DISCUSSIONS AND CLOSURES
summarized in Table 1. Fig. 1 presents 179 data. For steep chutes
Discussion of “Hydraulic Design of
Stepped Spillways” by Robert M. Boes
and Willi H. Hager
September 2003, Vol. 129, No. 9, pp. 671–679.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9429共2003兲129:9共671兲
H. Chanson1
1
Reader, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Queensland, Brisbane QLD
4072, Australia
In skimming flows down stepped chutes, Chanson et al. 共2002兲
presented a comprehensive reanalysis of flow resistance based
upon more than 38 model studies and 4 prototype investigations
totaling more than 700 data points with channel slopes ranging
from 5.7° up to 55°. Different research facilities yielded different
results and researchers continue to disagree on the reasons for
these differences 共Chanson 2000兲. The authors highlighted nicely
the difficulties to estimate flow resistance on stepped chutes, al-
though it is a key design parameter. Here the discusser argues that
differences in flow resistance data may be linked to different in-
flow conditions. A careful reanalysis of large-size experimental
results suggests that lower flow resistance was observed in experi-
mental facilities with pressurised intake.
Skimming flows are characterized by significant form losses.
Observations highlighted strong interactions between the main
stream turbulence, the step cavity recirculation zones, and
the free-surface 共Chanson and Toombes 2002a; Yasuda and
Chanson 2003兲. Flow resistance data for large-size model data
共s ⬎ 0.020 m, R ⬎ 1E + 5兲 are presented in Fig. 1 in terms of the
equivalent Darcy friction factor f, where s is the step height, ␾ is
the angle between the pseudobottom formed by the step edges
and the horizontal, and R is the flow Reynolds number defined in
terms of the hydraulic diameter DH. Details of each study are
Fig. 1. Darcy friction factor of skimming flows on stepped chute 兵179 data其
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共␾ ⬎ 15° 兲, the friction factor data presented no obvious correla-
tion with the relative step roughness height s * cos ␾ / DH, Rey-
nolds, Froude, nor Weber numbers 共Chanson et al. 2002兲. They
compared favorably, however, with a simplified analytical model
of the pseudoboundary shear stress that may be expressed, in
dimensionless form, as
2 1
fd =
冑␲ ⴱ ␰ 共1兲
where f d⫽equivalent Darcy friction factor estimate of the form
drag; 1 / ␰⫽dimensionless expansion rate of the shear layer. Eq.
共1兲 predicts f d ⬇ 0.2 for ␰ = 6, which is close to observed friction
factors 共Fig. 1兲. However, skimming flow resistance data ap-
peared to be distributed around three dominant values: f ⬇ 0.105,
0.17, and 0.30 as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 presents the probability
distribution function of Darcy friction factor where the histogram
columns represent the number of data with friction factors within
the interval: e.g., the probability of friction factors from 0.18 to
0.20 is represented by the column labeled 0.18. The intervals
were selected with a constant logarithmic increment. The first and
last columns indicate the number of data with friction factors less
than 0.08 and greater than 1.0, respectively.
The discusser hypothesizes that flow resistance in skimming
flows is not an unique function of flow rate and stepped chute
geometry, and that there is some analogy with form drag behind
bluff bodies. For the flow behind a cylinder, the drag coefficient is
known to be a function of the upstream turbulence affecting the
boundary layer separation for a given Reynolds number. 共For in-
finitely long smooth cylinders, the effect is best observed for Rey-
nolds numbers about 1 E + 5 to 1 E + 6.兲 For ventilated cavities
behind wedges and wings, several regimes were associated with
different drag coefficients for the same inflow conditions, depend-
ing upon the amount of ventilation 共Silberman and Song 1961;
Table 1. Reanalyzed Experimental Data of Flow Resistance
Legend Reference Flow conditions Remarks
Andre Andre et al. 共2003兲 ␾ = 30°, s = 0.06 m, b = 0.5 m Air–water flow measurements.
Pressurized intake inflow.

BaCaRa BaCaRa 共1991兲 ␾ = 53.1°, s = 0.06 m, b = 1.5 m Clear-water 共nonaerated兲 flow.

␾ = 53.1°, s = 0.024 m Uncontrolled ogee inflow with
␾ = 59°, s = 0.024 m small steps in ogee development.
␾ = 63.4°, s = 0.024 m

Boes Boes 共2000兲 ␾ = 30°, s = 0.046, 0.092 m, b = 0.5 m Air–water flow measurements.
␾ = 50°, s = 0.031, 0.093 m, b = 0.5 m Pressurized intake inflow.

Chamani Chamani and ␾ = 51.3°, s = 0.313, 0.125 m, b = 0.3 m Air–water flow measurements.
and Rajaratnam Rajaratnam 共1999兲 ␾ = 59°, s = 0.313 to 0.125 m, b = 0.3 m Uncontrolled smooth ogee crest inflow.

Chanson, Toombes, Chanson and Toombes 共2001兲 ␾ = 21.8°, s = 0.10 m, b = 1 m Air–water flow measurements.
and Gonzalez Uncontrolled broad-crested weir inflow.
Gonzalez and Chanson 共2004兲 ␾ = 15.9°, s = 0.05 and 0.10 m, b = 1 m Air–water flow measurements.
Uncontrolled broad-crested weir inflow.

Matos Matos 共2000兲 ␾ = 53.1°, s = 0.08 m, b = 1.0 m Air–water flow measurements.

Uncontrolled smooth ogee crest inflow.

Shvainshtein Shvajnshtejn 共1999兲 ␾ = 38.7°, s = 0.05 m, b = 0.48 m Clear-water 共nonaerated兲 flow.

␾ = 51.3°, s = 0.0625 m, b = 0.48 m Uncontrolled smooth ogee crest inflow.

Toombes and Chanson Toombes and Chanson 共2000兲 ␾ = 3.4°, s = 0.143 m, b = 0.25 and 0.5 m Air–water flow measurements.
Pressurized intake inflow.
Chanson and Toombes 共2002b兲 ␾ = 3.4°, s = 0.0715 m, b = 0.5 m Air–water flow measurements.
Pressurized intake inflow.

Yasuda and Ohtsu Ohtsu et al. 共2000兲 ␾ = 55°, s = 0.025 m, b = 0.4 m Air–water flow measurements.
Uncontrolled broad-crested weir inflow.
Yasuda and Ohtsu 共1999兲 ␾ = 5.7°, s = 0.006 to 0.010 m, b = 0.4 m Measurements in downstream stiling basin.
␾ = 11.3°, s = 0.006 to 0.10 m, b = 0.4 m Uncontrolled broad-crested weir inflow.
␾ = 19°, s = 0.002 to 0.08 m, b = 0.4 m
␾ = 30°, s = 0.004 to 0.07 m, b = 0.4 m
␾ = 55°, s = 0.003 to 0.064 m, b = 0.4 m
Note: ␾⫽bed slope; s⫽step height; and b⫽channel width.

Fig. 2. Probability distribution function of chute friction factor 兵179 data其

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 Fig. 3. Sketch of inflow conditions of stepped chutes
Laali and Michel 1984; Michel 1984; Verron and Michel 1984兲.
On stepped chutes, it is proposed that the form drag process may
present several modes of excitation that are functions of the in-
flow conditions. At each step edge, shear instabilities may gener-
ate different cavity wake regimes, associated with different drag
coefficients. In Fig. 2, the dominant values f ⬇ 0.105, 0.17, and
0.30 would correspond to three dominant modes 共or regimes兲 of
excitation induced by different inflow conditions 共Fig. 3兲. Fig. 3
illustrates basic inflow configurations. With an uncontrolled ogee
profile, the pressure distribution is atmospheric in the entire flow
at design flow conditions by definition of the ogee development
共Henderson 1966; Chanson 1999兲. With an uncontrolled broad-
crest, the pressure is hydrostatic at the crest. For a pressurised
intake, the inflow pressure distribution is greater than hydrostatic.
Fig. 2 shows that experiments with pressurized intake yielded
consistently lower flow resistance than for uncontrolled inflow
conditions. For example, the reanalysis of data from Boes 共2000兲
and Andre et al. 共2003兲 gives f ⬃ 0.1, which is about three times
smaller than the third dominant value 共f = 0.30, Fig. 2兲. Similarly,
skimming flow experiments by Chanson and Toombes 共2002b兲
down a flat slope 共␾ = 3.4°, s = 0.07 m兲 with pressurized intake
yielded friction factors three times smaller than data of Yasuda
and Ohtsu 共1999兲 on a 5.7° stepped slope with uncontrolled
broad-crest.
Overall flow resistance data ranged typically between 0.1 and
0.3 共Figs. 1 and 2兲, although the friction factor is affected by the
inflow conditions and by the rate of air entrainment. The drag
reduction process was well-documented in smooth chutes 共Chan-
son 1994兲, and it was recently demonstrated on stepped chutes
共Chanson 1993, 2004兲.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The discusser thanks Professor C. J. Apelt 共University of
Queensland兲 for helpful discussions.
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Grosskaskaden.” PhD thesis, VAW-ETH, Zürich, Switzerland.
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J. Civ. Eng., 20共3兲, 422–435.
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and suspended load.” J. Hydraul. Res., IAHR, 32共1兲, 87–101.
Chanson, H. 共1999兲. The hydraulics of open channel flows: An introduc-
tion, Butterworth-Heinemann, London.
Chanson, H. 共2000兲. “Hydraulics of stepped spillways: Current status.” J.
Hydraul. Eng. 126共9兲, 636–637.
Chanson, H. 共2004兲. “Drag reduction in skimming flow on stepped spill-
ways by aeration.” J. Hydraul. Res., IAHR, 42共3兲, 316–322.
Chanson, H., and Toombes, L. 共2001兲. “Experimental investigations of air
entrainment in transition and skimming flows down a stepped chute:
Application to embankment overflow stepped spillways.” Research
Report No. CE158, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Queensland,
Brisbane, Australia.
Chanson, H., and Toombes, L. 共2002a兲. “Air-water flows down stepped
chutes: Turbulence and flow structure observations.” Int. J. Multi-
phase Flow 27共11兲, 1737–1761.
Chanson, H., and Toombes, L. 共2002b兲. “Energy dissipation and air en-
trainment in a stepped storm waterway: Experimental study.” J. Irrig.
Drain. Eng. 128共5兲, 305–315.
Chanson, H., Yasuda, Y., and Ohtsu, I. 共2002兲. “Flow resistance in skim-
ming flows and its modelling.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 29共6兲, 809–819.
Gonzalez, C. A., and Chanson, H. 共2004兲. “Interactions between cavity
 flow and main stream skimming flows: An experimental study.” Can.
J. Civ. Eng. 31共1兲, 33-44.
Henderson, F. M. 共1966兲. Open channel flow, MacMillan, New York.
Laali, A. R., and Michel, J. M. 共1984兲. “Air entrainment in ventilated
cavities: Case of the fully developed ‘half cavity’.” J. Fluids Eng.,
Trans ASME, Sept., 106, 327–335.
Matos, J. 共2000兲. “Hydraulic design of stepped spillways over RCC
dams.” Intl Workshop on Hydraulics of Stepped Spillways, Zürich,
Switzerland, H. E. Minor and W. H. Hager, eds., Balkema, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands, 187–194.
Michel, J. M. 共1984兲. “Some features of water flows with ventilated cavi-
ties.” J. Fluids Eng., Trans ASME, Sept., 106, 319–326.
Ohtsu, I, Yasuda, Y., and Takahashi, M. 共2000兲. “Characteristics of skim-
ming flow over stepped spillways.” J. Hydraul. Eng., 126共11兲, 869–
871.
Shvajnshtejn, A. M. 共1999兲. “Stepped spillways and energy dissipation.”
Gidrotekh. Stroit., 5, 15–21 共in Russian兲.
Silberman, E., and Song, C. S. 共1961兲. “Instability of ventilated cavities.”
J. Ship Res., 5共1兲, 13–33.
Fig. 1. Variation of Manning’s n for different H쐓 values
Toombes, L., and Chanson, H. 共2000兲. “Air-water flow and gas transfer at
aeration cascades: A comparative study of smooth and stepped
chutes.” Int. Workshop on Hydraulics of Stepped Spillways, Zürich, The discussers would also like to know the number of steps
Switzerland, Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 77–84. provided in each case and the location of first step along the
Verron, J., and Michel, J. M. 共1984兲. “Base-vented hydrofoils of finite spillway profile. Can the authors suggest any readily usable ex-
span under a free surface: An experimental investigation.” J. Ship plicit guidelines from hydraulic considerations for deciding on the
Res., 28共2兲, 90–106. step height, apart from the given RCC lift thickness? Some other
Yasuda, Y., and Chanson, H. 共2003兲. “Micro- and macroscopic study of
investigators, including Rice and Kadavy 共1996兲, Yildiz and Kas
two-phase flow on a stepped chute.” Proc., 30th IAHR Biennial Con- 共1998兲, Chamani and Rajaratnam 共1999兲 have indicated that the
gress, Thessaloniki, Greece, J. Ganoulis and P. Prinos, eds., vol. D, step height s affects the energy dissipation over stepped spillway.
695–702.
Eq. 共24兲 includes K, the roughness height perpendicular to the
Yasuda, Y., and Ohtsu, I. 共1999兲. “Flow resistance of skimming flow in
pseudobottom, which can be considered to be a representative
stepped channels.” Proc., 28th IAHR Congress, Graz, Austria, session
term for step height s. In the last paragraph on energy dissipation,
B14, 共CD-ROM兲.
it is mentioned that Fig. 12 gives an idea of main parameters
involved in the expression of relative residual energy. However,
Fig. 12 does not indicate effect of any step height parameter on
relative residual energy head ratio 关Hres / Hmax兴. Fig. 共1兲 shows a
Discussion of “Hydraulic Design of plot compiled by discussers based on experimental data obtained
by Ghare 共2003兲 and Yildiz and Kas 共1998兲, which show the
Stepped Spillways” by Robert M. Boes effect of step height on Manning’s equivalent n for a stepped
and Willi H. Hager spillway. In this plot H* is considered a ratio of spillway height to
September 2003, Vol. 129, No. 9, pp. 671–679. step height. Can authors provide any other dimensionless plot that
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9429共2003兲129:9共671兲 covers all the main parameters including step height s affecting
the performance of the stepped spillway under skimming flow
A. D. Ghare1; P. D. Porey2; and R. N. Ingle3 regime?
1
Sr. Lecturer, Civil Engineering Dept., D. C. V. Raman Institute of Proposed Eq. 共24兲 is based on the results obtained from Eqs.
Technology, Nagpur, India. 共20兲 and 共21兲. Hence the use of Eq. 共24兲 appears to be a tedious
2
Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Visvesvaraya National Institute of process. As indicated by the authors in Fig. 共12兲, the variation in
Technology, Nagpur, India. relative residual energy head ratio for ⌽ = 40° and 50° is not ap-
3
Emeritus Fellow, Civil Engineering Dept., Visvesvaraya National preciable; hence a simpler relationship for relative residual energy
Institute of Technology, Nagpur, India. can be presented eliminating ⌽ as a variable. The resulting rela-
tionship would be applicable for ⌽ greater than 40°. Without a
properly designed energy dissipation system on the downstream
The authors are to be complimented for presenting extensive ex- side, the hydraulic design of a stepped spillway system would be
perimental data on characteristics of aerated skimming flow over incomplete. The discussers would like to know the opinion of the
stepped spillways along with hydraulic design aspects of stepped authors regarding the applicability of the conventional conjugate
spillways. The authors have focused their attention on various depth relationship for stilling basin design in case of a stepped
aspects, including onset of skimming flow, aeration characteris- spillway where highly aerated flow near the toe of the spillway is
tics, residual energy, and training wall design. encountered.
Considering the applicability of the design guidelines, the dis-
cussers would like to know the height of stepped spillway in the
experimental setup for all 3 cases. Further, the authors may clarify References
regarding the limiting height of prototype stepped spillways up to
which the design guidelines presented in this paper could be ap- Chamani, M. R., and Rajaratnam, N. 共1999兲. “Characteristics of skim-
plied. ming flows over stepped spillways.” J. Hydr. Engrg. 125共4兲, 361–367.

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Ghare, A. D. 共2003兲. “Study of parameters related with the design aspects thors’ formula with the data obtained at the LNEC chute was
of stepped spillway.” PhD thesis, Visvesvaraya National Institute of considered of interest—namely, taking into account the different
Technology, Nagpur, India. upstream boundary conditions at the entrance of the chute 共ogee
Rice, C. E., and Kadavy, K. C. 共1996兲. “Model study of a roller com- profile for LNEC chute against the jet box system for the authors’
pacted concrete stepped spillway,” J. Hydr. Engrg. 122共6兲, 292–297.
flume兲.
Yildiz, D., and Kas, I. 共1998兲. “Hydraulic performance of stepped chute
In Fig. 1, typical characteristic depth profiles are plotted in
spillways.” Hydropower Dams, 5共4兲, 64–70.
function of the relative vertical length Hdam / hc, for unit dis-
charges of 0.08 and 0.14 m2 / s, respectively; that is, hc / s = 1.1 and
1.6 共after Matos 1999, 2000b兲. The discusser’s values of hw,u and
h90,u were computed after estimating the friction factor in uniform
Discussion of “Hydraulic Design of aerated flow 共as briefly described later兲. The results show that the
authors’ criterion provides reasonably good estimates of equilib-
Stepped Spillways” by Robert M. Boes
rium condition for both the equivalent clear water depth hw,u and
and Willi H. Hager the mixture depth h90,u, particularly for hc / s = 1.1, regardless of
September 2003, Vol. 129, No. 9, pp. 671–679. the dissimilar upstream boundary conditions of the chute.
DOI: DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9429共2003兲129:9共671兲 With regard to the mean air concentration, the values obtained
at the LNEC chute for Hdam,u / hc ⬇ 20.5 were respectively 0.57
Jorge Matos1 共hc / s = 1.1兲 and 0.55 共hc / s = 1.6兲, within 13% of the uniform value
1
Asst. Prof., Dept. of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Technical Univ. for smooth chutes of identical slope, as per Hager 共1991兲. On the
of Lisbon, IST, Lisbon 1049-001, Portugal other hand, introducing Eqs. 共3兲 and 共5兲 on Eq. 共2兲 gives:

C̄u = 1 − 0.46 F共0.15−0.1

*
tan ␾兲
共1兲
The authors’ paper, along with Boes and Hager 共2003兲, is consid-
ered a significant contribution on the hydraulic design of stepped In Fig. 2, the relative differences between the application of
spillways. Original analysis and findings of the present paper are Eq. 共1兲 of this discussion and the formula proposed by Hager
related to the uniform two-phase flow, the friction factor, and the
energy dissipation.
In the present discussion, some of the authors’ results related
to the uniform two-phase flow and the friction factor are analzsed
in light of some additional experimental data, namely those gath-
ered in a stepped chute assembled at the National Laboratory of
Civil Engineering 共LNEC兲, Lisbon. A brief reflection is included
on the effect of aeration on friction factor.

Uniform Two-Phase Flow

The authors have carefully analyzed their data in light of the

criteria defining the length needed for uniform flow to be attained,
namely: 共1兲 similarity of the air concentration profiles near the
downstream end of the chute; 共2兲 quasiconstant values of the
equivalent clear water and characteristic mixture depths at the
downstream spillway end, as given by the drawdown curves de-
veloped by Hager and Boes 共2000兲; and 共3兲 depth-averaged air
concentration values within 20% of those obtained from the for-
mula proposed by Hager 共1991兲, for uniform self-aerated flow on
smooth chutes of identical slope. Eq. 共13兲 was then proposed for
predicting the relative vertical length needed to attain uniform
flow 共Hdam,u / hc兲, according to which a value of about 20.5 is
obtained for ⌽ ⬇ 52°, typical of gravity dam spillways.
Considering that a slight deviation in the adopted uniform flow
depth may result in large error in the drawdown length, the results
compared fairly well with those proposed by other authors,
namely by Yildiz and Kas 共1998兲, Matos and Quintela 共1995兲, or
Matos 共2000a兲, and Ohtsu et al. 共2000兲. In Matos and Quintela
共1995兲 or Matos 共2000a兲, the suggested prediction for the relative
vertical length needed to attain uniform flow 共Hdam,u / hc兲 was
mostly based upon indirect or nonintrusive estimates of the mean
air concentration. Further to these studies, new experimental data Fig. 1. Characteristic depths down the LNEC stepped chute
on air concentration and velocity were gathered in the 53° sloping 共⌽ = 53° ; b = 1.00 m; s = 0.08 m兲: 共a兲 hc / s = 1.1; 共a兲 hc / s = 1.6;
stepped chute assembled at LNEC, Lisbon 共Matos 1999; Matos IP =inception point. Results from velocity and air concentration data
2000b兲. The chute is 2.90 m high 共from crest to toe兲, 1.00 m wide, 共VCD兲 or visual observation 共OBS兲; hm=mixture or bulked flow
and the step height was 0.08 m. Unit discharges up to depths as per visual obervation on scales attached to the chute
0.2 m3 / s / m 共hc = 0.16 m兲 were tested. The comparison of the au- sidewalls 共after Matos 1999, 2000b兲.

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Fig. 2. Relative differences between the mean air concentration
obtained from Eq. 共1兲 关C̄u Eq. 共1兲兴 and from the application of Hager
共1991兲 formula for smooth chutes of identical slope 共C̄u Hager兲 given
as 关␦C̄u共%兲 = 共C̄uEq. 1 − C̄uHager兲 / C̄uHager*100兴
共1991兲 for smooth chutes are plotted in function of F*, for slopes
of 30°, 40°, and 50°. The results suggest a possible underestima-
tion of the uniform mean air concentration for large F*, particu-
larly on steep slopes 共e.g., 50°兲. It should however be mentioned
that the obtained differences are generally below 20%, in confor-
mity with the criterion adopted by the authors to retain the hu,w
values for the calculation of friction factors.
It is also worth noting that the authors’ criterion seem to pro-
vide reasonably good estimates of equilibrium condition for
the friction factor f w obtained from LNEC chute data
共f w = 8 g hw3S / qw2, where S is the estimate of the friction slope兲,
namely for hc / s = 1.1 共Fig. 3兲. For hc / s = 1.6, the larger experi-
mental data of Hdam,u / hc is limited to 20.5, but the trend suggests
a gradually varied flow for Hdam,u / hc ⬃ 12–20.5. The values of f w
obtained by the discusser 共Matos 1999兲 in the quasiuniform or
gradually varied flow were 0.06 共hc / s = 1.1兲 and 0.10 共hc / s = 1.6兲,
of the same order of magnitude of the value given by the authors
for the 50° sloping chute 共taken f w ⬃ f b ⬇ 0.07兲. Interestingly, the
friction factors obtained by the authors for ⌽ = 30° 共taken f w
⬃ f b ⬇ 0.11兲 are identical to that proposed by Frizell et al. 共1994兲,
based on data gathered on a 27° sloping large outdoor flume
共f w ⬇ 0.11兲, as well as to that hypothesized in Matos 共1997兲,
after reanalyzing the data of Rice and Kadavy 共1996兲
共f w ⬇ 0.11, for ⌽ = 22°兲. They are also similar to the average value
for the data of Tozzi 共1992兲, based on closed conduit air flow
共f w ⬇ 0.09 for ⌽ = 27°, as in Matos 1997兲. It is believed that the
Fig. 3. Friction factor f w down the LNEC stepped chute 共⌽ = 53° ;
b = 1.00 m; s = 0.08 m兲, for hc / s = 1.1 and hc / s = 1.6 共after Matos
1999兲
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large values of f w obtained by Yasuda and Othsu 共1999兲, in their
important work, might in part be due to their model scale. In fact,
the conditions needed for the exemption of scale effects, accord-
ing to the findings of Boes 共2000兲 and Boes and Hager 共2003兲,
were not completely fulfilled in the experimental work of Yasuda
and Othsu 共1999兲 共i.e., Re ⬍ 10 and We ⬍ 100, as indicated in
Matos et al. 2001兲.
Effect of Aeration on Friction Factor
The estimation of the friction factor in skimming flows over
stepped spillways has been subject to diverging views over the
years. Nevertheless, it is today well accepted that former studies
that relied upon bulked flow depth measurements overestimated
significantly the friction factor on steep chutes.
In Matos 共1997兲, this reasoning has been illustrated using the
ratio f w / f bulked = 共1 − C̄兲3, where f bulked is the friction factor com-
puted on the basis of the bulked flow depth, in the quasi-uniform
flow. As stated by the authors and also shown in Fig. 1, the bulked
flow depth measurements describe the characteristic flow depth
h90 instead of the clear water depth hw. Fig. 4 shows that the
results from the application of the above mentioned f w / f bulked
ratio are quite similar to those from Eq. 共22兲, for C̄ ⬎ 0.3; hence,
the range of the C̄ values gathered by the authors in quasi-
uniform skimming flow over steep slopes of 30°, 40°, and 50°.
Fig. 1 also shows that bulked flow depths based on visual obser-
vation can even overestimate the characteristic depth h90, particu-
larly in the vicinity of the rapidly varied flow region. These ob-
servations seem to conform with the authors’ reasoning for the
differences on f w / f m obtained via the authors’ and Wahrheit-
Lensing 共1996兲 data 共Fig. 11兲. According to Fig. 11, the larger
differences were obtained for low values of C̄, for which uniform
flow conditions were likely not attained in the Wahrheit-Lensing
chute, corresponding possibly to cross sections in the vicinity of
the rapidly varied flow region.
A major difficulty when comparing classical formulae for the
drag reduction in air–water flows in smooth chutes 共Wood 1985,
1991; Chanson 1994兲 with that expected for stepped chutes con-
sists in the estimation of the fictitious friction factor of the skim-
ming flow that would occur in the latter chutes, in the absence of
air entrainment f. For moderate- to large-scale stepped chutes of
practical interest, air entrainment is always present downstream of
the inception point. How to estimate then the fictitious friction
factor of the unaerated skimming flow on an identical chute, for
the same discharge? To bypass the difficulties of defining and
measuring water depths over the stepped spillway, Tozzi 共1992,
Fig. 4. Ratio f w / f m 共or f w / f bulked兲 as function of the depth-averaged
air concentration

Fig. 5. Drag reduction in skimming flow down the LNEC stepped
chute 共⌽ = 53° ; b = 1.00 m; s = 0.08 m; 1.1艋 hc / s 艋 2.0兲. Comparison
with Chanson 共1994兲 formulae for drag reduction caused by
free-surface aeration on smooth chutes and rockfilled channels
共after Matos 1999兲.
1994兲 investigated the air flow in closed conduits, where the ge-
ometry of the roughness in the flow direction was equivalent to
that found on a conventional stepped chute. Although such data
would not accurately represent the friction factor of the air–water
flow due to the drag reduction f w inasmuch as considered by
Tozzi 共1992, 1994兲, it could be used to estimate the fictitious
friction factor of the skimming flow on stepped chutes, f. Adopt-
ing this approach after reanalyzing the data of Tozzi 共1992兲 for air
flow in closed conduit with roughness geometry corresponding to
the 53° sloping stepped chute, and considering the data gathered
at the LNEC chute for computing f w 共f w = 8 g hw3S / qw2兲, where S
is the estimate of the friction slope兲, the so obtained f w / f values
are plotted in Fig. 5, along with the respective regression curve
共Matos 1999兲. Fig. 5 also includes the formulae proposed by
Chanson 共1994兲 for drag reduction caused by free-surface aera-
tion on smooth chutes and rockfilled channels. The results suggest
that the drag reduction on stepped chutes is larger than that found
for smooth chutes, in analogy of the authors’ conclusion consid-
ering the approximation f w / f m, and the shape of the regression
curve is similar to that corresponding to Chanson 共1994兲 equation
for rockfilled channels, for K / hw ⬃ 0.2.
References
Boes, R. M. 共2000兲. “Zweiphasenströmung und Energieumsetzung auf
Grosskaskaden.” PhD thesis, VAW, ETH Zurich, Switzerland 共in Ger-
man兲.
Boes, R. M., and Hager, W. H. 共2003兲. “Two-phase flow characteristics of
stepped spillways.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 129共9兲, 661–570.
Chanson, H. 共1994兲. Hydraulic design of stepped cascades, channels,
weirs and spillways, Pergamon, Oxford, U.K.
Frizell, K. H., Smith, D. H., and Ruff, J. F. 共1994兲. “Stepped overlays
proven for use in protecting overtopped embankment dams.” Proc.,
ASDO Annual Conference, Boston.
Hager, W. H. 共1991兲. “Uniform aerated chute flow.” J. Hydraul. Eng.,
117共4兲, 528–533.
Hager, W. H., and Boes, R. M. 共2000兲. “Backwater and drawdown curves
in stepped spillway flow.” Proc., Int. Workshop on Hydraulics of
Stepped Spillways, VAW, ETH Zurich, H.-E. Minor and W. H. Hager,
eds., Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 129–136.
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2005 / 527
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Matos, J. 共1997兲. “Discussion of ‘Model study of a roller compacted
concrete stepped spillway’ by C. E. Rice and K. C. Kadavy.” J. Hy-
draul. Eng., 123共10兲, 933–936.
Matos, J. 共1999兲. “Emulsionamento de ar e dissipação de energia do
escoamento em descarregadores em degraus 关Air entrainment and en-
ergy dissipation on stepped spillways兴.” Research Report, IST, Lisbon
共in Portuguese兲.
Matos, J. 共2000a兲. “Discussion of ‘Hydraulics of skimming flow on mod-
eled stepped spillways’ by G. G. S. Pegram, A. K. Officer, and S. R.
Mottram.” J. Hydraul. Eng., 126共12兲, 948–950.
Matos, J. 共2000b兲. “Hydraulic design of stepped spillways over RCC
dams.” Proc., Int. Workshop on Hydraulics of Stepped Spillways,
VAW, ETH Zurich, H. -E. Minor and W. H. Hager, eds., Balkema,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 187–194.
Matos, J., Yasuda, Y., and Chanson, H. 共2001兲. “Interaction between free-
surface aeration and cavity recirculation in skimming flows down
stepped chutes.” Proc., XXIX IAHR Congress, Beijing, China 共CD-
ROM兲.
Matos, J., and Quintela, A. 共1995兲. “Guidelines for the hydraulic design
of stepped spillways for concrete dams.” ICOLD Energy Dissipation
Bull..
Ohtsu, I., Yasuda, Y., and Takahashi, M. 共2000兲. “Discussion of ‘Hydrau-
lics of skimming flow on modeled stepped spillways’ by G. G. S.
Pegram, A. K. Officer, and S. R. Mottram.” J. Hydraul. Eng.,
126共12兲, 950–951.
Rice, C. E., and Kadavy, K. C. 共1996兲. “Model study of a roller com-
pacted concrete stepped spillway.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 122共6兲, 292–297.
Tozzi, M. J. 共1992兲. “Caracterização/comportamento de escoamentos em
vertedouros com paramento em degraus.” PhD thesis. Univ. of São
Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil 共in Portuguese兲.
Tozzi, M. J. 共1994兲. “Residual energy in stepped spillways.” Int. Water
Power Dam Constr., 5, 32–34.
Wahrheit-Lensing, A. 共1996兲. “Selbstbelūftung und Energieumwandlung
beim Abfluss über treppenförmige Entlastungsanlagen.” PhD thesis,
Univ. of Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany 共in German兲.
Wood, I. R. 共1985兲. “Air water flows.” Proc., 21st IAHR Congress, Mel-
bourne, Australia, keynote address, 18–29.
Wood, I. R. 共1991兲. “Free-surface air entrainment on spillways.” Air en-
trainment in free surface flows, IAHR hydraulic structures design
manual no. 4, Hydraulic design considerations, I. R. Wood, ed.,
Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 55–84.
Yasuda, Y., and Ohtsu, I. 共1999兲. “Flow resistance of skimming flows in
stepped channels.” Proc., 28th IAHR Congress, H. Bergmann, R.
Krainer, and H. Breinhälter, eds. 共CD-ROM兲, Graz, Austria, B14.
Yildiz, D., and Kas, I. 共1998兲. “Hydraulic performance of stepped chute
spillways.”Hydropower Dams 5共4兲, 64–70.
Closure to “Hydraulic Design of Stepped
Spillways” by Robert M. Boes and
Willi H. Hager
September 2003, Vol. 129, No. 9, pp. 671-679.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9429共2003兲129:9共671兲
Robert M. Boes1 and Willi H. Hager2
1
Project Manager, TIWAG-Tiroler Wasserkraft AG, Hydro Engineering
GmbH, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria. E-mail: robert.boes@tiwag.at
2
Professor, Head Hydr. Div., Lab. of Hydr., Hydrol. and Glaciol. 共VAW兲,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology 共ETH兲, ETH-Zentrum,
CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland. E-mail: hager@vaw.baug.ethz.ch
The writers appreciate the valuable comments of all the discuss-
ers. They are thankful to Chanson for his analyses of the effect of
chute inflow conditions on flow resistance and friction factor; to Table 1. Step Configurations of the writers’ Experiments
Ghare, Porey, and Ingle for presenting friction factor data from Distance
their experimental model study; and especially to Matos, who from jetbox
carefully reanalyzed experimental data from his large-scale outlet to
stepped chute model in the light of the authors’ analytical ap- ␾ s Number N first step
proach related to uniform two-phase flow, friction factor, and ef- 关°兴 关mm兴 of steps 关mm兴
fect of aeration on friction factor. 30 23.1 117 325
30 46.2 63 0
30 92.4 29 306
Experimental Configuration 40 26.1 146 0
50 31.1 146 0
In response to Ghare et al. the writers would first like to give the
50 93.3 47 0
vertical flume height from jetbox outlet to chute toe for ␾ = 30, 40,
and 50° 共i.e., Hchute = 2.86, 3.68, and 4.38 m, respectively兲. From
Fig. 12 it may be seen that the writers’ data points amount up to
about Hdam / hc = 75 on the x-axis. The design guidelines may thus sider this agreement with large-scale experimental data derived
readily be applied for dam heights up to 75 times the critical flow from an ogee profile model as a further indication of the validity
depth, meaning that the chute height is not a limiting factor for of their approach to calculate the fictitious location of the spill-
the guidelines’ applicability in practice. way crest of their jetbox system model 共Boes and Hager 2005兲.
In most of the writers’ experiments, the stepped invert started Using pressurized intake conditions instead of uncontrolled spill-
right at the jetbox. In two-step configurations, a smooth invert way crest conditions as for the majority of existing model studies
connected the jetbox to the stepped chute part as indicated in involves a number of experimental advantages.
Table 1. The authors agree with Matos that the estimation of the fric-
tion factor in skimming flows has been subject to diverging
views. Whereas Chanson hypothesizes in his discussion that the
Energy Dissipation approach flow conditions 共e.g., jetbox system versus
uncontrolled spillway crest兲 have an effect on the friction
The writers’ experiments showed only a relatively small influence factor, Matos’s data contradict this statement. In fact, the f w
of the step height on energy dissipation, as expressed by the ex- values obtained from Matos’s large-scale model with ␾ ⬇ 53°
ponent 0.1 of the ratio K / Dh,w in Eq. 共24a兲 and by the term and experimental data of a near-prototype facility with ␾ ⬇ 27°
log共K / Dh,w兲 in Eq. 共21兲. If in the design example with Hdam 共Frizell et al. 1994兲 agree well with the writers’ findings.
= 60 m ⬍ Hdam,u = 70 m the step height is reduced to s = 0.6 m, the Similar to Matos’s opinion, the authors believe that in some of
energy dissipation ratio ⌬H / Hmax = 1 − Hres / Hmax from Eq. 共24a兲 the experimental model studies reanalyzed by Chanson and listed
will decrease by only 4.3%, whereas for s = 0.3 m, the energy in his discussion 共BaCaRa 1991; Chamani and Rajaratnam 1999;
dissipation will decrease by 8.6%, compared to a reference step Yasuda and Ohtsu 1999兲, either scale effects could not be ex-
height of 1.2 m. For uniform flow at the downstream spillway end cluded due to small model geometries and flow rates, or air con-
共e.g., for Hdam = 75 m兲, the bottom friction factor f b of Eq. 共21兲 centration and flow depth measurements were inappropriate for
will decrease by 11.8 and 21.7% for step heights of 0.6 and 0.3 m, highly turbulent two-phase flow. These inaccuracies may lead to
respectively, while the energy dissipation from Eq. 共24b兲 will be incorrect friction factors, to an overestimation of energy dissipa-
reduced by 3.0 and 5.9%, respectively. tion, and finally to a dangerous “underdesign” of relevant hydrau-
Because the step height has only a comparatively small effect lic structures.
on Hres, it has not been plotted in Fig. 12, but it is instead explic- The authors note the corroboration of Eq. 共22兲 and Fig. 11 by
itly expressed in the mentioned equations. The small effect of the the analysis of Matos.
roughness height K 共and thus the step height s兲 on the bottom
friction factor f b is shown in Fig. 9 and in Fig. 1 of this closure,
where ⌬H / Hmax is plotted versus Hdam / hc for different roughness
heights K and ␾ = 30° and 50° taken from Boes 共2000兲.

Stilling Basin Design

The well-known sequent depths equation may be applied to the

stilling basin design, provided the uniform equivalent depth hw,u
for uniform flow, or the clear water depth at the chute end hw,e for
developing flow is considered as the supercritical depth h1 at the
upstream basin end. The design then follows the classical proce-
dure.

Uniform Two-Phase Flow and Friction Factor

Fig. 1. Relative energy dissipation ⌬H / Hmax as function of relative
The writers are satisfied with the comments of Matos, corroborat- spillway height Hdam / hc for ␾ = 30°, K = 共쎲兲 20, 共䊏兲 40, 共⽧兲 80 mm;
ing the findings reported in the paper relative to the attainment of and ␾ = 50°, K = 共䉭兲20 and 共䉮兲 60 mm; 共---兲 fit for ␾ = 30° with
uniform flow and to the uniform friction factor. The writers con- f b = 0.11, 共—兲 fit for ␾ = 50° with f b = 0.08 共see Boes 2000兲

528 / JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2005

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References
BaCaRa. 共1991兲. “Etude de la dissipation d’énergie sur les évacuateurs á
marches,” 共‘Study of the energy dissipation on stepped spillways’兲.
Rapport d’Essais, Projet National BaCaRa, CEMAGREF-SCP, Aix-
en-Provence, France 共in French兲.
Boes, R. M. 共2000兲. “Zweiphasenströmung und Energieumsetzung auf
Grosskaskaden,” 共‘Two-phase flow and energy dissipation on cas-
cades’兲. PhD thesis, Mitteilung Nr. 166, VAW, ETH Zurich, Switzer-
land 共in German兲.
Boes, R. M. and Hager, W. H. 共2005兲. “Closure to two-phase flow char-
acteristics of stepped spillways.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 131共5兲, XX-XX.
Chamani, M. R. and Rajaratnam, N. 共1999兲. “Characteristics of skimming
flow over stepped spillways.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 125共4兲, 361–368.
Frizell, K. H., Smith, D. H., and Ruff, J. F. 共1994兲. “Stepped overlays
proven for use in protecting overtopped embankment dams.” Proc.,
ASDSO Annual Conference, Boston.
Yasuda, Y. and Ohtsu, I. 共1999兲. “Flow resistance of skimming flows in
stepped channels.” Proc., 28th IAHR Congress, Graz, Austria, H.
Bergmann, R. Krainer, H. Breinhälter, eds., CD-ROM, Theme B14.

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2005 / 529

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