Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010

Table of Contents
Introduction to types of Stress and Strain:..................................................................................................2
Stress...........................................................................................................................................................2
Normal Stress:.........................................................................................................................................2
Longitudinal Stress:.................................................................................................................................2
Volume Stress (or) Bulk Stress:................................................................................................................3
Shearing Stress :......................................................................................................................................3
Strain...........................................................................................................................................................3
Longitudinal Strain:..................................................................................................................................4
Volume Strain:.........................................................................................................................................4
Shearing Strain:.......................................................................................................................................4
Stress Strain Relationship............................................................................................................................5
Introduction to stress strain relationship:...............................................................................................5
The Explanation of Stress Strain Relationship Graph:..............................................................................6
Law about Stress Strain Relationship:......................................................................................................7
Stress-strain Curve.......................................................................................................................................7
Introduction to stress-strain curve:.........................................................................................................7
Explanation about Stress- Strain Curve....................................................................................................8
Features of Stress Strain Curve................................................................................................................9
Hooke's law.................................................................................................................................................9
Experimental verification of Hooke's law..............................................................................................10
Modulus of Elasticity.................................................................................................................................11
Explanation to Modulus of Elasticity.....................................................................................................11
Modulus of Elasticity: Young's Modulus................................................................................................11
Modulus of Elasticity: Bulk Modulus......................................................................................................12
Modulus of Elasticity: Rigidity Modulus (η)...........................................................................................13
Stress - Strain Relationship in a wire.........................................................................................................14
References:................................................................................................................................................15

The University of Faisalabad Page 1

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010

Introduction to types of Stress and Strain:

In the mechanics of solids, the stress and strain analysis provides an important insight on the
behavior of solids. In this article we shall deal with types of stress and strain and try and
understand them a bit better.

The restoring force per unit area, set up inside a body is called stress. It is measured by the
magnitude of the deforming force acting on unit area of the body.  

 Stress = Restoring force / area =    , where F is the deforming force acting on an area A of the
body.

 Its unit:  N m-2 in SI system and dyne cm-2 in CGS system. Dimensional formula is [   
=   ML-1 T-2.

Deforming Force:

External forces acting on a body bring about a change in its state or configuration. The latter is possible
when the body is not free to move, but the molecules are compelled to change their positions. Such
forces are called deforming forces.

Elasticity:

The property of the material of a body by virtue of which, the body regains its original length, volume
and shape after the deforming forces have been removed, is called elasticity.

Plasticity:

The property where bodies do not show a tendency to recover their original form after deforming forces
are removed is called plasticity.

Stress
Different types of stress: Stress is of two different types mainly (i) Normal Stress (ii) Shearing or
Tangential Stress.

Normal Stress: If the stress is normal to the surface, it is called normal stress. Stress is always
normal in the case of a change in length or a wire or in the case of change in volume of a body

Longitudinal Stress: When a normal stress change the length of a body then it is called
longitudinal stress which is given by

The University of Faisalabad Page 2

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010

Longitudinal Stress = Deforming Force / Area of cross section   = 

The longitudinal stress can be further divided into two types. When a wire or a rod is stretched at
the two ends by equal and opposite forces, the stress is called tensile stress. When a rod is pushed
at the two ends by equal and opposite forces, it will be under compression. The stress in such a
case is called compressive stress. The pillars of a building experience compressive stress.

Volume Stress (or) Bulk Stress: When a normal stress changes the volume of a body then
it is called volume stress. When a solid body is immersed in a fluid, the force at any point is
normal to the surface of the body and the magnitude of the force on any small area is
proportional to the area i.e., the body is under the action of a pressure P.

                          Bulk Stress =    = Pressure

Shearing Stress : When the Stress is tangential to the surface due to the application of forces
parallel to the surface, then the stress is called tangential or shearing stress. It changes the shape
of the body.

                         Shearing Stress = Force / Surface Area = F / A

Strain
Normal stress on a body causes change in length or volume and tangential stress produces
change in shape of the body. The ratio of change produced in the dimensions of a body by  a
system of forces or couples, in equilibrium, to its original dimensions is called strain.

Strain is of three types depending upon the change produced in a body and the stress applied.
The three types of strain are (i) Longitudinal strain (ii) Volume strain and (iii) Shearing strain

The University of Faisalabad Page 3

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010

Longitudinal Strain: It is the ratio of the change in length of a body to the original length of
the body. If L is the original length of a wire or a rod and the final length of the wire or the rod is
L + e under the action of a normal stress, the change in length is e.

Longitudinal Strain = Change in length / Original length = e / L

If the length increases due to tensile stress, the corresponding strain is called tensile strain. If the
length decreases due to compressive stress, the strain is called compressive strain.

Volume Strain: It is the ratio of the change in volume of a body

to its original volume.

If V is the original volume of a body and   v + v is the volume of

the body under the action of a normal stress, the change in volume
is v.

Shearing Strain: If is the angle through which a face originally perpendicular to the fixed
face is turned. (Or)  It is the ratio of the displacement of a layer to its distance from the fixed
layer.  

The University of Faisalabad Page 4

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010

As strain is a ratio, it has no units and dimensions.

Stress Strain Relationship

Introduction to stress strain relationship:

Let a wire be suspended from a rigid support. At the free end, a weight hanger is provided on
which weights could be added to study the behavior of the wire is suitably measured and a stress
- strain graph is plotted as shown in figure. This graph gives the relationship between stress and
strain.

The University of Faisalabad Page 5

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010

The Explanation of Stress Strain Relationship Graph:

(i) In the figure the region OP is linear. Within a normal stress, strain is proportional to the
applied stress. This is Hooke's law. Up to P, when the load is removed the wire regains its
original length along PO.The point P represents the elastic limit, PO represents the elastic range
of the material and OB is the elastic strength.

(ii) Beyond P, the graph is not linear. In the region PQ the material is partly elastic and partly
plastic. From Q, if we start decreasing the load, the graph does not come to O via P, but traces a
straight line QA.Thus a permanent strain OA is caused in the wire this is called permanent set.

(iii) Beyond Q addition of even a small load causes enormous strain. This point Q is called the
yield point. This region QR is the plastic range.

(iv) Beyond R, the wire loses its shape and becomes thinner and thinner in diameter and
ultimately breaks sat at S. Therefore Sis called the breaking point. The stress corresponding to S
is called breaking stress.

The University of Faisalabad Page 6

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010

Law about Stress Strain Relationship:

Hooke's law gives a relationship between the stress and strain.

According to Hooke's law, within the elastic limit, strain produced in a body is directly
proportional to the stress produced.

   Stress strain

   A constant, known as modulus of elasticity. Its unit is Nm-2.

Stress-strain Curve
Introduction to stress-strain curve:
Stress:

When some external forces are applied to a body, then the body offers internal resistance to these
forces. This internal opposing force per unit area is called 'stress'. It is denoted by symbol and
its S.I. unit is Pascal or Newton/metre2. Mathematically we can obtain stress in a body as

             Stress= Force/ Area

The University of Faisalabad Page 7

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010
Strain:

It is defined as the change in length per unit original length. The strain may be tensile or
compressive depending upon whether the length increases or decreases. It is a dimensionless
quantity and it is denoted as in symbol. It can be calculated as

                                  Strain = Change in Length/Original Length

Explanation about Stress- Strain Curve

During testing of a material sample, the stress–strain curve is a graphical representation of the
relationship between stress, derived from measuring the load applied on the sample, and strain,
derived from measuring the deformation of the sample, i.e. elongation, compression, or
distortion. The nature of the curve varies from material to material. 

          

If we begin from origin and follows the graph a number of points are indicated.

1. Point A: At origin, there is no initial stress or strain in the test piece. Up to point A
Hooke's Law is obeyed according to which Stress is directly proportional to Strain. That's
why the point A is also known as proportional limit. This straight line region is known as
Elastic Region and the material can regain its original shape after removal of load.
2. Point B: The portion of the curve between AB is not a straight line and Strain increases
faster than stress at all points on the curve beyond point A. Point B is the point after
which any continuous stress results in permanent, or inelastic deformation. Thus, point B
is known as the elastic limit or yield point.
3. Point C & D: Beyond the point B, the material goes to the plastic stage till the point C is
reached. At this point the cross- sectional area of the material starts decreasing and the
stress decreases to point D. At point D the work piece changes its length with a little or
without any increase in stress up to point E.

The University of Faisalabad Page 8

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010
4. Point E: Point E indicates the location of the value of the ultimate stress. The portion DE
is called the yielding of the material at constant stress. From point E onwards, the
strength of the material increases and requires more stress for deformation, until point F
is reached.
5. Point F: A material is considered to have completely failed once it reaches the ultimate
stress. The point of fracture, or the actual tearing of the material, does not occur until
point F. The point F is also called Ultimate Point or Fracture Point.

Features of Stress Strain Curve

Features of Stress Strain Curve vary for different types of materials i.e. Ductile and Brittle.

Features for Ductile Material: The capacity of being drawn out plastically (permanently) before
fracture is called the ductility of the material. In case of ductility the material obeys the Hooke’s
Law and takes time for fracture. In ductile material stress strain curve the plastic region is long
and material will bear more strain before Fracture.

Features for Brittle Material: Materials which show very small or negligible elongation before they
fracture are called brittle materials for e.g. Cast Iron, Tool steel, concrete etc. They get fractured in two
or more parts without any prior notice. In brittle material stress strain curve the plastic region is small
and the strength is high.

Hooke's law
Definition:

Hooke's law of elasticity is an approximation that states that the Force (load) is in direct proportion with
the extension of a material as long as this load does not exceed the elastic limit. Materials for which
Hooke's law is a useful approximation are known as linear-elastic or "Hookean" materials.

The relation is often denoted

The work done to stretch a wire or the Elastic Potential Energy is equal to the area of the triangle on a
Tension/Extension graph, but can also be expressed as

Experimental study by Hooke revealed that elastic bodies regain their original configuration completely,
only up to a limit. He termed this limit as the elastic limit. He found that within the elastic limit, the
extension produced in the wire was directly proportional to the load applied.

The University of Faisalabad Page 9

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010
i.e. Stress a strain

Stress = E strain

Where E is constant and is called modulus of elasticity of the material of the body.

Experimental verification of Hooke's law

The apparatus is set as shown above. The weights are loaded one by one and unloaded one by one to
bring the spring to its elastic mode. Weights are then added in the pan and reading of pointer on the
scale is noted. Some more weights are added and the readings are noted once again. The difference
between the two gives the extension in the spring due to the weights added in the pan. The procedure is
repeated for other weights. On plotting a graph between the load and extension, one gets a straight line
as shown below. Thus, the graph verifies the Hooke's law.

The University of Faisalabad Page 10

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010

Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of elasticity is defined as the tendency of an object or a substance to be deformed
elastically when an applied force acts on it. Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to strain in
the elastic deformation region. Stress is the total force applied on the object to which it is
deformed divided by the area of deformation. Strain is defined as the change in deformation to
the original state of the object.

Explanation to Modulus of Elasticity

The property of elasticity is relevant in materials which obey Hooke's law. Hook's law state that
“When an applied force acts on an object, its stress is directly proportional to strain within the
elastic limit”. The proportionality constant is given by the ratio of stress is to strain. This
proportionality constant is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus.

The unit of strain is dimensionless. The stress has units of pressure. Hence the modulus of
elasticity has units of pressure. The SI unit of modulus of elasticity usually denoted as 'E' is
represented by Pascal and is denoted as 'Pa' or 'N/m2.  We also denote units for modulus of
elasticity as Mega Pascal (MPa or N/mm2) or Gigapascal (GPa or KN/mm2). The unit for
modulus of elasticity is expressed as pounds (force) per square inches and it is denoted as 'psi'.  

Introduction to modulus of elasticity:

Corresponding to the three types of strain, there are three moduli of elasticity.

(i) Young's modulus, corresponding to longitudinal strain,

(ii) Bulk modulus, corresponding to volume strain and

(iii) Rigidity modulus, corresponding to shearing strain.

Modulus of Elasticity: Young's Modulus

It is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain, with in proportionality

limit.         

Let L be the natural length or original length of a wire or a rod of area of cross section a
suspended from a rigid support. Its length increases by e when a force F is applied at the other
end as shown in the figure.

The University of Faisalabad Page 11

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010

Longitudinal stress = 

Longitudinal strain = 

Young's modulus Y = Longitudinal stress / Longitudinal strain

Y =  =     

Y = 

Young's modulus of a perfect rigid body is infinity as e = 0 for any applied force, F. Only
solids can have Young's modulus. Liquids and gases do not possess Young's modulus.  Steel is
more elastic than rubber as the magnitude of stress to produce a given strain is much larger in
steel than in rubber.

Modulus of Elasticity: Bulk Modulus

It is defined as the ratio of volume stress to volume strain within proportionality limit.

When the volume V of a body changes by V under the action of a pressure P,

The University of Faisalabad Page 12

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010
Volume stress = P.

Volume strain = V / V

Bulk modulus   K   =   Volume stress / Volume strain   = 

K =   - 

The minus sign is taken as pressure increases the volume of the body decreases. Generally
V is taken as the change in volume when the pressure changes by  P; the bulk modulus is then
given by 

K = - [ P / V] V.

The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called compressibility. A rigid body and a perfect liquid are
incompressible i.e., compressibility is zero.  Solids, liquids and gases possess bulk modulus.

Gases possess two types of bulk modulus of elasticity corresponding to the two types of change.

(i) Isothermal elasticity corresponding to the isothermal change and

(ii) Adiabatic elasticity corresponding to the adiabatic change.

Modulus of Elasticity: Rigidity Modulus (η)

It is defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing strain of the body, with in
proportionality limit. It is also known as shear modulus or torsion modulus.

Consider a cube of side L as shown in the above figure. When a force F is applied on its face
AHGB of area a fixing its lower face CDEI, the faces perpendicular to the fixed face are
displaced by l.

Shearing stress =

Shearing strain =   

Rigidity modulus   = Shearing stress / Shearing strain =

   =   =  )

The University of Faisalabad Page 13

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010
Rigidity modulus is also called shear modulus or torsional modulus. Solids along possess rigidity
modulus. Liquids and gases do not possess rigidity modulus.

Stress - Strain Relationship in a wire

AO = Elastic Range

P = Yield point

OD| = Breaking stress or tensile stress

E = Breaking point

OO1= Permanent set

When the stress-strain relationship in a wire is studied, one finds that stress is directly
proportional to the strain up to the point A (see the graph). The point 'A' is called the elastic limit
and AO is called the elastic range. The Hooke's law is valid up till A. Beyond A, if the stress is
removed, graph between stress and strain does not follow AO. BO| is followed when stress is
zero, strain is not zero or a permanent deformation sets in the material. Therefore, OO | represents
the permanent set. Notice that beyond 'A', the stress - strain graph is a curve and that for a small
stress, large strain is produced in the material. The material beyond A and up to 'P' is partly
elastic and partly plastic in behavior. Beyond 'P', the behavior of the wire is very erratic. There is
a large increase in the strain but a very small change in the stress.

The University of Faisalabad Page 14

 Muhammad Asif Idrees 2010
At this stage, the wire flows down up to the point C. The point 'P', when the wire yields to the applied
stress and begins to flow, is called the yield point. The region PC is called the plastic region. Materials
used to make sheets or wires must have a longer plastic region and must be ductile.

Beyond C, the graph has a hump at D. Even if the wire is loaded by a little amount, the wire
becomes thin at weak portions of the wire and tends to break at E. The stress corresponding to
the breaking point is called the breaking stress. Brittle substances generally have a small plastic
region and the breaking stress lies closer to the elastic limit.

The above graph is useful in classifying materials which serve different purposes.

References:

http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/types-of-stress-and-strain

http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/stress-strain-relationship

http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/stress-strain-curve

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-iii/solids-and-fluids/hookes-law.php

http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/modulus-of-elasticity

http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/modulus-of-elasticity-of-steel

The University of Faisalabad Page 15