Question 1

a) State THREE types of media used computer networks.

- Copper cable; eg: coaxial cable. Inexpensive and easy to work with compared to fiber optic cables.
Offers limited spectrum that cannot handle advanced application such as VR.
- Wireless; eg: radio frequencies, microwave and infrared. Deployment is faster and less costly.
- Fiber optics; enormous bandwidth, immune to many types of interference & noise and improved
security. Provides clear communication and noise-free environment. Costly & requires specialized
equipment and techniques.

b) You have a Class C network, and you need 10 subnets. You wish to have as many addresses available
for hosts as possible. Determine the subnet mask you should use and calculate the available host
address for each subnet. Show the IP calculation.
Answer:
Subnet mask: 255.255.255.240
1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1111 0000
Available hosts: 14 hosts (24 -2)

c) Define the acronym VLSM. State the reason for using VLSM in an enterprise network?
- Variable Length Subnet Masks; It is used to avoid wasting IP addresses.

d) Complete the syntax for each command line interface shown in Figure 1 through Figure 3
i) Configure privileged exec password (using password ‘class’)
Sw-Floor-1> enable
Sw-Floor-1# configure terminal
Sw-Floor-1(config)# enable secret class
Sw-Floor-1(config)# exit

ii) Configure user exec password (using password ‘cisco’)

Sw-Floor-1(config) # line console 0
Sw-Floor-1(config-line) # password cisco
Sw-Floor-1(config-line) # login
Sw-Floor-1(config-line) # exit

iii) Configure telnet (VTY) line password (using password ‘ccna’)

Sw-Floor-1(config) # line vty 0 4
Sw-Floor-1(config-line) # password ccna
Sw-Floor-1(config-line) # login
 e) State three (3) essential characteristics of Internet Protocol (IP).
o Connectionless
o Best effort delivery (unreliable)
o Media dependent.

f) Discuss the problem when a network have a large broadcast domain. Also state three (3) design
consideration when subnetting a network.
- Each router interface connects a broadcast domain and broadcasts are only propagated within
its specific broadcast domain.
- Slow network operations; due to the significant amount of broadcast traffic.
- Slow device operations; because a device must accept and process each broadcast packet.
- Solution? Reduce the size of network to create smaller broadcast domains – subnetting.
- Design consideration:
1) Take the maximum number of subnets required & round up to the nearest power of two.
2) Make sure there are enough host addresses for the organization’s largest subnet.
3) Make sure the organization’s address allocation provides enough bits to deploy required
subnet addressing plan.

Question 2
a) Describe the 4 essential elements to consider when building a reliable network.
o Go for proven network technologies; eg: Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) allows you
to assign the right priority to every application. Avoids delays in any resulting loss of quality.
o Good network design with built-in security; Traffic is always changing, therefore network’s
design must be reviewed and the data traffic will always need to be reviewed.
o Provide sufficient capacity; eg: Ethernet/Fiber optics.
o Choose the right partner; Work with specialists in networking expertise but also in related
areas such as security, storage and disaster recovery.

b) State the 2 types of cut-through method in switch forwarding operation. Briefly discuss the benefit
of each method.
o Fast-forward switching; Offers the lowest level of latency by forwarding a packet
immediately after reading the destination address.
Disadvantage: packets may contain errors.
o Fragment-free switching; it ensures that enough bytes are read from the source to detect
collision before forwarding. Solves late-collision problem. (stores the first 64 bytes of the
frame and does small error checking) Half of Store-and-forward and Fast-forward switching
**extra
Switch satu lagi – Store-and-forward; receives entire frame, stores the data in buffers and computes
CRC (cyclic redundancy change). If CRC is valid, switch looks up the destination address and forwards
the frame to the correct port. If there is error detected, switch discards the frame. Thus, reducing
the bandwidth consumed by corrupted data.
c) Examine Figure 4, which shows the process of Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). Assumer the initial
states of ARP cache are empty.

i) PC-A communicates with network 172.10.1.0/16 (remote) which resides on the Internet.
Describe the content of PC-A’s ARP cache after the ARP process is completed.
Destination MAC Source MAC Source IP Destination IP
??? 00-0A 192.168.1.110 172.10.1.0

ARP Request
Destination MAC Source MAC Target IPv4 Target MAC
FF-FF 00-0A 192.168.1.1 ???

ARP Reply
Destination MAC Source MAC Target IPv4 Target MAC
00-0A 00-0D 192.168.1.1 00-0D

Content of PCA’s ARP cache.

IPv4 Address MAC Address
192.168.1.1 00-0D

ii) State the following IPv4 address, which is used when sending the ARP Request.
a) Destination MAC address
FF-FF
b) Source MAC address
00-0A
c) Target IPv4 address
192.168.1.1
 iii) PC-C’s communicates with PC-B. State the content of PC-C’s ARP cache when the communication
is completed.
Destination MAC Source MAC Source IP Destination IP
??? 00-0C 192.168.1.50 192.168.1.120

ARP Request
Destination MAC Source MAC Target IPv4 Target MAC
FF-FF 00-0C 192.168.1.120 ???

ARP Reply
Destination MAC Source MAC Sender IPv4 Sender MAC
00-0C 00-0B 192.168.1.120 00-0B

Content of PC-C’s ARP cache.

IPv4 Address MAC Address
192.168.1.120 00-0B

Question 3
a) Compute and determine the most efficient number of hosts per subnet to satisfy the requirement
in Figure 5 based on VLSM approach. State the network address for each subnet. You are instructed
to use the IP 192.168.1.0/24.

1 network for 30 hosts – 32 (Admin)

Network Address: 192.168.1.0/27
Number of hosts: 30 hosts

1 network for 12 hosts – 16 (Accounting)

Network Address: 192.16.1.0/28
Number of hosts: 14 hosts
 1 network for 12 hosts – 16
Network Address: 192.16.1.0/28
Number of hosts: 14 hosts

1 network for 4 hosts – 8

Network Address: 192.16.1.0/29
Number of hosts: 6 hosts

1 network for 2 hosts – 4

Network Address: 192.16.1.0/30
Number of hosts: 2 hosts

b) Briefly describe the function of each layer in TCP/IP Protocol Model. (8 marks)
o Application – Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control.
o Transport – Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks.
o Internet – Determines the best path through the network.
o Network Access – Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network.

c) Compute the broadcast address of the following IPv4 addresses. (2 marks each)
i) 172.16.0.1/23
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000001 (IP 172.16.0.1)
11111111 . 11111111 . 11111110 . 00000000 (CIDR/Net mask)
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000000 (Network Address – AND, darab)
172 . 16 . 0 . 0

10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000000 (Network Address)

00000000 . 00000000 . 00000001 . 11111111 (Inverted CIDR)
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000001 . 11111111 (Broadcast Address – OR, tambah)
172 . 16 . 1 . 255

ii) 172.16.0.1/24
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000001 (IP 172.16.0.1)
11111111 . 11111111 . 11111111 . 00000000 (CIDR/Net mask)
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000000 (Network Address – AND, darab)
172 . 16 . 0 . 0
 10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000000 (Network Address)
00000000 . 00000000 . 00000000 . 11111111 (Inverted CIDR)
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 11111111 (Broadcast Address – OR, tambah)
172 . 16 . 0 . 255

iii) 172.16.0.1/25
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000001 (IP 172.16.0.1)
11111111 . 11111111 . 11111111 . 10000000 (CIDR/Net mask)
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000000 (Network Address – AND, darab)
172 . 16 . 0 . 0

10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000000 (Network Address)

00000000 . 00000000 . 00000000 . 01111111 (Inverted CIDR)
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 01111111 (Broadcast Address – OR, tambah)
172 . 16 . 0 . 127

Question 4
a) Describe the limitations of using IPv4 address compared to IPv6. (6 marks)
b) Figure 6 shows a topology and CLI for R1. Complete the command with the correct syntax.

R1 (config) # interface s0/0/0

R1 (config) # _______________________________________
R1 (config-if) # ip address 209.265.200.225 255.255.255.252
c) Simplify the following IPv6 addresses.
i) 2001:0000:0234:C1AB:0000:00A0:AABC:003F
2001:0:234:C1AB:0:A0:AABC:3F
ii) 2001:0000:0000:0001:0000:0000:0000:003F
2001: 0 : 0 : 1 : 0 : 0 : 0 : 3F
2001 : 0 : 0 : 1 :: 3F

d) Figure 7 shows 4 PCs connected to an Ethernet switch.

i) State the content MAC Table i.e. port number and MAC address, after PC-B sends a packet
to PC-A. Assume that the MAC Table is initially empty. (2 marks)

Port MAC Address

2 00-0B

*Ethernet frame enters a port; MAC Address Table will update the port number and the
MAC address.

ii) Identify the PCs that received the packet when PC-B initially sends packet to PC-A. Then state
the transmission method used. (3 marks)
 Since the MAC Table is initially empty, the packets will be forwarded to all ports
except for the incoming port. This is known as an unknown unicast.
 Transmission method used is broadcast. (KIV)

iii) Later when PC-A respond with a packet sent to PC-B, state the transmission method used.
Explain your reason. (4 marks)
The transmission method used is unicast because the MAC address of PC-B is already in the
MAC table of the switch. Therefore the packet can be sent to the specific port.
Extra Notes.
1) Comparison between TCP & UDP
TCP UDP
Reliable. Absolute guarantee that the data Unreliable. No guarantee that the
transferred arrives in the same order in which it messages/packets sent would reach at all.
was sent.
Speed for TCP is slower than UDP. Faster because error recovery is not attempted.
“Best effort” protocol.
Does error checking. Incorrect packets are Does error checking but just discard the incorrect
retransmitted from source to destination. packet without retransmitting.
More fields. Fewer fields.
HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP/POP, Telnet, DNS, DHCP, TFTPT, SNMP

2) Well-known port numbers

Port Number Protocol Application
20/21 TCP File Transfer Protocol (data/control), FTP
22 TCP Secure Shell, SSH
23 TCP Telnet
25 TCP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP
53 TCP, UDP Domain Name Service, DNS
67, 68 UDP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, DHCP
60 UDP Trivial File Transfer Protocol, TFTP
80 TCP Hypertext Transfer Protocol, HTTP
110 TCP Post Office Protocol v3, POP3
143 TCP Internet Message Access Protocol
161 UDP Simple Network Management Protocol
443 TCP Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure, HTTPS
3) Roles of transport layer
- Track individual conversations; transport layer tracks each individual conversation flowing between
a source application and a destination application separately.
- Segmentation; Transport layer divides the data into segments that are easier to manage and
transport.
- Identifying the applications; each application is assigned to an identifier called port number. Port
number is unique to that host. Transport layer ensures that even with multiple applications running
on a device, all applications receive the correct data.

4) Binary  BCD
1) 111012
*Convert binary to decimal first. Then from decimal, binarykan each number.
111012  2910  00102 10012  00101001BCD

5) Access methods to devices

- A switch can still be implemented without configuration. But it is recommended to do so as a best
practice. Below are ways to access the CLI environment and configure the device.

- Console; a physical management port that provides out-of-band access to Cisco device. Refers to
access via dedicated management channel used for maintenance purposes only.
Advantage; accessible even w/o networking services configured. Configuration commands for
setting up the switch/router can be entered on the connected computer that runs a terminal
emulation-software.

- Secure Shell (SSH); a method for remotely establishing a secure CLI connection thru a virtual
interface over a network. SSH requires an active networking services on the device including an active
interface configured with an address.
Advantage; recommended because it is secured. SSH provides encrypted password authentication
and transport of session data. This keeps user ID and password private.

- Telnet; an insecure method of remotely establishing a CLI session thru a virtual interface over a
network. It does not provide a securely encrypted connection – authentication, passwords and
commands are sent over the network in plaintext.
Extra; Telnet server & Telnet client can be used to establish Telnet sessions with other devices.

6) Application Layer Protocols (DHCP, DNS)

DNS (Domain Name Service)
- To translate domain names into IP addresses, which computers can understand.
- DNS protocol communications using a single format called message.
- DNS Message Format
i) DNS stores different records which are
o A - An end device IPv4 address
o NS – An authoritative name server
o AAAA – An end device IPv6 address (pronounced as quad-A)
o MX – A mail exchange record
ii) DNS server looks at its own records first before resolving names. It the server is unable to
resolve the name using its locally stored records, it relays the query to other servers.
iii) The response is then forwarded to the requesting client.
 iv) DNS Client service on Windows PC stores previously resolved names in memory
v) ipconfig /displaydns display all cached DNS entries

- DNS Hierarchy
i) Uses hierarchical system (root at the top, branches below).
ii) The naming structure is broken down into small, manageable zones.
iii) Each DNS server responsible for managing name-to-IP mappings for that small portion of the
DNS structure.
iv) If request doesn’t match the records/zones, it is forwarded to other servers for translation.
v) Top-level domains - .com, .org, .au, .co, .my

- Nslookup command
i) Allows user to manually place DNS queries
ii) Can be used to troubleshoot name resolution issues
iii) Has many options available for extensive testing and verification of the DNS process

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

- Static addressing requires user to manually enter IP address information on hosts.
- Dynamic addressing (DHCP) automatically assigns IPv4 addresses. More efficient on larger networks.
- DHCP Operation
i) A DHCP clients wants to request an IP address;
- The client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER
- A DHCP server replies with DHCPOFFER message
- The client sends a DHCPREQUEST to the chosen server (client might receive 1 or
more offers)
- Server replies with DHCPACK to confirm the lease has been finalized.
- If the offer is no longer valid, server responds with DHCPNAK.
- Leases must be renewed thru DHCPREQUEST, before it expires.
7) Subnetting

i) State the number of broadcast domain in Figure 2.

5 broadcast domains/networks.
ii) A show ip route command is executed at R2 console terminal. List directly connected route which
includes the destination network, the outgoing interface and the next hop interface.
Destination Network Next-Hop Interface Outgoing Interface
192.168.10.0/24

iii) Determine the possible IP address and Subnet Mask which can be assigned to R1’s and R2’s
Se0/1/0 interface.
Answer: 209.165.200.225 and 209.165.200.226
*Cari network and broadcast, to get the usable hosts.

8) Fully Mesh Network

- WAN is a telecommunication network that extends over a large geographical area.
- Full mesh topology; every node has a circuit connecting it to every other node in a
network.
- Expensive to implement but yields greatest redundancy. If one of the nodes fails,
network traffic can be directed to any other nodes. (backbone network)

9) IPv4 vs IPv6
Describe 3 techniques used which enable IPv4 and IPv6 to communicate and coexist in the
network.
- Dual Stack; allows IPv4 & IPv6 to coexist on the same network segment. These
devices run both IPv4 and IPv6 protocol stacks simultaneously.
- Tunneling; A method of transporting an IPv6 packet over an IPv4 network. The
packet is encapsulated inside an IPv4 packet, similar to other data types.
 - Translation; Network Address Translation (NAT64) allows IPv6 devices to
communicate with IPv4 enabled devices using a translation technique similar to NAT
for IPv4. An IPv6 packet is translated to an IPv4 packet and vice versa.
IPv4 vs IPv6
IPv4 IPv6
32 bit length 128 bit length
Binary numbers represented in decimals Binary numbers represented in hexadecimals
Fragmentation is done by sender and forwarding Fragmentation is done only by sender.
routers.
ARP is available to map IPv4 addresses to MAC. ARP is replaced with Neighbor Discovery Protocol
(NDP)
Static or DHCP address is required to configure IP. Auto-configuration of addresses is available.

Protocol Data Unit

i) Segmentation; breaking communication into smaller pieces.
ii) Multiplexing; interleaving the pieces (segments) as they traverse.
iii) PDU; the form that a piece of data takes at any layer.
- Data (Application Layer)
- Segment (Transport Layer)
- Packet (Network Layer)
- Frame (Data Link Layer)
- Bits (Physical Layer)