DISCOURSE MARKERS

Discourse means “pieces of language longer than a sentence”. Some words and expressions are used to show how discourse is constructed. They can show
the connection between what a speaker is saying and what has already been said or what is going to be said; they can help to make clear the structure of what is
being said; they can indicate what speakers think about what they are saying or what others have said. There are a very large number of these “discourse
markers”, and it is impossible to give a complete list in a few pages. Here are a few of the most common examples. Some of these words and expressions have
more than one use; for more information, look in a good dictionary. Some discourse markers are used mostly in informal speech or writing; others are more
common in a formal style. Note that a discourse marker usually comes at the beginning of a clause. Take care with punctuation.

1. Focusing and linking 2. Balancing contrasting points

These expressions focus attention on what is going to be said, by announcing the
subject in advance. Some of them also make a link with previous discourse, by
referring back to what was said before.
with reference to… is very formal: used mainly at the beginning
of business letters.
E.g. With reference to your letter of March
th
17 , I am pleased to inform you that…
talking/speaking of/about… Is used to make a link with what has just
been said. It can help a speaker to change
the subject.
E.g. “I saw Max and Lisa today. You know,
she… Talking of Max, did you know he’s
going to Australia?”
regarding… Can come at the beginning of a piece of
discourse.
E.g. “Hello, John. Now look, regarding
those sales figures – I really don’t think…”
as regards… /
as far as…is concerned Usually announce a change of subject by
the speaker/writer.
E.g. …there are no problems about
production. Now as regards marketing/ As
far as marketing is concerned, I think the
best thing is to…
as for… Often suggest lack of interest or dislike.
E.g. “I’ve invited Andy and Bob. As for
Stephen, I don’t care if I never see him
again.”
These expressions are used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast, but do not
contradict each other.
on the other hand
while / whereas
3. Emphasising a contrast
however / nevertheless
mind you / still
yet / still / in spite of this
E.g. Arranged marriages are common in many Middle
Eastern countries. In the West, on the other hand,
they are unusual.
E.g. I like spending my holidays in the mountains,
while/whereas my wife prefers the seaside.
emphasise the fact that the second point
contrasts with the first. Nevertheless is very
formal.
E.g. Britain came last in the chess
championship again. However, we did have
one success, with Ann Smith’s win in the first
round.
(less formal) introduce the contrasting point as
an afterthought.
E.g. “I don’t like the job much. Mind you, / Still,
the money’s good.”
Yet, still and in spite of can be used to suggest
that something is surprising, in view of what
was said before.
E.g. He says he’s a socialist, and yet he owns
three houses and drives a Rolls.
The train was an hour late. In spite of this, I
managed to get to the meeting on time. (OR… I
still managed to get…)
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4. Similarity
similarly E.g. The streets are usually really busy during the
Christmas season. Similarly, the shops are packed
during the summer sales.
in the same way E.g. We did everything we could to help our children
when they were younger.
In the same way, they in turn do the utmost for theirs.
5. Concession and counter-argument
These expressions are used in a 3-part structure: (1) the speaker/writer mentions
facts that point in a certain direction; (2) it is agreed (the concession) that a particular
contradictory fact points the other way; (3) but the speaker/writer dismisses this and
returns to the original direction of argument.
Concession: E.g. …cannot agree with colonialism. It is true that
it is true the British may have done some good in India. Even
of course so, colonialism is basically evil.
certainly
if E.g. …incapable of lasting relationships. Certainly,
may several women loved him, and he was married twice.
emphatic do All the same, the women closest to him were deeply
unhappy.
Counter-argument E.g. Very few people understood Einstein’s theory. Of
however course, everybody had heard of him, and a fair
even so number of people knew the word “relativity”. But
but hardly anyone could tell you what he actually said.
nevertheless/nonetheless
all the same E.g. It was a successful party. The cousins, if a little
still surprised by the family’s behaviour, were nonetheless
impressed by the friendly welcome they received.
As I was saying
E.g. I’m glad to have a place of my own. It’s true it’s a
bit small and it does need repairs. Still, it’s a home.
6. Contradicting
on the contrary can be used to contradict a suggestion made by
another speaker.
E.g. “Interesting lecture?”
“On the contrary, it was a complete waste of time.”
It can also be used when a speaker/writer strengthens
a negative statement which he/she has just made.
E.g. She did not allow the accident to discourage her.
On the contrary, she began to work twice as hard.
7. Dismissal of previous discourse
anyway / anyhow / can be used to mean “what was said before doesn’t
at any rate matter – the main point is as follows”.
E.g. I’m not sure what time I’ll arrive, maybe 7.3o or
7.45. Anyway/Anyhow/At any rate, I’ll certainly be
there before 8.
What a terrible experience! Anyway/Anyhow/At any
rate, you’re safe, that ‘s the main thing.
can suggest that one thing is certain or right, even if
at least everything else is unsatisfactory.
E.g. The car’s completely smashed up, but at least
nobody’s hurt.
N.B. anyway is not the same as in any way, which
means “by any method”.
E.g. Can I help you in any way?
8. Return to previous subject
is used to return to an earlier subject after an
interruption or brief change of subject.
E.g. “…by car – Jeremy, leave the cat alone! As I was
saying, If I go by car it’ll be quicker.”
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9. Change of subject 11. Adding

By the way / incidentally
right /all right / now / OK
10. Structuring
are used to introduce something one has just thought Moreover (very formal) are used to add information or arguments to what has
of that is not directly connected with the conversation. Furthermore already been said.
E.g. “I was talking to Nora yesterday. By the way, In addition E.g. The Prime Minister is unwilling to admit his
she sends her regards. Well, she says…” As well as that mistakes. Moreover, he is totally incapable of …
E.g. “Janet wants to have a word with you. On top of that (informal) E.g. The people are desperately short of food. In
Incidentally, she’s lost a lot of weight. Anyway, it Another thing is addition, they urgently need medical supplies.
seems she needs to know…”. What’s more E.g. She borrowed my bike and didn’t give it back.
They can also change the subject completely. In any case And, on top of that/what’s more, she broke my
Fred’s had another accident, poor chap. By the way/ lawnmower!
Incidentally, what happened to that bike I lent you?
12. Generalising
Often used by teachers, lecturers and people giving
instructions, to indicate that a new section of the On the whole say how far the speaker/writer thinks a generalisation
discourse is beginning. (Sometimes 2 used at the In general is true.
same time.) In all/most/many/ E.g. On the whole, I had a happy childhoos.
E.g. Any questions? Right, let’s decide on the date of some cases In general, we are satisfied with your work.
the next test. Broadly speaking Broadly speaking, nurses are overworkes and
E.g. Now, I’d like to say something about your work. By and large underpaid.
E.g. Is that clear? OK, now has anybody tried to do To a great extent To a great extent a person’s character is formed by
this exercise? To some extent the age of eight.
In most case, people will be nice to you if you are nice
to them.

First(ly) / first of all / can be used to contradict a suggestion made by Apart from… / introduce exceptions to the generalisation.
second(ly) / third(ly) another speaker. Except for… E.g. apart from the starter, the meal was excellent.
etc; lastly / finally… are used to show the structure of what we are saying. E.g. Except for sally, they all seemed pretty sensible.
E.g. First(ly), we need somewhere to live.
To begin with / to start Second(ly), we need to find work. And third(ly), … 13. Gaining time
with; in the first E.g. There are three reasons why I don’t want to
(second/third) place … dancewith you. To start with, my feet hurt. For Let me see Expressions of this kind (often called “fillers”) give the
another thing, you can’t dance. And thirdly, … Let’s see speaker time to think. They are not used in writing.
For one thing; for Well E.g. “How much are you selling it for?”
another thing Note that firstly, secondly, … are more formal than You know “Well, let me see…”
first, second, … and are more common in British I don’t know E.g. “Why did you do that?”
English than American English. I mean “Oh, well, you know, I don’t know, really,
kind of I mean, it just sort of/kind of seemed a good
sort of idea at the time.”
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14. Softening and correcting
I think/feel/reckon are used to make opinions and statements sound less
(informal)/guess (American) dogmatic – they suggest that the speaker is just
In my view/opinion giving a personal opinion, with which other people
may disagree.
I think you ought to try again.
I really feel she’s making a mistake.
I reckon/guess she just doesn’t respect him.
In my view/opinion, we should postpone the
decision.
Apparently can be used to say that the speaker has got his/ her
information from somebody else (and perhaps does
not guarantee that it is true).
E.g. Have you heard? Apparently, Susie’s pregnant
again.
so to speak
more or less
sort of/kind of (informal) show that one is not speaking very exactly, or to
well soften something which might upset other people.
really Well and really can also be used to soften.
E.g. I sort of think we ought to start going home,
perhaps, really.
E.g. I kind of think it’s more or less a crime.
E.g. “Do you like it?” “Well, yes, it’s all right.”
that is to say can be used to “back down” from something too
at least strong or definite that one has said.
E.g. I’m not working for you again. Well, that’s to
say, not unless you put my wages up.
E.g. Ghosts don’t exist. At least, I’ve never seen one.
I’m afraid
is apologetic: it can introduce a polite refusal or bad
news.
E.g. I’m afraid I can’t help you.
E.g. I’m afraid I forgot to buy the stamps you wanted.
I suppose can be used to enquire politely about something
(respectfully inviting a negative answer).
E.g. I suppose you’re not coming to the party?
It can also be used to suggest unwilling agreement.
E.g. Can you give me a hand?” “I suppose so.”
or rather is used to correct oneself.
actually is to add emphasis.
E.g. I’m seeing him in May – or rather, early June,
actually.
I mean can be used to correct or soften.
E.g. Let’s meet next Monday – I mean Tuesday.
E.g. She’s not very nice. I mean, some people like
her, but…
15. Making things clear; giving details
I mean is used to make things clearer or give more details.
E.g. It was a terrible evening. I mean, they all sat
around and talked politics for hours.
Actually can introduce details, especially when these are
unexpected.
E.g. Tommy’s really stupid. You know, he actually
still believes in Santa Claus.
That’s to say Are used when the speaker/writer says something
In other words again in a different way.
E.g. We cannot continue with the deal on this basis.
That is to say/In other words, unless you can bring
down the price we shall have to cancel the order.
16. Giving examples
For instance introduce particular examples to illustrate what has
For example been said/written.
e.g. E.g. People often behave strangely when they’re
in particular abroad. Take Mrs Ellis, for example/ for instance…
In writing, the abbreviation “e.g.” (Latin exempli gratia)
is often used to mean “for example”.
E.g. Some common minerals, e.g. silica or olivine…
In particular focuses on a special example.
E.g. We are not at all happy with the work you did on
the new kitchen. In particular, we consider that the
 DISCOURSE MARKERS
quality of wood used for the cupboards… you’ll never guess who’s bought it.”

17. Referring to the other person’s expectations 18. Persuading

actually (especially GB) These expressions are used when we show whether after all suggests “this is a strong argument that you haven’t
in fact somebody’s expectations have been fulfilled or not. look taken into consideration”. Look is more strongly
as a matter of fact Actually can be used to say that somebody has persuasive. (Even rude in certain situations).
to tell the truth “guessed right”. E.g. I think we should let her go on holiday alone.
E.g. “Did you enjoy your holiday?” “Very much, After all, she is fifteen – she’s not a child any more.
actually.” E.g. You can’t go there tomorrow. Look, you’re just
not old enough.
Actually, in fact, as a matter of fact can introduce
additional information. look here is an angry exclamation meaning “You can’t say/do
E.g. The weather was awful. Actually, there was a that!”
flood and we had to come home. E.g. Look here! What are you doing with my suitcase!
E.g. “Was the concert good?” “Yes, as a matter of
fact, it was terrific.” no doubt can be used to persuade people politely to do things.
e.g. “Did you meet the Minister?” “Yes. In fact, he E.g. No doubt you’ll be paying the rent soon?
invited us to lunch.”

All four expressions can be used when we say that 19. Showing one’s attitude to what one is saying
the hearer’s expectations were NOT fulfilled.
E.g. “How was the holiday?” “Well, actually, we honestly can be used to claim that one is speaking sincerely.
didn’t go in the end.” frankly E.g. Honestly, I never said a word to him about the
E.g. “How much were the carrots?” “Well, in fact/ to money.
tell the truth, I forgot to buy them.” Both honestly and frankly can introduce critical
E.g. “I hope you passed the exam.” “No, as a matter remarks.
of fact, I didn’t.” E.g. Honestly, John, why do you have to be so rude?
E.g. “What do you think of my hair?” ”Frankly, dear,
Actually is often used to introduce corrections. it’s a mess.”
E.g. “Hello, John.” “Actually, my name’s Philip.”
no doubt suggests that the speaker/writer thinks that something
well can soften corrections, suggesting, “that’s nearly is probable, but does not know for certain.
right” . E.g. No doubt the Romans enjoyed telling jokes, just
E.g. “You live in Oxford, don’t you?” “Well, near like we do.
Oxford.”
20. Summing up
After a new subject has been announced, well can
suggest that something new or surprising is going to in conclusion are common in formal style.
be said about it. to sum up E.g. In conclusion, we can see that Britain’s
E.g. “What did you think of her new boyfriend?” briefly economic problems…
“Well, I was a bit surprised…” in short E.g. To sum up, most of the committee members
E.g. “You know that house we were looking at? Well, supported the idea.
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E.g. He’s lazy, he’s ignorant. In short, he’s useless.

21. Logical consequence

therefore (formal) show that what is said follows logically from what was
as a result (formal) said before.
consequently (formal) E.g. She was therefore unable to avoid an
so unwelcome marriage. (Formal) N.B. Can also be used
then at beginning or end of clause.
E.g. So she had to marry a man she didn’t like.
So is often used as a general purpose connector,
rather like and, in spoken narrative.
E.g. So anyway, this man came up to me and said,
“Have you got a light?” So, I told him, no, I hadn’t. So
he looked at me and…