kaul, A textbook on Jurisprudence, pp.253-257, (2009).
8
Dean B. Mcfarlin And Paul D. Sweeney, Distributive And Procedural Justice As Predictors Of Satisfaction With
Personal And Organizational Outcomes, The Academy Of Management Journal Vol. 35, No. 3, Page 626 Of 626-
637( 1992 )

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(3) Principle of utility is incompatible with the idea of social cooperation amongst equals for
mutual advantage9

(4) The persons in preliminary situation would prefer two distinctive principles , first requires
equality of assignments of common rights and duties, while the second, social and fiscal
inequalities are simply only if they effect in compensating advantages for everyone, in
designated to essentially the most deprived participants of the society.

(5) Institutions cannot be justified on the bottom that hardships of some Are offset by way of a
greater good within the combination, as a substitute the distribution and division should be
such that each person willingly cooperates within the distribution of responsibilities.10

Rawls Two Principles Of Justice Are As Follows:

First: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with similar
liberty to all others.
Second: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) reasonably
expected to be everyone’s advantage and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all.

These concepts of justice as given by means of John Rawl, primarily apply, to the elemental
constitution of society. They have been enunciated basically to manipulate the challenge of
rights and responsibilities and to regulate the distribution of social and fiscal advantages.11
Deliberating the gift side of society and seeing that the point that some will not be
economically benefitted as the other, there is a want that each one social liberty and possibility,
income and wealth, and the bases of self-admire are dispensed equally until an unequal
distribution of all or any of these items is to the expertise of the least favored.12 Each and every
citizen has the correct to liberty and equal opportunity. The basic liberties of residents are
political liberty i.e. the right to vote and to be eligible for public place of business, together with
freedom of speech and meeting, liberty of sense of right and wrong and freedom of suggestion,
right to keep private property, proper to have equal possibility and correct to be guided with
the aid of law. These liberties are all required to be equal by way of the primary precept, on
account that residents of a simply society are to have the same common rights.13 The 2nd

9
Supra Note 10 At 3
10
John Rawls, A Theory Of Justice, Revised Edition (1971), Harvard University Press.
11
Rawls on Liberty and Its Priority, University of Chicago Law Review, 40 (1973), pp. 534–555.
12
John Rawls, Collected Papers, edited by Samuel Freeman chap. 17, pp. 359–387 (1999).
13
R. L.Cunningham, Justice: Efficiency or Fairness, The Personalist, vol. 52 (1971).

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precept applies, to the distribution of earnings and wealth within the society. Additionally, the
2nd principle requires that the institution of the authorities that work on the wealth- earnings
principle have to be altered.

At the same time the distribution of wealth and revenue need not be equal, it have got to be to
everyone's knowledge, and while, positions of authority and workplaces of command need to be
obtainable to all.

Attempt to follow these concepts are made in order that inequality perishes and folks are
economically and socially benefitted.14

Via a remark Rawls conception of justice is an admixture of metaphysics, economics and politics
which may be very complicated to understand.15 To simplify, in Rawls theory of justice one has
to consider the nature of man previous to his getting into a social contract which Rawls
reasonably conceives that he used to be dwelling in a state of nature, accordingly, there have
been least fetters on his selections of the form of government, the constitution, legal guidelines
and the form of restraints which he could impose upon himself.

Fairness is the final result of prudence, and principle of justice, dictated with the aid of
prudence, are these which hypothetical ration people would select in a hypothetical ‗common
function‘ of equality. People in fashioned function are assumed to understand special things, for
instance common psychology and the social sciences however as they're residing at the back of
the veil of lack of understanding which keeps them far from figuring out their personal
stipulations, locations in society, fabric fortunes, and so on. As soon as general principles of
justice are to not be employed, the private reputation, property and other conditions are to be
excluded for achieving generality and validity. The type of justice is required to advantage
every person, i.e., all people has to turn out to be disinterested from his possess private
advantages. General ideas of justice , for this reason are generalized approach of securing
detailed generalized needs, ‗predominant social items‘, i.e., maximization of the minimal, the
major social goods includes general liberties , possibilities, power and minimum of wealth.16 As
a result, Rawls first precept of justice stresses that every person is to have an equal correct to
essentially the most large whole approach of equal normal liberties suitable with identical

14
The Philosophical Review, vol. 50 (1951).
15
Douglas B. Rasmussen , A Critique Of Rawls' Theory Of Justice, The Personalist, Vol. 55, No. 3.
16
Christopher Bertram, Principles of Distributive Justice, Counterfactuals and History, The Journal of Political
Philosophy: Volume I, Number 3, pp. 213-228 (1993).

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process of liberty for all, common liberties comprise equal liberty of concept and moral sense,
equal participation in political determination making and the guideline of legislation which
safeguards the man or woman and his self-respect. This may be termed as ―Distributive
Justice‖. The second precept consequently takes the shape of social justice within the
experience that Social and monetary inequalities are to be enforced in this kind of method so
that they are utilized for the greatest benefit of the least advantaged humans and it is constant
with the simply saving principle.17 The simply saving principle is a principle to secure justice
for generations and is categorized as each new release must no longer simplest retain the
culture and civilization and beneficial properties thereof, but will have to keep those simply
institutions which have been headquartered and also accumulate real amount of capital
accumulation. There must be constitutional conference to settle a constitution and systems for
the needs of attaining simply and amazing order, which has to be followed by using laws and
different ideas and regulation.18

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE: ACTING AS A POVERTY INDEX

IN A COUNTRY LIKE INDIA

In every single place India everybody is striving for justice, the quite a lot of excessive Courts,
Supreme Court docket and scale down Courts, all attempt to obtain justice for the folks of this
nation. But what definitely Justice Approach? And to whom justice is meted out? These are
some questions which until now are the ones which are most debated upon however and not
using a valid reply. Our structure postulates that all men and women are equal, however simply
drawback shouldn't be so, there are various who're more equal than others. Standards such as
good-being, poverty, and inequality had been practically solely measured in economic phrases
previously decades and even at present. Aristotle once said resources aren't end in themselves
but a way to an finish. All contributors are in a position of changing goods to the fine of their
utility but no longer all have entry to market equally. Amartya Sen recounted exact motives
that impact an individual‘s capacity to transform goods:

17
David Miller, Distributive Justice: What The People Think, Ethics, Vol. 102, No.3, (Apr. 1992)
18
Hal R. Varian, Distributive Justice, Welfare Economics, and the Theory of Fairness, Philosophy & Public Affairs,
pp.223-247

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1. Some sort of disability, the one who is disabled, wants more resources to steer his life.

2. Folks reside in unique bodily environments that cause a significant change.

3. Social atmosphere is also one element that influences so much.19

to beat all these excellent market predicament regarding monetary assets, John Rawls offered
in his theory of justice as an index of principal goods which can be outlined as items that ‗a
rational man wants anything else he needs‘. They're goods that every individual wishes to have
as a way to efficaciously appreciate his or her individual existence plan.20 The predicament that
emerges over right here to think about over pertains to no longer inequality of wellbeing but
incapability to pursue that wellbeing. In keeping with Amarya Sen, the honour of distributive
justice lies in ―deep need for impartiality between contributors‖21

Poverty is a multidimensional idea; this is an undisputed truth. While we refer to the prior
economies, we are able to see that earlier only sales was purported to be most important
indicator for monetary resources that permit participants to fulfill their multidimensional
wants.

To look revenue as a trademark of poverty , two matters need to be considered i) the existence
of complete and ultimate markets, and ii) excellent substitutability amongst all poverty
dimensions.

Equally undisputed is the truth that inequality is unsafe to poverty discount and human
development customarily.22 Thus, Amartya Sen postulates the requirement of a poverty index
which is sensitive to inequality. First we need to identify poverty line, to identify this poverty;
we need to base our indictments on certain pre decided standards so as to distinguish between
who are poor and who are not. Second step, is to choose a method to identify poor within a
group of poor. Only those persons are considered poor, who suffer the highest degree of

19
Bartlett, R. C., Collins, S. D. Aristotle’s Nicomachean ethics: a new translation. The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago (2011)
20
Kanbur, R., Lustig, N. Why is Inequality Back on the Agenda? Department of Agricultural, Resource and
Managerial Economics Cornell University Working Paper No. 99-14 (1999)
21
Foster, J. A, class of chronic poverty measures. In: Addison, T., Hulme, D., Kanbur, R. (eds.) Poverty Dynamics:
Interdisciplinary Perspectives, pp. 59-76. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2009)
22
Bérenger, V., Bresson, F. Axiomatic and robust multidimensional poverty measurements in five South
Mediterranean countries

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deprivation.23 It depends on the importance that is attributed to distributive justice
considerations as well as on the degree of complementarity which of the effects will
predominate in the end. Complementarities exist between the two poverty dimensions
education and nutrition as better nourished children learns better.24 The health dimension is
measured by the two equally weighted indicators nutrition and child mortality. A loved ones is
disadvantaged in diet if any girl in reproductive age (15-49) has a body Mass Index (BMI)
smaller than 18.5 or if any baby has a weight-for-age z-ranking beneath -2.0 in line with World
well-being institution (WHO) information. A household is deprived in baby mortality if any
youngster despite age died within the household. The education dimension is captured with the
aid of the 2 equally weighted indicators years of education and child enrolment. A loved ones is
deprived in years of schooling if no member of the household has as a minimum 5 years of
schooling. It is disadvantaged in youngster enrolment if any baby in tuition age is just not
attending institution. The dwelling commonplace dimension is measured by using a total of six
equally weighted indicators, cooking fuel, sanitation, water, electrical power, floor and
property.25

The poor folks are folks that have minimal regular of dwelling, who do not acquire even the
fundamental tenets of sustenance of existence like schooling, suitable meals, clinical services,
and nourishment inside a society.26 Which means bad are people who're unequally handled in a
society, they are not given equal possibility as different members of society and their capacity
has been confined considering the fact that of external obstacles, such as socioeconomic
heritage, race, gender, religion, bad well-being, or malnutrition.

From here arises the notion of distributive justice as index of poverty. Extra the inequality in a
society extra is the poverty. More equally allotted privileges are, richer the society is.27

23
Aristondo, O., de la Vega, C.L., Urrutia, A, A new multiplicative decomposition for the poverty indices. B Econ
Res 62, 259-267 (2010)
24
Bern, C. et al, Assessment of potential indicators for protein-energy malnutrition in the algorithm for integrated
management of childhood illness, B World Health Organ 75, 87-96 (1997)
25
World Health Organisation statistics
26
S., Kanbur, R. (1993). The Kuznets process and the inequality-development relationship. J Dev Econ 40, 25-52
(1993)
27
Alkire, S., Santos, M.E, Acute multidimensional poverty: a new index for developing countries. OPHI Working
Paper No. 38 (2010)

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 DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE AND THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

Justice is a precept which controls the overall distribution of rights. It's the correct ordering
the human relations. The Preamble speaks of three varieties of rights – social, fiscal and
political. Social justice connotes the greatest good of the finest quantity without hanging
restrictions on the correct of others.28 Blend of social and economic justice suggests
Distributive Justice. Distributive justice exists in a society where there aren't any social and
economic inequalities. Distributive Justice is sincerely the social welfare of the plenty. The
constitution of India enforces the precept of Distributive Justice or fairness principle by way of
Article 14, Article 15, Article 16, Article 38, and Article 39 & Article 39(A).29

India is a Socialist State because the Preamble depicts and the intention of socialism ought to be
to distribute the usual richness and wealth of the country in any such method as to subserve the
need and requirement of long-established man. Artwork.39(c) contemplates measures for
stopping awareness of wealth and way of production in the arms of few, so that there's a
reasonable distribution of fabric resources.30

In the landmark case of Keshavananda Bharati vs. State Of Kerela31, it was discovered by
Justice Jagmohan Reddy: ―though the expression ―economic method‖ is utilized in
artwork.39(c), that Article has not the thing of fixing the fiscal method mostly, however it is
constrained to only stopping concentration of wealth and method of production to the usual
detriment.‖ What this clause envisages is that the State should comfy the operation of the
monetary system in such a approach as not to outcome in the attention of wealth and means of
production to the common detriment.

On the scope of art.39 (A), Supreme Court held that art.39 (A) furnishes beacon gentle that
justice is done on the basis of equal possibility and nobody is denied justice by way of cause of
financial or different disabilities.

In Ranjan Dwivedi vs. Union of India32, the courtroom directed all of the state governments
to make provisions for the furnish of free authorized offerings to the poor accused man or
woman. Through mix interpretation of art.14 and 39(A), the Supreme courtroom in Sheela
28
P.M.Bakshi , The Constitution Of India (10th ed., 2010)
29
Dj De, The Constitution Of India, Vol I & Vol II.
30
Kashyap Subhash, The Constitution Of India, Vol I
31
AIR 1973 SC 1461.
32
1983 (3) SCC 307.

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Barse vs. State Of Maharastra33, held that the State will have to provide free authorized help
to a poor or indigent accused man or woman who's arrested and put in jeopardy of his lifestyles
or private liberty and it's a constitutional important mandate.

The structure of India has offered precise reservation and relaxation (in common of eligibility)
rights for the SCs and STs so that there is an equality of opportunities. The Supreme Court in
Ram Bhagat Singh vs. State Of Haryana34, held that relaxation in form of diminish
specifications of eligibility is permissible for Scheduled Castes candidates, however rest must be
consistent with eligibility. In Ongc vs. Association35, it was held that a statutory enterprise
need to conform to Article 39 and charge only reasonable prices, for the welfare of the folks.

Article 14 says that, ―Equality before law—the state shall not deny to any individual equality
earlier than the regulation or the equal security of the legal guidelines inside the territory of
India.‖ in the very noted case of Indra Sawhney vs. Union of India36, the Supreme court held
that Parliament and legislatures in the nation can't transgress the elemental function of the
structure, particularly the precept of equality enshrined in Article 14. In a way, the general and
abstract principle of equality laid down in Article 14 is spelt out for targeted occasions in larger
detail in Article 15 and in one of the succeeding articles. But it surely must be famous that
Article 15 is restrained to citizens, at the same time Article 14 extends to the entire men and
women.

33
1987SCC (Cr) 759.
34
1988( 4) SCC 534.
35
AIR 1990 SC 1851.
36
1992 Supp (3) SCC 217 .

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 CONCLUSION

The idea of distributive justice integrates in its sphere the suggestions from the equity, equality
and equal opportunity. It assumes that individuals headquartered on the societal habits of men
and women and allocation of organizations and regular degree develops feelings of injustice
and justice-restoring behaviors.37 Study instructed person‘s reaction to unjust pay allocations
in, firms the place many exclusive humans belonging to exceptional courses were gift and
plenty of specific corporations were working together.

The principal goal of this concept can also be concluded to have following ambitions:

(1) Distinctive levels of injustice in any respect levels of societal structure

(2) Individual versus collective injustices (three) unequal opportunity for equals.

Coming to the advocacy of KARL MARX, The Communist Manifesto, even as stating the
deficiencies of the petty-bourgeois, praises it considering that it "dissected with satisfactory
acuteness the contradictions within the stipulations of present day construction. It laid bare . . .
The awareness of capital and land in a few hands the misery of the proletariat the crying
inequalities in the distribution of wealth." Marx, in his works, develops idea of the distribution
of wealth and sales beneath capitalism. He says that each mode of construction includes a
corresponding mode of distribution.38 Therefore, distribution be it reasonably priced or social
both should be equally dispensed among the many population.

All the hypotheses have been supported. The idea of ―Social Justice‖ which the constitution of
India engrafted consists of diverse principles primary for the orderly progress and progress of
personality of every citizen. ―Social Justice‖ is as a consequence a fundamental part of Justice in
the well-known sense. Law should be used as an instrument of distributive justice to achieve a
fair division of wealth among the many contributors of society founded upon the principle:
"From each according to his capacity, to each and every in step with his wants".39 More than a
few provisions of the structure are aimed at the best of ‗equality‘ held out through the
Preamble.

37
Barry Markovsky, Toward a Multilevel Distributive Justice Theory, American Sociological Review, Vol. 50, No.
6, pp. 822-839 (Dec. 1985)
38
Ziyad I. Husami , Marx on Distributive Justice, Philosophy & Public Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Autumn, 1978), pp.
27-64
39
Sen, A, The idea of justice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts (2009)

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with precise elements thereof which can be enforceable by an person as ‗major rights‘ , art.38
(2) emphasizes that the obligation of the state is to eliminate inequalities anywhere they exist ,
in appreciate of fame , facilities and possibilities , by constructive legislation. It goals at starting
the equality of reputation and opportunity, which is promised through the Preamble, and in
addition to diminish inequalities in income between participants and corporations so far as
feasible .The essence of human happiness is distributive justice centered on reasonable
disbursement of usual benefits and sharing of natural resources.40

The present pattern and the statistical data provided divulge the importance of indexing
poverty within and between current inequality circumstances in a society. The personality of
poverty differs from one country to yet another country. For that reason, what's require is a
comprehensive measure of poverty, the extra correct is the perception won into the very
persona of poverty in a neighborhood, nation, district and so on. The better inequality to
poverty ratio we can derive and extra apposite will the legislation be. If the poverty measure is
completed exactly, then the potential to increase effectiveness of poverty lowering approaches
raises. Therefore, using distributive justice as poverty index to measure multidimensional
poverty degree supplies result in a single path, which seems to be very important as
distributive justice as an index provide understanding about poverty that normal earnings
founded poverty measures were unable to become aware of. In addition, the inequality measure
also acts as a just right supply of poverty measurement. Measure of inequality is sensitive to
distributive justice considerations and thus explicitly money owed for the truth that households
may just endure from simultaneous deprivations and in addition touchy to the idea of
affectivity. Therefore, it improves the precision and of poverty state of affairs in country,
thereby improving the goal of poverty discount insurance policies, that state may just adopt.41

40
Fields, G. Distribution and development: a summary of the evidence for the developing world. Background paper
prepared for the World Development Report 2000 (1999)
41
Sen, A. Poverty: an ordinal approach to measurement, Econometrica (1976)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Fields, G. Distribution and development: a summary of the evidence for the developing world.
Background paper prepared for the World Development Report 2000 (1999)

2. Sen, A. Poverty: an ordinal approach to measurement, Econometrica (1976)

3. Barry Markovsky, Toward a Multilevel Distributive Justice Theory, American Sociological

Review, Vol. 50, No. 6, pp. 822-839 (Dec. 1985)

4. Charles R. Beitz, Economic Rights and Distributive Justice in Developing Societies World Politics ,
Vol. 33, No. 3, Apr., pp.321- 346, ( 1981 )

5. Robert Nozick, Distributive Justice, Philosophy & Public Affairs, Vol. 3, No. 1, Autumn ,
pp.45-126, , 1973

6. Ziyad I. Husami , Marx on Distributive Justice, Philosophy & Public Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 1
(Autumn, 1978), pp. 27-64

7. Sen, A, The idea of justice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts (2009)

8. Nicole Isabell Rippin, Considerations of Efficiency and Distributive Justice in Multidimensional

Poverty Measurement

9. Anand, S., Kanbur, R. (1993). The Kuznets process and the inequality-development relationship. J
Dev Econ 40, 25-52 (1993)

10. Alkire, S., Santos, M.E, Acute multidimensional poverty: a new index for developing countries.
OPHI Working Paper No. 38 (2010)

12. Bérenger, V., Bresson, F. Axiomatic and robust multidimensional poverty measurements in five
South Mediterranean countries

Page 14 of 15
13. Aristondo, O., de la Vega, C.L., Urrutia, A, A new multiplicative decomposition for the poverty
indices. B Econ Res 62, 259-267 (2010)

15. Bern, C. et al, Assessment of potential indicators for protein-energy malnutrition in the algorithm
for integrated management of childhood illness, B World Health Organ 75, 87-96 (1997)

16. World Health Organisation stastics.

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