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System Response: ECM2105 - Control Engineering
System Response: ECM2105 - Control Engineering
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SYSTEM RESPONSE
1. Introduction
2. Response Analysis of First-Order Systems
3. Second-Order Systems
4. Sinusoidal Response of the System
5. Bode Diagrams
6. Basic Facts About Engineering Systems
1. Introduction
The order of a system is defined as being the highest power of derivative in the differential
equation, or being the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function. A first-order
system only has s to the power one in the denominator, while a second-order system has the highest
power of s in the denominator being two.
Types of the input functions (or test input signals) commonly used are:
• Impulse function: In the time domain, u(t) = cδ(t). In the s domain, U(s) = c.
• Step function: In the time domain, u(t) = c. In the s domain, U(s) = c/s.
• Ramp function: In the time domain, u(t) = ct. In the s domain, U(s) = c/s2.
• Sinusoidal function: In the time domain, u(t) = csin(ωt). In the s domain, U(s) = cω/(s2+ω2).
where c is a constant in all the above.
With these test signals, mathematical and experimental analyses of control systems can be carried
out easily since the signals are very simple functions of time.
Which of these typical signals to use for analysing system characteristics may be determined by the
form of the input that the system will be subjected to most frequently under normal operation. If
the inputs to a control system are gradually changing functions of time, then a ramp function of time
may be a good test signal. Similarly, if a system is subjected to sudden disturbances, a step function
of time may be a good test signal, and for a system subjected to a shock input, a pulse or an impulse
function may be best.
Exercise: What are the orders of the systems described by the following transfer functions:
1
a) G (s) =
ms + bs + k
2
1
b) G (s) =
RCs + 1
1
c) G (s) =
LCs + RCs + 1
2
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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The time response of a control system consists of two parts: the transient response and the steady-
state response. The transient response is defined as the part of the time response which goes from
the initial state to the final state and reduces to zero as time becomes very large. The steady-state
response is defined as the behaviour of the system as t approaches infinity after the transients have
died out. Thus the system response y(t) may be written as:
where yt(t) denotes the transient response, and yss(t) denotes the steady-state response.
m is the mass, u(t) is the external force, y(t) is the velocity y(t)
and b is the friction coefficient. By Newton’s law, we
have the following differential equation: u(t) m
dy( t ) by(t)
m + by( t ) = u ( t )
dt
Thus
dy( t )
RC + y( t ) = u ( t )
dt
R(s) Y(s)
1/Ts R(s) 1 Y(s)
+ _
= Ts + 1
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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Tasks: Write the system outputs or responses to inputs such as the unit-step, unit-ramp, and unit-
impulse functions, respectively. The initial conditions are assumed to be zero. Draw the response
curves. T is the time constant of the system.
The solution has two parts: a steady-state response: yss(t) = 1, and a transient response:
y t ( t ) = e − t / T , which decays to zero as t → ∞.
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.632
0.6
y(t) 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Tr t/T
Ts
At t = T, y(T) = 1 – e-1 = 0.632. T is called the time constant, and it is the time it takes for the
step response to rise to 63.2% of its final value.
y(2T) = 0.865; y(3T) = 0.95; y(4T) = 0.982; y(5T) = 0.993 ... It can be seen that for t ≥ 4T, the
response y(t) remains within 2% of the final value; this time is known as the settling time, Ts.
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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The rise time, Tr, is defined as the time for the waveform to go from 10% to 90% of its final
value.
The steady-state error is the error after the transient response has decayed leaving only the
continuous response. The error signal:
As t approaches infinity, e-t/T approaches zero and the steady-state error is:
e ss = e(∞) = lim[r ( t ) − y( t )] = 0
t →∞
The larger the time constant T is, the slower the system response is.
It is noted that the transient response dominates the response of the system at times
‘immediately’ after the input is applied and can make significant contribution to the system
response when the time constant is large.
Y(s) 2
Exercise: A RC circuit has the following transfer function: =
R (s) 10s + 4
For a step input r(t) = 2V, what is the time taken for the output of the RC circuit to reach 95% of its
steady-state response?
Y(s) 50
Exercise: A system has transfer function: =
R (s) s + 50
Find the time constant, T, the settling time, Ts, and the rise time, Tr for a unit-step input.
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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2.2. Unit-ramp response of first-order systems
1 1 Steady-state error
The output transform: Y(s) =
s 2 Ts + 1 4
1 T T2
Y(s) = 2 − +
s s Ts + 1 2
0 t ≠ 0
δ( t ) =
∞ t = 0
1 1/T
0.8
Laplace transform: R(s) = 1.
1 y(t) 0.6
The output transform: Y(s) =
Ts + 1
0.4
t/T
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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3. Second-Order Systems
Example 1: Mechanical system
• Transfer function:
Y(s) kω 2n
= 2
R (s) s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n
• Three cases:
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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3.1. Step Response of Second-Order Systems
0.9
ωn=3
0.8
ωn=2
jω
0.7
s-plane
0.6
y(t) 0.5
-ζωn σ 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
t (sec)
Exercise: A system has the following transfer function:
Y(s) 1
= 2
R (s) s + 8s + 16
What is the state of damping of the system when it is subjected to a unit-step input? Determine the
natural frequency of the system.
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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Taking the inverse Laplace transform yields the time response (prove this time response as an
exercise):
e s1t e s 2 t
y(t) = 1 − n
−
2 2
−1 1s s 2
When ζ is much greater than unity, i.e. ζ >> 1, then |s1| >> |s2| and the term involving s1 in the
time response will decay faster than the term involving s2. The term involving s1 can therefore
be neglected and the system becomes first-order decided mainly by the pole s2:
Y(s) ω 2n ω 2n / s1 |s1 | >> |s 2 |
− ω 2n / s1
= = ≈
R (s) (s − s1 )(s − s 2 ) (s / s1 − 1)(s − s 2 ) s − s2
Y(s) − s2
Since s1s 2 = ω 2n , the transfer function becomes: =
R (s) s − s 2
− ( − 2 −1 )t
The unit-step time response is: y(t) = 1 − e n
, t≥0
0.9 y(t) = 1 − es 2 t
0.8
0.7
s-plane jω 0.6
y(t)
e s1t es 2 t
− ωn (ζ − ζ − 1)
2 0.5 y(t) = 1 − n
−
2 2 − 1 s1 s 2
0.4
σ 0.3
− ωn ( ζ + ζ − 1)
2
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
t (sec)
ζ>>1, s1 can be neglected.
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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0.9
0.8
0.7 y(t) = 1 − es 2 t
0.6
y(t) 0.5
es1t e s 2 t
0.4 y(t) = 1 − n
−
2 2
−1 1s s 2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t (sec)
ζ≈1, s1 cannot be neglected.
1 s + 2ζω n 1 s + ζω n ζω n
Y(s) = − 2 = − −
s s + 2ζω n s + ω n s (s + ζω n ) + ω d (s + ζω n ) 2 + ω d2
2 2 2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform using the table of Laplace transforms yields:
-1 s + ζω n -1 ζω n
2
= e −ζωn t cos(ωd t ) 2
= e −ζωn t sin(ω d t )
(s + ζω n ) + ω d (s + ζω n ) + ω d
2 2
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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The time response is:
ζ
y( t ) = 1 − e −ζωn t cos(ωd t ) + sin(ω d t )
1− ζ2
− ζωn t
e
= 1− sin(ω d t + θ)
1− ζ2
1− ζ2
where θ = tan −1 .
ζ
When ζ = 0, the response becomes undamped and oscillations continue indefinitely at frequency
ωn. The time response in this case becomes:
y(t) = 1 – cos(ωnt)
The natural undamped frequency, ωn, is the frequency of oscillation of the system without
damping.
1.2
y(t) 1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t (sec)
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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3.2. Transient system specifications
0.8
y(t)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tr
t (sec)
Tp
Ts
The maximum overshoot is often represented by a percentage of the final value of the step response:
y − y ss − ζπ
PO ( percent overshoot ) = max × 100% = 100 exp
1− ζ
y ss 2
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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3.2.4. Settling time, Ts
The time required for the step response to settle within a certain percentage of its final value. A
frequently used figure is 2% in which case the settling time is approximately:
4
Ts ≈
ζω n
3
For varying within 5% of the final value, the setting time is: Ts ≈
ζω n
Note that NOT all these specifications necessarily apply to any given case. For example, for an
overdamped system, the terms peak time and maximum overshoot do not apply.
From the design requirement, the swifter and closer, the better. However, when ωn is fixed,
small Tr and Tp require a small ζ, while small Ts and PO require a large ζ. Note that
( )
PO = 100 exp − ζπ / 1 − ζ 2 , Tp = π /[ωn 1 − ζ 2 ] , Tr = [π − tan −1 ( 1 − ζ 2 / ζ )] /[ω n 1 − ζ 2 ] .
Exercise: A second-order system is underdamped with a damping ratio of 0.4 and a natural
frequency of 10Hz. Find:
a) the transfer function
b) the time response when it is subjected to a unit-step input
c) the percentage overshoot with such an input
d) the rise time
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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Exercise: Given the transfer function:
100
G (s) =
s + 15s + 100
2
kω 2n
The output is: Y(s) =
s 2 (s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω 2n )
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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3.4. Impulse response of a second-order system
The Laplace transform of a unit-impulse input is R(s) = 1.
The output transform is therefore equal to the transfer function of the system, i.e.:
kω 2n
Y(s) = 2
s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n
Fact: the unit-impulse function is the time derivative of the unit-step function.
Therefore, the impulse response of a LTI system can be found from the time derivative of the
step response for a given damping.
Taking the example of a critically damped system where ζ=1, the unit-step response is given by:
y(t) = 1 − e − n t (1 + n t)
Note, again, that the impulse input gives the transfer function of the system.
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response of the system to a
sinusoidal input signal.
Uo|G(jω)|
Uo
φ t
The linear, time-invariant system G(s) subjected to a sinusoidal input of amplitude Uo and
frequency ω describe by:
u(t) = Uosin(ωt)
will, at steady state, have a sinusoidal output of the same frequency as the input but, generally, with
different amplitude and phase given by:
yss(t) = Uo|G(jω)|sin(ωt + φ(ω))
The sinusoidal transfer function of any linear system is obtained by substituting jω for s in the
transfer function of the system.
Proof:
Consider a system described by: u(t) y(s)
Y(s) G(s)
= G (s)
U(s) U(s) Y(s)
The input u(t) is a sine wave with and amplitude Uo and frequency ω:
u(t) = Uosin(ωt)
Uoω
The Laplace transform of u(t) is: U(s) =
s + ω2
2
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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With zero initial conditions, the Laplace transform of the output is:
U ω
Y(s) = G (s) 2 o 2
s +ω
A partial fraction expansion of a general system (assuming the poles of G(s) are distinct) yields:
c1 c2 cn c0 c *0
Y(s) = + +L+ + +
s + p1 s + p 2 s + p n s + jω s − jω
14444 4244444 3
Partial fraction terms from G(s)
where cn are constants and c0 and c *0 are a complex conjugate pair that can be obtained using the
cover-up rule:
G (− jω) U o G ( jω) U o
c0 = − c *0 =
2j 2j
where |G(jω)| is the magnitude and φ is the phase given respectively by:
Im[G ( jω)]
| G ( jω) |= {Re[G ( jω)]}2 + {Im[G ( jω)]}2 φ(ω) = tan −1 = ∠G ( jω)
Re[G ( jω)]
| G ( jω) | e − jφ U o | G ( jω) | e jφ U o
Therefore: c0 = − c =
*
0
2j 2j
If all the poles of the system represent a stable behaviour, the natural unforced response ( c n e − p n t
decays to zero at t→∞) will die out eventually and therefore the steady-state response of the system
will be due solely to the sinusoidal term which is caused by the sinusoidal excitation, i.e.
y ss ( t ) = lim y( t ) = c 0 e − jωt + c *0 e jωt
t →∞
Substituting for c0 and c *0 and noting that sin(x) = (ejx – e-jx)/(2j), gives the steady-state output:
yss(t) = Uo|G(jω)|sin(ωt + φ)
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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− The amplitude and phase of the frequency response can be used to predict both time-domain
transient and steady-state system performances.
− Systems may be designed to achieve transient and steady-state requirements using frequency
response analysis, and such analysis and design may be extended to certain nonlinear control
systems.
1
Exercise: For the sinusoidal input u(t) = sin(10t) applied to the system: G (s) = ,
s+2
determine the steady-state output of the system.
0.1
Amplitude
-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec.)
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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There are two commonly used representations of sinusoidal transfer functions:
1) Nyquist or polar plot, and
2) Bode diagram
We shall focus on the more popular Bode analysis and show how we can use MATLAB to produce
these plots.
- plot of the logarithm of the magnitude of the a sinusoidal transfer function, |G(jω)|
- plot of the phase angle, φ(ω)
both are plotted against the frequency ω (rad/s) on a logarithmic (base 10) scale.
Logarithmic magnitude (also called gain) of G(jω), M = 20log10|G(jω)| (unit in decibels, dB)
X(ω)
Phase: φ(ω) = tan −1
R (ω)
− Bode plots of systems in series simply add, which is quite convenient. For example,
consider the transfer function:
b (s − z1 )(s − z 2 ) L (s − z m )
G (s) = m
(s − p1 )(s − p 2 ) L (s − p n )
Knowing the respone of each term, the algebraic sum would give the total response in dB.
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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1 1/ T
Magnitude: G ( jω) = =
1+ ω T 2 2
1 / T 2 + ω2
If we plot the logarithmic gain (dB) against log10 (ω) , then the above equation becomes the
straight line:
y = c + mx
where y = 20 log10 G ( jω) , c = intercept, m = slope, and x = log10 (ω) . Thus the logarithmic
gain reduces by 20dB (negative slope) per factor of 10 (decade) increase in frequency ω
(20dB/decade).
The transition between the high and low frequency asymptotes is found by equating the low and
high frequency limits – this is known as the corner or cut-off frequency:
1
ωc =
T
1 1 jω T
Since G ( jω) = = − = R (ω) + jX(ω)
1 + jω T 1 + ω T
2 2
1 + ω2 T 2
X
Phase: φ(ω) = tan −1 = − tan −1 (ωT ) (rad)
R
At low frequencies (ω → 0): φ(0) ≈ − tan −1 (0) = 0 rad
At high frequencies (ω → ∞): φ(∞) ≈ − tan −1 (∞ ) = −π / 2 rad
At corner frequency (ω → 1/T): φ(1 / T) ≈ − tan −1 (1) = −π / 4 rad
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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-5 Asymptote
Exact curve
dB φ -π/4
-10
-15
-20 -π/2
0.01/T 0.1/T 1/T 10/T 0.01/T 0.1/T 1/T 10/T
ω ω
20
Exercise: Sketch the Bode plot for the following transfer function: G (s) =
4s + 1
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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Bode Diagrams
30
25
Magnitude (dB)
20
15
10
0
-20
Phase (deg)
-40
-60
-80
10 -2 10-1 100
ω (rad/sec)
num = [0 20];
den = [4 1];
SYS = tf(num,den);
bode(SYS) or bode(num,den)
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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Bode Diagrams
30
25
20
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)
15
10
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
10-2 10-1 100
Frequency (rad/sec)
ENGINEERING SYSTMES HAVE DYNAMICAL BEHAVIOURS – they do not just produce the
desired output temperature, pressure, concentration, voltage, current, frequency, position, velocity,
acceleration, force, torque, flow, level, concentration, reaction rate, .. etc even if that output variable
is required to be constant. This can be due to the effect of disturbances (known or unknown),
physical effects within the system or human intervention/interference such as changes required in
operation condition.
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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up to the plant. Even those controllers that are available commercially require an element of design
either off-line or on-line and hence an effective engineer requires an appreciation of the design
process and design tools currently available.
YOU CANNOT ALWAYS MEASURE WHAT YOU WANT TO MEASURE – if you cannot
measure the output variable of interest (due to extreme physical conditions of speed, temperature or
pressure .. etc, it is necessary to create an “intelligent” device which observes the (available)
measurement and uses them to create a useful estimate of the (unavailable) output. As an example,
how is it possible to control the temperature in the centre of a furnace when the temperature sensors
are placed on the external wall?
This requires the development of an abstract way of thinking but has amazing consequences e.g.
(a) the development of control elements capable of observing and accurately estimating
variables that cannot be measured
(b) the development of control systems capable of adapting to new situations and learning
from experience.
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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dy( t )
T + y( t ) = ku ( t )
dt
where T is the time constant, k is the gain, u(t) and y(t) are the input and output of the system
respectively. The unit-step response of a first-order system is shown in the following figure.
Determine the parameters k and T from this figure.
Step Response
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec.)
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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4. Consider the first-order system,
Y(s) 1
=
R (s) Ts + 1
Obtain the unit-step response curves for T = 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0 and 10.0 respectively, with
MATLAB.
a) Write down the transfer function Y(s)/U(s) of the system, where U(s) and Y(s) are the Laplace
transforms of u(t) and y(t), respectively.
b) Obtain the damping ratio ζ and the natural frequency ωn of the system.
c) Calculate the rise time and percent overshoot of the system.
d) Evaluate y(t) for a unit-step input u(t).
e) Check your answers of the above with MATLAB.
8. For the control system shown by the block diagram, the numerical value of J = 1 kg-m2 and B =
1 N-m/(rad/sec).
R(s) 1 Y(s)
K1 1/s
+_ +_ Js + B
K2
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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9. When the second-order system
Y(s) K
= 2
R (s) Ts + s + K
is subjected to a unit-step input, the system output responds as shown in the following figure.
Determine K and T from the response curve.
Step Response
1.4
1.31
1.2
1
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.55
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time (sec.)
10. A sinusoidal input u(t) = 2sin(2t) is applied to a system with transfer function:
Y(s) 2
=
U(s) s(s + 2)
11. The figure below shows a block diagram of a space vehicle attitude control system where R and
Y are the Laplace transforms of the reference (or desired) and actual attitude angles
respectively. Determine the values of KP and KD to yield a settling time of 0.5 second and 20%
overshoot in the close-loop system for a unit-step input.
R(s) 1 Y(s)
KP
+ + s2
− −
KD s
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ECM2105 - Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2013)
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12. Consider the second-order system
Y(s) 1
= 2
R (s) s + 2ζs + 1
Obtain the unit-impulse response curves for ζ = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, and 4.0 respectively, with
MATLAB.
Assuming that ωn = 2, k = 2, obtain the unit-impulse response curves for ζ = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0,
and 4.0 respectively, with MATLAB.
27